Faculty of Science and TechnologyDepartment of Geology

U-Pb geochronology of crustal evolution and orogenyContributions from Caledonide Spitsbergen and the

Precambrian West Troms Basement Complex, North

Norway

Per Inge Myhre

A dissertation for the degree ofPhilosophiae Doctor

June 2011

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Acknowledgements

I thank Steffen Bergh for giving me the opportunity to do this PhD-project and for

introducing me to the geology of west Troms and his help with fieldwork and in preparing

the manuscripts.

My completion of the project is largely due to the efforts of Fernando Corfu, who introduced

me to geochronology and the wonders of working with Precambrian rocks. He encouraged

me to carry on when things did not look so good, and I learned that patience and slow but

steady progress will give results in the end.

I am very grateful for all that Arild Andresen has done for me since I was a student at UNIS

in 2003, and later at UiO. Thanks to Arild I have been involved in a lot of different projects

and learned so much about geology.

I wish to thank Larry Heaman at the University of Alberta for giving me the opportunity to

go there for a year, and supervising me while I was there. I also thank Judy Schultz, Barry

Herchuk, and my fellow students at UofA.

I wish to thank Kåre Kullerud, Holger Stunitz, Erling Ravna and Jane Gilotti for help with

field work and scientific discussion at various times during my PhD-studies.

Thanks to:

Jurgen Mienert for help and support in the final stages of the work.

David Root for help in the field in 2007 and also for a great friendship.

Pritam Nasipury and Luca Menegon, and fellow students, colleagues and friends at UiT for

many discussions and help with various aspects of my work.

Everyone in the University of Alberta Scandinavian Club for all the great times.

All my friends in Tromsø, Oslo, Flekkefjord and wherever

My family

And last but not least my dear Monica for always supporting me.

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"You have the key to mystery

Pick up the runes; unveil and see"

K. Grutle / Enslaved - Axioma Ethica Odini (2010)

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Preface

This doctoral thesis was carried out at the Department of Geology, University of Tromsø

from 2006 - 2011, financed by the University of Tromsø. I spent one academic year (autumn

2008 - spring 2009) at the Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of

Alberta. This visit was financed through a travel grant from the University of Tromsø, and

laboratory work at the University of Alberta was financed by professor Larry Heaman.

During the stay at the University of Alberta I enrolled in graduate courses, conducted U-Pb-

laboratory work on mafic dykes and worked with the manuscripts of paper II and II.

Field and laboratory work presented in paper I was conducted in 2004 and 2005 as part of

my master studies at the Department of Geoscience, University of Oslo. This project was led

by professor Arild Andresen, UiO. Field and laboratory work in papers II, III and my

contributions to paper IV from Troms was conducted from 2006 - 2011, as part of a project

led by professor Steffen Bergh. ID-TIMS U-Pb-analyses were done at the University of Oslo

during several stays there, and papers II and III also report some data analysed earlier by

professor Fernando Corfu. ID-TIMS work at UiO was financed by professor Fernando

Corfu, and the travelling costs were financed by the University of Tromsø. U-Pb SIMS

analyses were carried out at Nordsim in Stockholm financed by the University of Tromsø

and NFR Småforskmidler granted to associate professor Kåre Kullerud.

The thesis consists of three published papers, one manuscript and an introduction.

Front cover: Mountains close to Grunnfarnes on southwest Senja.

