1

HJHHIII

U214b MTA

م فظ وجه ذ ت من ق و نية ية ق ئمة

ألصول وفق ية ركة ري ة فع ة ق ت صقل سعى

AOU# كويت - مف و ة عر ية ج معة/ سليمة نق ية

ع :خ ه رون

ق ئمة رسم موقعhttp://etihadaou.com

س ب ق ئمة موقع و صل الج م ع وي ر

@Etihad_aou

@KHALID_AOU

2

U214B MTA مي يرم ملخص

. النوت لحل االسالة : Chapter one:

students should be able to identify, discuss and illustrate " term of address" , style shifting,

paralanguage, language practices, discourse analysis, speech acts, referential function, phatic

function, adjacency pairs, preferred response and dispreferred response, code switching,

conversational analysis. They should know nation of "face" as proposed by Goffman; elements

of context that influence language; strategies of politeness; differences between language of men

and women according to Lakoff; how do we interpret language according to anthropologists;

what characterizes informal talk.

Chapter two: They should be able to discuss and illustrate the following terms: coinage, denotation,

connotation, synonyms, antonyms, genre. \ students should be able to discuss Brain Street's

proposition on literacy practices; they should understand and be able to explain the semiotic

approach and its perspective on the written language.

Chapter three: Students should be able to discuss the following concepts: child directed speech (CDS), the

cognitive perspective, emergent literacy, overextensions. They should be able to differentiate

between the following : competence and performance; telegraphic and formulaic language;

cognitive and social perspectives; logographs and pectographs. Students should be able to

discuss: how children learn to use English, approach, why do children make mistakes when they

start to use grammatical inflections, the functions of CDs, the advantages of learning to read in

an alphabetic or syllabic system and the critical age hypothesis; Kenner's study, Gordon Wells

proposition, Chomsky's universal grammar principles

اهم االسالة لالختبار1. Politeness? (Politeness and interpersonal meaning…) 2. Cognitive perspective? 3. Functions of interaction in work & it's practices (Front stage & back stage)? (Interactions kind of working language? - A front stage and backstage? 4. How do conversational styles vary ? (Communicative Strategies & Conversational Styles - Another area of variation is gender differences: Do you think there is a difference between the conversational styles of men and women? OR Talk about the difference between men and women language according to Lakoff ? )

5. The cognitive perspective: A cognitive perspective generally seeks to understand the mental processes within children's mind, focusing on the relationship between the outward form of their utterances (grammar & vocabulary) and what these may reveal about their developing understanding of language and the world? What are the functions of CDS? 6. Discuss or talk about the semiotic approach?

3

Part 1 Part 1: Definitions 4-1 ع ريف CH1

1. Talk: words composed of sounds produced by the human mouth; we use the word talk to refer to communications produced in a situation of rapid interaction. 2. Text: words composed of visual of other symbols, we used the word text to refer to more extended and deliberately crafted communication that take a relatively stable and permanent form. 3. Paralanguage: tone of voice, pauses and gestures are central to the meaning of talk, we learn these forms alongside language itself. 4. Language practices: routines or activities in which people take part for particular purposes, it focuses on how language is part of our daily routines and how it functions to help us get things done, establish and maintain relationships. (e.g. building relationship with other people.) 5. Discourse analysis: focuses in detail on the surface form of what people have said or written, looking carefully at the way they use language. 6. Context: the physical location and social circumstances in which a particular example of language use occurs. 7. Context may include the following elements: physical surroundings, relationship between the speakers, current goals etc. 8. Conversation: means the specific kind of talk that people engage in when their spoken interaction is not organized by institutional rules. For example: In the classroom: where there are rules about who speaks, when and in what way. 9. Dialogic: A key point about everyday talk, and it means that each person‟s contributions are oriented towards other speakers. 10. Referential function: any speech event fulfills a referential function, and it deals with information. Now it often called the ideational. 11. Phatic function: any speech event fulfills a referential function, and it deals with social relationships. Now it often called the interpersonal functions. 12. Speech acts: when a speaker saying something and doing something else, and it means the actions that are carried out through speaking. For example, saying „Hi‟ or „Hello‟ while greeting somebody. - „making a promise‟ 13. Conversation analysis: which examines naturally occurring talk in an extremely detailed and methodical way, and it used as an attempt to reach an understanding of how people actually use spoken language to communicate. 14. Adjacency pairs: Spoken exchanges are composed of single units, which tend to function together in pairs. OR \ Spoken exchanges are composed of particular kinds of speech act that tend to follow one another.

4

15. Turn taking: happened when one person spoke at a time and that overlap (simultaneous speech) was generally kept to a minimum. 16. Transition relevance place (TRP): happened when the speaker will pause very briefly for a response, but it is equally likely that other speakers will come in with their next turn, perhaps leading to a slight overlap. 17. Interruption: Overlap that occurs before a transition relevance place. 18. Face work: The effort to maintain one‟s own or others‟ face, and it is an aspect of the interpersonal function of language use. 19. Face threatening: possibly causing someone to lose face. 20. Face saving: enabling a speaker to escape from potential loss of face. 21. Terms of address: are a part of politeness conventions, and will depend on difference in status between the speakers and how well know each other. 22. Conversational style: is refers to a combination of features relating to the meaning and management of conversation, and to the way we use stories, or how much personal information we tend to reveal, or how we express politeness. 23. Code switching: draw on linguistic resources from more than one language, performing complex identities. 25. Style shifting: when speakers adopt different accents or dialects or use a more or less formal register, in order to serve particular purposes, or to achieve particular effects.

CH 2 1. Literacy practices: are the ways in which people interact with texts, the ability to read and write. This term used to emphasise the connection between an individual‟s use of written language and his social identity. 2. Coinages: refers to words which invented in the language newly. e.g. Google, aspirin, nylon etc. 3. Borrowings: refers to words which originating in other languages and uses in English.( e.g. algebra – Arabic \ galore – Irish \ pizza – Italian etc.) 4. Polyvalent: means having many different functions or forms. 5. Denotation: refers to the concept associated with the word. (For example, the word 'bunny' denotes a particular species of animal. - the word 'lady' it can denote female holders of aristocratic rank, and it can denote the same concept as the word women.) 6. Connotation: means what the word suggests or implies. Also it was established as a key area of semiotic theory. (e.g. House = Home \ Livid = Angry). 7. Semiotic theory: Integrated language with other ways of expressing meaning, such as images and font choice. 8. Synonyms: means that both words apparently signify the same concept. (For example, rabbit and bunny.).

5

9. Genre: is a French word which means type or kind and it is often used to refer to specific literary forms, especially the classical genres of tragedy, comedy, epic, lyric and satire. 10. Antonyms: means a word that has the exact opposite meaning of another word. (For example, stop – go \ black – white). 11. Font: is a complete set of letters, numerals, and punctuation marks in a single size and a single style. (For example, size (10 or 12 point etc.) , style ( bold or italic etc.) 12. Typeface: is a design for a complete set of font. In politics this is used to index particular identities for people and products. For example, (Times New Roman, Arial etc.)

CH 3 13. The cognitive perspective: A cognitive perspective generally seeks to understand the mental processes within children‟s mind, focusing on the relationship between the outward form of their utterances (grammar & vocabulary) and what these may reveal about their developing understanding of language and the world. 14. Child directed speech (CDS): When communicating with babies, adults in many English-speaking cultures tend to use a simplified style of speech with exaggerated intonation, referred to as child-directed speech (CDS), or baby talk. 15. Emergent literacy: In an environment of written texts, children will use many strategies to work out what adults are doing with magazines, pens, computers and all the other things associated with literacy, and will attempt to join the adult literate world in different ways. These first discoveries of reading and writing have been described as emergent literacy. 16. Overextensions: Psycholinguists Villiers and Villiers classify some typical over-extensions (the act of making something longer or larger) according to the apparent grounds of similarity. For example (movement- shape- size- sound- texture- function. 17. Competence and performance: Drawing on Chomsky‟s ideas, a distinction is often drawn between the child‟s active linguistic performance (the process of performing a task) and their underlying knowledge of the language system or linguistic competence (the ability to do something well). 18. Formulaic language & telegraphic language: Formulaic language is reproduced holistically by imitation, with the emphasis on its social function; Children are able to deduce the meaning of whole phrases from the communicative context, without necessarily analyzing them into their component parts. This is called formulaic language. Whereas is generated independently of any adult model and appears to reflect a deeper level of grammatical analysis. 19. Cognitive and social perspectives: Whereas cognitive perspectives on language learning focus on processes internal to the child‟s mind in making sense of language as a system, Social perspectives focus on the role of language in social context, with the emphasis on communicative function. Social perspectives emphasise the pragmatics of language use, focusing on how children learn to take part in conversation with others, and how they use language to perform particular speech acts and to express social identity. 20. Logographs and pictographs: Logographs, also known as logograms (where a symbol stands for a whole word), as H for hospital, the heart shape means love Pictographs, also known as pictograms

6

(where an image denotes a phrase or concept), such as many traffic signs and pictorial symbols for male and female toilets.

CH 4 1. Transactional: Another way of referring to the goal orientation of workplace interactions, which means that participants focus on doing a particular workplace task. 2. Institutional identities: (or professional roles) which interact with their personal and discursive identities. 3. Relational: the purpose is more of a social one. This kind of talk allows the participants to bond socially, and thus contribute to build a good relationship. 4. Discourse community: Another aspect that is often used to talk about groups of people who use particular ways of communicating in order to pursue a common goal is that of discourse community. In discourse community the members do not necessarily work closely together or form relationships involving mutual engagement. 5. Register: a set of conventions for language use, possibly including specialist vocabulary. 6. Native speakers: This term is loosely used to describe a person who grew up using a language to communicate. 7. Lingua franca: people who are native speakers of different languages have used English for purposes of trade. 8. Genres (According to Swales) : classes of communicative events which share some set of communicative purposes, and it highlights two aspects of genres: 9. Different texts or utterances can be said to belong to the same genre because they share the same communicative purpose. Genres follow particular patterns or schematic structures, which may involve participants playing specific roles, and using particular vocabulary or a particular style of speaking or writing. 10. Accommodation: Another feature of lingua franca discourse identified, involves adapting to the speech and behavior of the person you are speaking to. Typical accommodation strategies in EFL interactions include repetition, paraphrasing, simplification and code switching (switching to a native language of the other speaker). 11. Intercultural communication: means communication people from significantly different cultural backgrounds. E.g. British and Chinese this term shown that misunderstanding can be used by cultural difference, rather than linguistic difficulties. 12. linguistic capital: the ability to produce utterances that will be considered appropriate in a range of specific social and institutional situations; for example, using just the right level of formality to make a good impression when interacting with people in authority.