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Table of contents

Acknowledgements........................................................................................................3

Introduction...........................................................................................................................8

Scope of the thesis..........................................................................................................8

U-Pb-geochronology of rocks found in orogenic terranes..............................................8

Caledonian and Precambrian terranes in the North Atlantic region..............................14

Caledonian exotic terranes -Cordillera-type tectonics?..........................................14

Neoarchaean - Palaeoproterozoic tectonic processes and continent reconstructions

...............................................................................................................................14

The role of the West Troms Basement Complex....................................................15

Additional results: Svecofennian (1790-1775 Ma) metamorphic zircon and titanite U-

Pb ages from metabasites from the WTBC..................................................................17

Considerations for future research................................................................................21

Presentation of papers.........................................................................................................23

Paper I..........................................................................................................................23

Paper II.........................................................................................................................23

Paper III.......................................................................................................................24

Paper IV.......................................................................................................................25

References............................................................................................................................27

Figures and table.................................................................................................................32

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Introduction

Scope of the thesis

The aim of the research presented in this thesis is to contribute geochronological and

geological data on crustal evolution in two areas: the Albert I Land, northwest Spitsbergen

and the West Troms Basement Complex, North Norway. The purpose of the study is firstly to

contribute to the regional geological mapping of those areas by reconstructing the geological

record from key locations in high detail. Secondly, those insights are placed into a wider

context of crustal evolution through time and space. Only by obtaining a as complete as

possible geological record of the continental crust can the global geological community

reconstruct past tectonic movements and understand the associated geological processes.

From the point of view of society, hard rock geoscience is a key to meeting the ever

increasing human demand for resources .

The method applied in this thesis is structural geological field studies and U-Pb-

geochronology of variably deformed igneous and metamorphosed crustal rocks. The two

study areas differ in location and the ages of the rocks, but the geology is in many ways

similar: Both regions have rocks with a multi-stage geological history characterised by

several phases of magmatism, metamorphism, deformation and deposition of sediments, and

occurring in an orogenic setting.

U-Pb-geochronology of rocks found in orogenic terranes

The components of continental crust are added from the mantle by magmatic processes or by

subduction of oceanic crust, and reprocessed by deformation, metamorphism and

magmatism, often as part of regional orogenic events (Rudnick and Gao, 2007). The finite

result is a buoyant felsic crust that is extremely long-lived and makes up the bulk of

continents. In earth science, a wide range of geological studies and techniques are applied in

efforts to understand evolution of continental crust. One method that has become crucial for

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this purpose is dating of rock-forming and -modifying events by U-Pb-geochronology of

accessory minerals, in particular zircon (e.g. review in Davis et al., 2003), represented by an

ever increasing number of studies from around the world, in particular from Precambrian

areas. The basis for this method is that some minerals (called geochronometres) incorporate

minor amounts of U (usually up to a few hundred ppm in zircon in the ideal cases). Natural

U has two principal radioactive isotopes, 235U and 238U, that decay to two different Pb

isotopes (207Pb and 206Pb, respectively), and the age of the geochronometre is a function of

the parent-daughter ratio, the decay constant and the initial Pb content (which is often

negligible). The success of the U-Pb-method of dating is largely due to this paired decay

system that provides an internal test on the results, which is the basis for the concordia plot

(Tera and Wasserburg, 1972; Wetherill, 1956, 1963); if both the 207Pb/235U and 206Pb/238U-ages

correspond, the analysis is concordant.

Zircon is the most commonly used geochronometre, with other important ones including

titanite, monazite, baddeleyite and xenotime. Zircon is a very robust time capsule that readily

survives metamorphism, cycles of magmatism and erosion and sedimentation, and still may

retain the primary age. While this is the principal reason for its ability to yield robust ages, it

also introduces some complications for the interpretation of the data: typically, samples of

igneous or metamorphic rocks contain several generations of zircon and crystals that have

been modified by metamorphism. The presence of multiple age populations within an

analysis leads to discordant data, and this needs to be tackled with an appropriate analytical

approach and careful interpretation of the result. Another property of zircon that commonly

causes discordancy is its tendency to lose Pb, mainly at low temperatures, due the

accumulation of radiation damage in the crystal structure which allows Pb to escape by

diffusion or fluid transport. This can be handled by avoiding unfavourable crystals or parts of

crystals, and careful interpretation. For these reasons, rather than obtaining an average result

from randomly selected samples, successful application of U-Pb geochronology depends on

isolating and analysing high-quality crystals that record the actual relevant events in a rocks

history.