اهم االسالة لالختبار هلل" إال قوة ال هللا ش ء م " ص ه و وفيق ع ء هللا نسأل

Professional Essay

7

How do people talk at work, and how does workplace talk differ from ordinary conversation? لخيص

Have you ever asked yourself how do people talk at work? However, English used in everyday situations can be distinguished from English used in the workplace. This is because can be a special characteristics of language and interaction patterns. People working together interact by structured and goal – oriented genres. Business relationships are not all professional, technical and impersonal. There is a role for humor and power in managing workplace interactions and the connection between language and power. English language has a special is conceived to be more key for jobs such as exchanging of striations and information and to interact socially.

However, workplace talk differs from ordinary conversation. Emanuel Schegloff defined

conversation as a specific kind of talk that people engage in when their spoken interaction is not organised by institutional rules while people “Talk” without engaging in conversation, but their spoken interaction in workplace is organised by institutional rules. On the other hand, Pierre Bourdieu, emphasized that certain speech acts can only carried out by a holder of institutional authority, and Greg Myers agrees with this. However, discourse analysis helps us to understand the differences between more and less “Formal” kinds of workplace interactions.

Relationship at WORK There are ways in which language is used for relationship building in workplace and business

interactions for instance, through a. small talk between co – workers or through b. the use of evaluative language as in multicultural business meeting.

As well as workplace language has its special distinctive features it is important to realised that

workplace also differ from one another. People working together share. a. background knowledge. b. a set of procedures. c. and a particular workplace culture. Group or terms of people who regularly interact for a particular purpose, for example at work have been referred to as communities of practice. The term “ practice” indicates that people in such groups are trying to get things done, and that they have developed routine procedures for this.

However, “communities of practice” can be characterised by: Mutual engagement, means more

than simply working together, it also indicates that people working together develop a relationship. Joint enterprise, refers to working together for a common purpose to achieve particular goal. A Shared repertoire, to the means by which the members of a community of practice communicate with one another.

This category includes the language and jargon that are specific to a workplace. However, shared

repertoire consists of more than just language, according to Wegner, it includes 1- routines 2- words 3- tools 4- storied 5- gestures 6- symbols 7- genres 8-actions 9-concepts 10- was of doing thing. A good example describing relationships at work through the notion of humor and workplace culture.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Common features of English as lingua franca interactions? Or Approaches tow arch English as a lingua franca interactions?

English as an international language and intercultural communication. English as an international language: the factor that distinguishes English used for work used in

social encounters or family setting is that the speakers or writers are often not “native speakers” of English. Native speakers: is a term used loosely to describe a person who grew up using a language to communicate (as opposed to a person who learnt it as an adult or studied it as a so called

8

“foreign language”). For many years, people who are native speakers of different language for trade purposes.

More recently, English has become the international language, not only for trade, but all kinds of

business and other forms of international communication. Much research is interested in the features of “ELF” (English as a lingua France), for example the work of Barbara Seidlfhofer and her team of researchers. Seidlfhorer and others – have identified a number of features of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar as well as discourse features that seem common to lingua franca interactions and deviate from native speaker English.

Language and power Workplace language has one key feature which is asymmetry and power difference in many

workplace interactions. Such asymmetry is particularly apparent in “front stage” encounters between professional and lay people. For example, doctors and patients. One critical aspect of many communications between professionals and people is the extent to which the professional is willing and able to talk about relevant topics in a way that is clear to the uninitiated outsider.

There are cases of professionals trying to maintain control and power over a lay person by

“building with science”. Professional often simply find it very hard to speak of their work in any language other than that of their discourse community. Linguistic capital, the ability to produce utterance that will considered appropriate in range of specific social and institutional situations, for example, using just the right level of formality to make a good impression when interacting with people in authority.

Jennifer Jenkins suggests that there is a lingua franca core. It has some pronunciation features,

grammatical features and discourse features. Pronunciation features that are used in ELF are sometimes. Thought of as essential for mutual comprehension among ELF sparkers, such as the contrast between long and short vowels, which is lost in ELF. For example, \i\ LOVE AND \i:\ leave. Other sound that native speaker make don‟t seem to be considered essential by ELF speakers, such as the sounds of the letters T H, for example, \ Ø\ think and \th\ THE.

Grammatical features: that occur frequently in lingua franca interactions and deviate from

Standard English include: 1. Dropping the third person. 2. Invariant question tags (isn‟t it instead of aren‟t you). 3. Non – standard use articles (omitting or inserting a or the. 4. Non – standard use of prepositional patterns (study about).

These would be considered, errors in grammar, but according to Seidlhofer, “as they do not cause

any problems in comprehension among lingua franca speakers, they should be considered typical features of ELF, rather than “mistakes”. This means that these non – standard usages are considered as features of ELF.

As English is now used as international language, native speakers of English no longer “own”

English and it is therefore not up to them to determine what is acceptable – at least in international English usage.

As far as discourse features are concerned, Alan firth, who was one of the first researchers to analyze ELF business interactions, identified something referred to as the “let it pass” strategy”, in which the native speaker would not focus on the language errors. The use of accommodation strategies is another feature of lingua franca discourse. Accommodation involves adapting to the speech and be behavior of the person you are speaking to. Typical accommodation strategies in ELF interactions include.

a. repetition. b. paraphrasing.

9

c. simplification. d. cod – switching (switching to a native language of the other speaker).

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Workplace genres لخيص The concept that is often used to talk about groups of people who use particular ways of

communicating in order to pursue a common goal is called discourse community. The members of a discourse community do not necessarily work closely together or from relations involving mutual engagement. However, their spoken or written interactions may still be characterized by a particular register. A register is a set of conventions for language use, possibly including specialist vocabulary.

The Concept of discourse community was originally developed by the linguist John Swales (1991),

who became interested in hour professional groups, such as speech and text as an important part of their professional practice. A genre, according to Swales, is a class of communicative events which share some set of communicative purposes. The rationale shares the schematic structure of the discourse and influences and constrains the choice of content and style. This definition highlights two key aspects of genres.

Discourse analysis focuses on the surface form of what people have said or written, looking

carefully at the way people use language. By comparing talk exchanges in the ordinary conversation with talk exchanges at workplace, ordinary conversation seems to be messier, with speakers interrupting each other and overlapping one another. Their vocabulary and intonation show emotions and vocabulary seems more neutral. Speakers are clearly talking about thing related to their work and speaking with a clear purpose to make a decision by using special business vocabulary.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Workplace functions “a front stage and backstage” ل According to Paul Drew and John Heritage, “institutional talk” as they call “workplace and

“professional talk”, differs from everyday conversation in tree ways. 1. It is goal-oriented. Participant usually focuses on certain goal, task or identity. For example, the

chair goes over the goals by setting the agenda for the meeting. As result, the meeting is structured, with one topic dealt with at a time.

2. There are constraints on what people may say. This is called allowable contributions. To make it clear, the “chair” has the right to guide the discussion and to restrict contributions and to move to the next point. But the restrictions are not absolute. They depend on the formality of the specific institutional context.

3. There are inferential frameworks and procedures that ore particular to the specific institutional or workplace context. So, Institutional talk\workplace\ professional talk is goal oriented and structured. It has constraints and allowable contributions. Each institutional context has its own inferential framework and procedures.

However, in Institutional talk, one common feature among all three categories is that interactions

are asymmetrical. This is because some speakers often have more power and/or knowledge than others. Another example of asymmetry is in differential knowledge (for example the interaction between the Doctor and patient). However, Participant in wor interactions has his/her own

10

institutional identity. Workplace talk has its Functions\Type of discourse. Workplace interactions are:

1. Trareactional which means that participants focus on doing a particular workplace task. This is

exactly what Jakobson called it “referential function” and what Halliday called it "ideational function. An example of transactional function is where the participants are trying to decide when to tell the new employee to sign his contract.

2. Workplace interaction can be also relational. This is similar to informal talk between friends, but at work it is used between colleagues as a small talk to build a good relationship and to bond socially.

Another way of referring in the goal orientation of workplace interactions, is to say that they are

transactional, which means that participants focus on doing a particular workplace task. If the sentence doesn't involve transactional talk, it will be described as relational, that is, the purpose is more of a social one. This kind of talk allows the participants to bond socially. And thus contribute to build a good relationship. This shows that not all workplace talk is transactional and that relationship building at work is important.

Front stage and backstage Many professionals or people working for organization deal with lay members of the public in the

course of their work. 1. We can distinguish between two kinds of interactions in which English can be used as a working

language. A. Interactions among co-workers, where people are working together in the same

workplace, occupation or profession. B. Interactions among experts in an organisation or professional and members of the public

that is, between insiders in particular areas of work and outsiders. For example, interactions between doctor and patient.

2. According to Goffman, social life can be studied studied in two regions, these are frontstage and backstage.

A. frontstag: areas where a particular performance is or may be in progress. B. backstage: areas where action occurs that is related to the performance, buy inconsistent

with the appearance fostered by the performance Goffman implies the presence of an “audience” in frontstag activity, as in interactions between lay

people and professionals, and a setting in which “best behavior” is expected. On the other hand, backstage is more

1. Relaxed and involves. 2. Laughing - talking over each other - and teasing 3. Participants show intimacy and disrespect. 4. They may interrupt each other and disagree fairly directly.

The same person often has to switch between frontstage and backstage, and while workplace

interaction are mainly goal-oriented and transactional, relational language which is similar to small talk outside the workplace, also occurs. This means that the distinction between workplace language and everyday language not a hard or absolute one.

A discourse community is: a group of people who use particular ways of Communicating to pursue

a common goal. The members of a discourse Community do not necessarily work closely together. However, their spoken or writer interactions may still be characterised by a particular register. A register is a set of conventions for language use, possibly including specialist vocabulary.

11

According to swales, a genre is a class of communicative events which share some set of communicative purposes, and it highlights two aspects of genres. A. Different texts and\ or utterances can be said to belong to the some genre because they share the same communicative purposes. B. Genre follows particular patterns or schematic structures, which may involve participants specific roles, and using particular vocabulary or particular style of speaking or writing.