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Today, three techniques are widely applied to U-Pb dating of zircon and other accessory

minerals: isotope dilution thermal ionization mass spectrometry (ID-TIMS), secondary

ionization mass spectrometre (SIMS) and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass

spectrometry (LA-ICPMS). ID-TIMS involves analysis of a dissolved sample mixed with a

tracer (spike) of known isotopic composition, normally a mix of enriched 235U and artificial 205Pb. SIMS and LA-ICPMS are beam techniques that use an ion or laser beam to micro-

sample a small part of a crystal which is subsequently analysed by a double-focusing mass

spectrometre, and the results are then calibrated by concurrent analyses of a standard.

The present state of the ID-TIMS method of U-Pb-dating is the result of advances made in

the past 30 - 40 years that have allowed increasingly small amounts of zircon to be analysed

with increasingly better precision and accuracy (Krogh, 1973, 1982), see reviews in Davis et

al. (2003), Kamo et al. (2011) and Parrish et al. (2003). An important step in the evolution of

the technique was the development of Teflon laboratory equipment for acid distillation and

high temperature decomposition of zircon, allowing a drastic reduction in contamination

levels (Krogh, 1973). Synthesis of 205Pb spike improved the ability to accurately measure the

U-Pb isotopic ratios (Krogh and Davis, 1975; Parrish and Krogh, 1987). A method to

improve the concordancy (the degree of correspondence between the calculated 207Pb/235U

and 206Pb/238U-ages) of zircon by physically removing (abrading) the discordant parts was

developed by Krogh (1982), and this represented a significant advance. Later, a chemical

abrasion technique was developed with the same objective (Mattinson, 2005, 2011). With

these refinements of the analytical procedures, the ID-TIMS method provided the most

precise way of measuring U-Pb-ages, and with the great reduction in required sample size,

fractions of individual zircons can be routinely analysed. Today, the two main objectives and

challenges in practical applications are to remove discordant parts of the grains from the

analyses, and being able to isolate multiple age populations within the same sample.

With the development of ion microprobes, or SIMS instruments (review in Ireland and

Williams, 2003) came the ability to date individual spots within single grains. By

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"sputtering" the sample using a primary beam of oxygen ions, a small, near two-dimensional

area usually around 20 µm across can be analysed, and in that way undesirable parts of

zircon grains or mixed age domains can be avoided. Another advantage with SIMS is the

ability to relatively rapidly analyse a large number of individual grains and domains within

grains, increasing the statistical basis for interpretation of the data. However, as a

consequence of the small sample volume, mass spectrometre counting statistics are much

poorer and therefore the errors on the isotopic ratios are about one order of magnitude higher

than ID-TIMS.

Essentially the ID-TIMS and SIMS techniques are complementary, each having their

advantages and disadvantages. In that respect it is somewhat of a puzzle that so few studies

have utilized both methods in order to resolve more completely the questions faced when

dealing with complex orogenic rocks. Part of the reason for this is perhaps that each of the

techniques' advantages and disadvantages are given disproportionally great significance by

some. In this thesis both techniques are employed. Through the sound treatment of the data,

with adequate caution given to each techniques' shortcomings, I suggest that a combined

approach can be highly beneficial when dealing with complex orogenic rocks.

Appropriate interpretation of U-Pb data is obviously the key to success. A common situation

in orogenic terranes is that the rock record is incomplete and complex, and this is reflected in

the U-Pb-data as well. Knowledge about the geology of the samples, careful characterisation

of the properties of zircon and any other geochronometres and common sense are all

important virtues for interpretation of the data. Initial characterisation of properties of the

geochronometre is normally done with an optical microscope, studying heavy mineral rock

separates. It is usually also helpful to utilize SEM imaging, normally cathodoluminescence

(CL) or back scattered electrons (BSE) images on polished grain mounts. SEM imaging is

particularly powerful to study internal textures within the grains. In the most simple

situations where a magmatic zircon population can be identified and yield concordant or

collinear data points, the interpretation of the age of the rock is normally straightforward.