For example, in Frontstage service encounters, the communicative purpose for the customer or s

service recipient is to obtain good, or services and ends with a service provision and a closing, and it is characterised by the use of politeness features. In the backstage workplace interaction, the communicative purpose is to reach the decision.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

English as an intercultural business communication. It has been noticed that in English as a lingua franca interactions, non-standard language usage

causes very few problems. Studies of intercultural communication have shown that: “misunderstandings can be caused by cultural differences, rather than by linguistic difficulties”.

Some sources of problems can be attributed to:

a. the need for group face (not individual face) by both parties. b. misunderstanding of the relative status of the representative team (resulting in an

inappropriate welcome, and a morning starting badly). c. cultural differences such as in level of formality expected, what the respective rights and

obligations of hosts and guests that was expected, misunderstanding. But many intercultural, international encounters happened without misunderstanding. Some

linguistic items happened without misunderstanding such as:

Technical terms.

Personal pronouns.

Evaluative language.

Helped create a sense of group identity and build appositive relationship. However, Poncici suggests that “the company speaker was evaluation strategically to create a shared image of the company, so that the image comes to represent what is highly valued by the group. Poncici‟s study shows that national culture may not necessarily be an impediment to communication in intercultural business interactions. It also show that, even in a situation where English is used as a lingua franca, language is not used only for transactional or utilitarian purposes, but also for relationship building. In the multicultural meeting, positive evaluation is used to build a sense of “group identity” among participants with diverse national and cultural backgrounds.

Genres in a changing world of work: the example of the business Email. In the early twenty. first century, email has emerged as one of the most important means of

communicating information in English for commercial purposes. The business email has to a great extent replaced the traditional business letter, and some kinds of telephone communication. Like the blog, the business email has features of both written and spoken language, and has been influenced by a variety of other genres. So genres are not fixed or immutable, they change over time for example through the influence of technology. There are different theories about how the conventions of business email developed.

12

Some people have suggested that business emails have developed from the genre of written memos, which are company – internal messages, while. Others remark that “email is also used for other kind of messages, for example, very informal exchanges between individuals. However, there are typical characteristics of written and spoken English.

A. Written English. 1- Elaborate syntactic structures. 2- Explicit constructions. 3- Complete

information units. 4- Formal language. Spoken English. 1- Simple syntactic structures: short sentences linked with “and”. 2- Reliance on context: reference to shared Background or knowledge. 3- Elliptical forms: words “left out”. 4 – Informal language.

However, business letters use language that is typical of written language while business emails

tend to use language that is more typical of spoken English. Business emails have many features of spoken English such as:

a. Simple syntactic structures. b. Reliance on context. c. Elliptical forms. d. Informal language involves contractions, abbreviations, colloquial, everyday vocabulary.

The use of emoticon. Not have to sign the name at the end of the text of the letter. The name already appears in the “signature file” which is regular feature of emails at work. Some Emails may be more similar in formality to a business letter than to spoken English and world use features typical of written English. As mentioned earlier, business email shows that genres change and evolve to adapt to changing demands in communication and technology in the workplace.

------------------------------------------------------------

4-3-2-1اهم النقاط لجابتر CH 1

The notion of “face” as proposed by Goffman ? Social interaction through talk involves the constant management of one's own or other people's

face. Is a term used by the American sociologist Goffman for people s public self-image? Loss of face for any speaker is disruptive may need to be repaired for instance, by the rephrasing of a comment or by an explicit apology. Effort to maintain one‟s own or others‟ face is known as face work and many involve strategic talk to boost of maintain status: an aspect of the interpersonal function of language use. Thus, we may speak of speech acts as face threatening, possibly causing someone to lose face, or as face saving, enabling a speaker to escape from potential loss of face. Generally speaking, people in a lower status position pay more attention to the face needs of those in a higher status position than the other way around.

Elements of context that influence language? One of the most important concepts in dealing with spoken language is Context, which refers to

the physical location and social circumstances in which a particular example of language use occurs. Context can include the following elements, all which will influence the use and interpretation of particular words and phrases. The first element is the physical surrounding, then the second is the relationship between the speakers, third is their past shared experiences, and current goal, fourth is the social events of which the interaction is a part, fifth if applicable, the institutional setting (For example, if interaction takes place in somebody's place of work), and last is broader cultural values and expectations.

Strategies of politeness?

13

In reciprocal social interactions, we tend to use politeness, which involves using strategies such as appropriate term of address and degree of directness and formality. These vary according to people's relative status, the degree of social distance between them and the extent of their solidarity with one another. For example, eat up your lunch, dear! Might be an appropriate commend to a child, or even an intimate friend, but not to one's line manager at work, and possible not to one's grandmother, depending on the formality of status relationships within the family. Being linguistically polite also involves sensitivity to the social and cultural context especially the formality of the occasion, and to sociolinguistic rules about behavior : how to accept or refuse an invitation, the appropriate language practices around giving and receiving hospitality , greeting formulae, terms of address, taboo terms, and so on. These conversation vary in different English-speaking communication, as do the values governing the way formality, social distance and status are expressed.

Differences between language of men and women according to Lakoff ? One of the ways that identifying significant aspects of style is to compare the conversational

behaviour of men and women. According to the linguist Lakoff, it is often argued that in conversation, women are less competitive and more cooperative than men, and work harder to make the interaction turn smoothly for instance, women encouraging others to talk and using more face-saving politeness strategies. Influentially argued that this is because women are brought up to occupy a less powerful position in society, and to display deference towards men, which they do through being more hesitant and indirect. Lakoff suggested that women use more tag questions e.g. isn't it? Don't you think?, and more indirect polite forms. For example, could you possibly?, intensifiers e.g. I'm so glad, euphemisms and what she saw as generally weaker vocabulary. For example, words such as nice and oh dear. Lakoff's observations were largely intuitive and anecdotal, and they received elements of both challenge and support in later studies, some of which found men to dominate mixed gender conversation, interrupting more and giving less feedback and support.

How do we interpret language according to anthropologists? Anthropologists have found that, in order to use and interpret language, we draw on a

considerable amount of cultural as well as linguistic knowledge. Within any single community there will also be a range of ways of speaking: different uses of language associated with particular institutions, particular relationship and particular social events. In order to understand the function and meaning of any spoken exchange, we need to know the values held by the speakers and their expectations about language use in that particular context. Context is referring to the physical location and social circumstances in which a particular example of language use occurs. It can include the following elements, all which will influence the use and interpretation of particular words and phrases. The first element is the physical surrounding, then the second is the relationship between the speakers, third is their past shared experiences, and current gold, fourth is the social events of which the interaction is a part, fifth if applicable, the institutional setting (e.g. if interaction takes place in somebody's place of work), and last is broader cultural values and expectations.

What characterizes informal talk? Talk means any kind of spoken interaction between people, while the word conversation although

it's often used with the same meaning of 'talk', but it defined by the linguistic Schegl off as the specific kind of talk that people engaged in when their spoken interaction is not organized by institutional rules. Informal talk is of course largely unplanned because it arises out of changing everyday activities and relationships, and to be produced and comprehend in real time. it is a normal feature of spoken language to contain explicit reference, as well as unfinished and overlapping utterances which look nothing like what most English speakers are thought to raged as grammatical sentences. People who have studied the structure of conversation have demonstrated that everyday

14

talk is far from being disorganized. Informal spoken narratives (stories) are composed of up to six kinds of narrative clause: Abstract: a brief preview of what the narrative is about. Orientation: where and when the story took place. Complicating action: events are told in the order. Resolution: the way in which the complicating action came to an end. Coda: the end of the telling. Evaluation: the point of the story.

CH 2

Brian Street‟s proposition on literacy practices? Discuss. Literacy practices are the ways in which people interact with texts (the ability to read and write),

and this concept was proposed by Brian Street, who used it to emphasise the connection between an individual‟s use of written language and his social identity. Writing and reading cannot be understood in isolation from the world in which they are carried out. Your literacy practices are not only associated with studying, they are also closely tied to your work and social life. Many people find reading to be a useful way of managing the boredom of waiting. The language of the text being read is also highly significant.

You should understand and be able to explain the semiotic approach and its perspective on the written language?

Signs, words that is conventionally associated with particular concepts (the meaning of words). Semiotics (the study of signs and symbols and of their meaning and use) and is founded on the work of the linguist de Saussure. Saussure argued that signs are only meaningful because they belong to accepted sign systems. Reading signs and images: The most basic elements of a text in modern English are its letters. According to Saussure, an alphabet can be understood as a sign system in which letters play the role of signs: each letter has particular visual characteristics and is associated with particular sounds. One of Saussure‟s key insights was that signs are only meaningful insofar as they exist in opposition to other signs, he suggested that it doesn‟t matter exactly what a letter looks like in your handwriting, provided that it won‟t get confused with other letters in the same alphabet. Saussure regarded the vocabulary of a language as a sign system functioning in the same basic way. Many linguists now reject this view. Semiotic analysis has been applied not only to texts, but also to a huge range of other cultural products, including photographs and food. Every form of communication should be analysed in the same way as language. Some scholars propose that visual images can be parsed like sentences with picture elements such as lines and colours being treated analogously to parts of speech. Others deny that classifying images will uncover their meanings and argue that the idea of visual language is no more than a loose analogy at best. A more fundamental problem is that to understand communication, we have to think about how signs are being used by human beings in specific situations and not just about those signs‟ systematic relationships to other signs. Saussure‟s focus on meaningful difference is undeniably useful and you should practice applying it to all sorts of texts. Semiotic analysis often focuses on opposites or antonyms as well synonyms.