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Successful identification of magmatic zircon is normally done using the external

morphology and / or growth zoning. If more than one generation is present within the same

grain, this will often be reflected as contrasting growth patterns. A multitude of other zircon

textures and morphologies are also common, often restricted to particular rock types or

geological environments and thus enabling interpretations of their origin with respect to the

igneous and / or metamorphic history of the rocks. The empirical knowledge of the various

textures and morphologies comes from a multitude of individual studies of different rock

types (review in Corfu et al. (2003a). More complex cases where individual populations can

not be easily identified, or where the origin of some population is unclear are not

uncommon, especially in orogenic terranes. These can be some of the most interesting cases,

since a lot of information about different stages in a rock's history can potentially be

extracted.

More sophisticated linkage of geochronometres to specific metamorphic reactions is possible

by using reaction textures or geochemical properties of the metamorphic minerals. For

example, the principal constituents of titanite (CaTiSiO5) are also major elements in most

rocks, and the growth or breakdown of titanite can sometimes be linked directly to

metamorphic textures or parageneses (Corfu and Stone, 1998; Verts et al., 1996) or isotope

systematics (Amelin, 2009). Similar metamorphic textural relationships can sometimes also

be observed involving zircon (Bingen et al., 2001; Heaman and LeCheminant, 1993) but

since the principal constituents of zircon cannot always be linked with a metamorphic

paragenesis, one often relies on zircon morphology and association with metamorphic

mineral textures in order to identify metamorphic zircon populations (e.g. Davidson and

Breemen (1988) and review in Corfu et al., 2003a). Also, an approach linking trace element

patterns of zircon with metamorphic minerals is sometimes applied (e.g. Bingen et al.,

(2004) and review in Hoskin and Schaltegger, 2003).

One of the classical areas of Precambrian crust is the Lewisian Complex in northwest

Scotland, and the understanding of the complex Neoarchaean and Palaeoproterozoic

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evolution here has been further advanced with the application of U-Pb dating on the various

units (e.g. reviews in Park, 2005; Wheeler et al., 2010). An example of the application of U-

Pb-dating to complex, multi-generation rocks is provided by the studies of Corfu et al.

(1994), Whitehouse and Kemp (2010) and Love et al. (2004) on high-grade Neoarchaean

granulite facies gneisses in the Scourie area in the Lewisian Complex. The data from

equivalent high-grade gneisses, from Corfu et al. (1994) and Whitehouse and Kemp (2010),

are shown in Fig. 1 and illustrate the complementary nature of the two techniques. First, the

timing of the "Inverian" event at 2490 - 2480 Ma is well constrained in the ID-TIMS-data by

dating of a pegmatite associated with rehydration of the granulite facies rocks and the lower

intercept of zircons in the granulite samples. This event is also evident from the SIMS data,

represented by single phase zircons, rims and some of the youngest cores in the felsic

granulites sampled by Whitehouse and Kemp, but the SIMS data spread out along the

concordia, making it difficult to choose an age for this phase. The youngest of these ages

corresponds to the ID-TIMS data, and a rather unambiguous interpretation on the timing of

the Inverian metamorphism can be made. The advantage that a large number of grains and

individual domains of grains can be dated by SIMS is illustrated by the older, pre-Inverian

zircons in these rocks. With a large number of analyses, the data presented by Whitehouse

and Kemp show a near continuous record from 3.1 Ga to 2.5 Ga. The oldest parts of this

record are interpreted as inheritance in the felsic granulites, but an unambiguous protolith

age can not be determined. However, an age of c. 2.85 Ga is preferred as the protolith age by

Whitehouse and Kemp based on the statistical abundance of zircons of this age, their CL-

structures and evidence from Hf isotopes. This is consistent with, and adds detail to, the

interpretation based on minimum ages and upper intercept lines in the granulite samples of

Corfu et al (1994) that the protolith age and timing of an earlier metamorphic event was

older than 2710 Ma. Whereas the details of the data and the interpretation in these samples

may have some differences (see Corfu, 2007; Friend et al., 2007), the results presented by

Corfu et al. (1994), Whitehouse and Kemp (2010) and Love et al. (2004) illustrate the

complementary rather than conflicting nature of the two techniques.