CH 3 Discuss the following concepts:

The cognitive perspective, A cognitive perspective generally seeks to understand the mental processes within children‟s mind, focusing on the relationship between the outward form of their utterances (grammar & vocabulary) and what these may reveal about their developing understanding of language and the world. Child directed speech (CDS): When communicating with babies, adults in many English-speaking cultures tend to use a simplified style of speech with exaggerated intonation, referred to as child-directed speech (CDS), or baby talk. Emergent literacy, in an environment of written texts, children will use many strategies to work out what adults are doing with magazines, pens, computers and all the other things associated with literacy, and will

15

attempt to join the adult literate world in different ways. These first discoveries of reading and writing have been described as emergent literacy. Overextensions, Psycholinguists Villiers and Villiers classify some typical over extensions (the act of making something longer or larger) . According to the apparent grounds of similarity. For example (movement - shape - size- sound - texture - function

Differentiate between the following Competence and performance: Drawing on Chomsky‟s ideas, a distinction is often drawn between

the child‟s active linguistic performance (the process of performing a task) and their underlying knowledge of the language system or linguistic competence (the ability to do something well). Formulaic language and telegraphic language. Formulaic language is reproduced holistically by imitation, with the emphasis on its social function; Children are able to deduce the meaning of whole phrases from the communicative context, without necessarily analyzing them into their component parts. This is called formulaic language. Whereas is generated independently of any adult model and appears to reflect a deeper level of grammatical analysis. Cognitive and social perspectives: Whereas cognitive perspectives on language learning focus on processes internal to the child‟s mind in making sense of language as a system, Social perspectives focus on the role of language in social context, with the emphasis on communicative function. Social perspectives emphasise the pragmatics of language use, focusing on how children learn to take part in conversation with others, and how they use language to perform particular speech acts and to express social identity. Logographs and pictographs : Logographs, also known as logograms (where a symbol stands for a whole word), as H for hospital, the heart shape means love, Pictographs, also known as pictograms (where an image denotes a phrase or concept), such as many traffic signs and pictorial symbols for male and female toilets.

The functions of CDs? When communicating with babies, adults in many English-speaking cultures tend to use a

simplified style of speech with exaggerated intonation, referred to as child-directed speech (CDS), or baby talk. What are the functions of CDS?. CDS appears to serve at least three possible useful functions in learning English: First, it may help children attune their ear to the characteristic strong-weak stress pattern of English words (like function, children) by retaining this pattern in diminutives like (mummy, daddy). Second, by use of exaggerated stress at the sentence level, CDS may serve to direct the child‟s attention to the key elements (usually the content words) in an utterance. Third, by means of exaggerated intonation patterns involving rising or falling pitch, CDS may also help to facilitate turn taking in conversation by emphasizing question-and-answer exchanges and other adjacency pairs.

Why do children make mistakes when they start to use grammatical inflections?

One of the most widely reported phenomena is that English-speaking children almost between the ages of eighteen months and two years start to produce two word (mini sentences) expressing simple semantic relations such as actions or belonging, and this is what we called telegraphic language. Once grammatical inflections start to appear, it has been observed that normally developing English - speaking children actually appear to move backwards in their learning and start making more mistakes. This is because they gradually replace simple imitation (she held two mice) by the application of a set of rules. Children‟s early mistakes in generalizing rules are thus a sign of creative minds at play, rather than the mere imitation of adult speech. Drawing on Chomsky‟s ideas, a distinction is often drawn between the child‟s active linguistic performance (the process of performing a task) and their underlying knowledge of the language system or linguistic competence (the ability to do something well). The advantages of learning to read in an alphabetic or syllabic system and the critical age hypothesis?. Benefit from learning to read in alphabetic or syllabic

16

system is that, any new word can be worked out, while the learning of new logographs that last for many years. However, you may alphabetic systems represent another kind of challenge in terms of learning spelling system or orthography.

Chomsky‟s universal grammar principles? Grammatical development. With particular regard to how children learn grammar, Chomsky argues

that there are universal principles (such as noun and verb) that are common to the grammars of all human languages, but the parameters of variation (such as word order or morphology) need to be set differently according to the language to which children are exposed. All children are born with an awareness that language is composed of certain building blocks (noun phrases and verb phrases), but they do not know how to combine these elements into sentences until they are exposed to some input in a particular language. One of the most widely reported phenomena is that English-speaking children roughly between the ages of eighteen months and two years start to produce two-word (mini sentences) expressing simple semantic relations such as actions or belonging, and this is what we called telegraphic language. Function words like articles, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and morphological inflections are normally acquired late.

How children learn to use English, how do children acquire their early words according to the cognitive approach?

A baby‟s first experience of language across many cultures is likely to be in dialogue with a caregiver (an adult who takes care of a child). When communicating with babies, adults in many English-speaking cultures tend to use a simplified style of speech with exaggerated intonation, referred to as child-directed speech (CDS), or baby talk. CDS appears to serve at least three possible useful functions in learning English, such as it may help children attune their ear to the characteristic strong-weak stress pattern of English words (like function, children) by retaining this pattern in diminutives like (mummy, daddy).

Cognitive perspectives on learning to talk? Research in the cognitive tradition seeks to understand the mental processes within children‟s

mind, focusing on the relationship between the outward form of their utterances (grammar & vocabulary) and what these may reveal about their developing understanding of language and the world. A cognitive perspective generally seeks to investigate what is common to all normally developing children, rather than what makes each child different. Vocabulary development, Much work in this tradition has concentrated on children‟s lexical development, with the emphasis on both the size of vocabulary and the types of words produced. It has been widely observed that young children tend to over-extended the meanings of words, as they try to maximize their limited vocabulary and develop a sense of conceptual boundaries in English. Psycholinguists Villiers and Villiers classify some typical over-extensions (the act of making something longer or larger) according to the apparent grounds of similarity. For example (movement - shape - size - sound - texture – function).The more cognitive perspectives on the language learning process give greater prominence to analytic processes and rule formation, along with the child‟s general understanding of the world.

The advantages of learning to read in an alphabetic or syllabic system and the critical age hypothesis

Two principles are usually identified as the basis of the different writing systems: that symbols should represent meaning, as in logographs or pictograph, or that symbols should represent sound, as in alphabets or syllabifies. In addition, children need to work out how the temporal order of speech relates to the spatial order of writing. For example, English words are written from left to right, whereas in Arabic and Hebrew words are written from right to left. The advantage of learning to read in an alphabetic or syllabic system is that, any new word can be worked out, while the learning of new logographs has to continue for many years. However, alphabetic systems may

17

represent another kind of learning challenge in terms of their spelling system or orthography. English writing is more complex, as there are fewer symbols in the twenty-six-letter alphabet of English than there are sounds in the spoken language, and the standard orthography does not correspond precisely to any particular accent. Children learning to read and write English have to become aware of many inconsistencies. For example, some symbols are used to represent more than one sound, such as the letter (a) in the words cat and play. Within English, there are also many letter combinations which may have to be memorized as though they were logographs (knight and through). The young child learning to read and write English seems to face a more challenging task than the child learning to write Spanish or Welsh, with their more regular spelling conventions.

Kenner‟s study Obliterate children develop a wider range of visual and factional capabilities. They learn to

recognize what counts as important in each script and to identify what really matters when distinguishing one letter or character from another. They learn to adapt to different contexts and in particular, to recognized that their classmates might not have the same expertise. They develop an interest in exploring connections between their writing systems. They can use their different scripts to express a distinctive personal identity. Kenner tells us that one of the advantages that obliterate children acquire is the greater awareness of how language systems differ, in other words what is known as metalinguistic awareness. One of the main findings is that bilingual and obliterate children do not keep their worlds separate but inhabit them simultaneously and are constantly looking for ways to express this multiple identity especially in their writing.

Gordon Wells‟s proposition Anthropologists argue that children begin by learning the meaning of speech acts and only

gradually learn the language that corresponds to these in the community around them. Gordon Wells has likened this to a conversation without words between infants and their caregivers; he argues that infants come to be able to have and express communicative intentions by being treated as if they could already have them. So, it could be said that learning to speak is initially a matter of learning the rules of social behavior and meaning making and only later a matter of learning the grammatical rules by which these are realized in English or any other language. A baby‟s first experience of language across many cultures is likely to be in dialogue with a caregiver (an adult who takes care of a child.)

CH 4

Front stage and backstage Many professionals or people working for organizations deal with lay members of the public in the

course of their work. We can distinguish between two kinds of interaction in which English can be used as a working language. Interactions among co-workers, where people are working together in the same workplace, occupation or profession. Interactions between experts in an organization or profession and members of the public; that is, between insiders in particular areas of work and outsiders. For example, interactions between health professionals and patients, or service encounters, where service providers interact with customers. These two general types of workplace interaction correspond to two sites in which social life can be studied: front regions (Front stage) and back regions (backstage). Front regions are areas where a particular performance is in progress, whereas back regions are where action occurs that is related to the performance but inconsistent with the appearance fostered by the performance. Goffman implies the presence of an audience in front stage activity, as in interactions between lay people and professionals, and a setting in which best behavior is expected. The backstage setting, on the other hand, is more relaxed and allows minor acts for others present. The same person often has to switch between front stage and backstage interactions at work; and while workplace interactions are mainly goal oriented and transactional, relational language, which is quite similar to small talk outside the

18

workplace, also occurs. This means that the distinction between workplace language and everyday language is not a hard or absolute one. According to Swales, genres are: classes of communicative events which share some set of communicative purposes, and it highlights two aspects of genres. Different texts or utterances can be said to belong to the same genre because they share the same communicative purpose. Genres follow particular patterns or schematic structures, which may involve participants playing specific roles, and using particular vocabulary or a particular style of speaking or writing. For example, in front stage service encounters, the communicative purpose for the customer or service recipient is to obtain goods or services. The interaction usually begins with a greeting and request for service and ends with a service provision and a closing, and it is characterized by the use of politeness features. In the backstage workplace interaction, the communicative purpose is to reach the decision.

Genres in a changing world of work, the example of the business email.

In the early twenty-first century, email has emerged as one of the most important means of communicating information in English for commercial purposes. The business email has now to a great extent replaced the traditional business letter, as well as some kinds of telephone communication. Like the blog, the business email has features of both written and spoken language, and has been influenced by a variety of other genres, but change over time (for example, as a result of changing technology). According to Yates and Orlikowski the business email developed from the genre of written memos, which are company–internal messages circulated between employees, and were once distributed in typed or handwritten form. Yates and Orlikowski said that email is also used for other kinds of messages; for example, very informal exchanges between individual colleagues. Therefore they see email as a medium, rather than a genre. Gimenez, on the other hand, claims that many features of email communication were carried over from telephone communication. While business letters use language that is typical of written language, business emails tend to use language that is more typical of spoken English. As mentioned earlier, the example of the business email shows that genres change and evolve to adapt to changing demands in communication and technology in the workplace. Jensen shows that email is even being used for international business negotiations, which until a short time before were being conducted face-to face

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

هذ عمل غير م لل مع ه

وغير م لل نسخ و ع ة صيغة