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Caledonian and Precambrian terranes in the North Atlantic region

Caledonian exotic terranes -Cordillera-type tectonics?

Exotic terranes are pieces of crust, oceanic or continental, that are tectonically transported or

transposed from one tectonic plate to another during orogeny. The exotic terrane preserves a

pre-orogenic history that is distinct from that of the tectonic plate it is currently part of. In

order to identify a terrane as exotic, it is necessary to document that it has a distinct

geological affinity, i.e. a distinct stratigraphic, tectonic, metamorphic or magmatic history.

Regarding the Caledonides of the North Atlantic north of the Arctic circle, recent studies

have pointed out the exotic origin of many of the terranes in the upper and uppermost

allochthons of the Caledonides of northern Norway and Sweden (Corfu et al., 2011, 2007;

Kirkland et al., 2008, 2011) and Svalbard (Gee and Teben’kov, 2004). Important evidence

for this is a preserved Neoproterozoic history in those terranes distinctly different from the

northern parts of Baltica, and it appears that they originated near a common Neoproterozoic

margin between eastern Laurentia, Baltic and Amazonia prior to the opening of the Iapetus

Ocean (Kirkland et al., 2007, 2011). During the closing of Iapetus, a similar distribution of

the terranes emplaced onto Baltica remained (Fig. 2), and the terranes eventually ended up in

their current positions, probably by large-scale strike-slip translations (Gee and Teben’kov,

2004), i.e. Cordilleran-type tectonics (Fig 2, from Corfu et al. 2011). In detail the picture is

complicated and to some degree uncertain, e.g. due to the lack of old sutures in most

locations (Corfu et al., 2011) and also a rather complex and varied timing of events in the

different areas (see for example compilation in paper I).

Neoarchaean - Palaeoproterozoic tectonic processes and continent reconstructions

The cores of the continents are made up of cratons that became stabilized in the Archaean

and were subsequently involved in tectonic events that variably modified the Archaean crust.

The current record of these Archaean cratons is found as c. 35 pieces distributed around the

world (Bleeker, 2003). The outline of each craton is a result of cycles of collision, granitoid

intrusion, extension, rifting and basin formation, and if several of these events can be

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correlated between various cratons, then it is possible to reconstruct former assemblages

called "supercratons" (Bleeker, 2003). In particular, timing of large igneous provinces and

associated episodes of continental breakup can be used for such analyses, whereby the most

detailed record known is that of the Laurentian cratonic fragments (Ernst and Bleeker, 2010).

It is commonly considered that the Karelia and Superior cratons of Baltica and Laurentia

were in the vicinity of each other or connected at the end of the Archaean (Mertanen and

Korhonen 2011; and references therein). Various similar Palaeoproterozoic configurations

have also been discussed in the literature (Buchan et al., 2000; Connelly et al., 2000; Park,

2005; Park et al., 2001; Pesonen et al., 2003). As an example, Fig. 3 shows a speculative

model proposed by Park (2005): Following breakup of the Neoarchaean supercratons,

oceanic arcs start to converge from c. 2.0 Ga, with eventual accretion of the cratons along

sutures that follow the grain of the Palaeoproterozoic orogens. The model of Park finishes

with a rather familiar configuration of the various Baltica and Laurentia cratons at the

beginning of the Mesoproterozoic. Despite being a speculative model it illustrates well the

need for, and opportunities represented by, detailed tectonostratigraphic research within these

cratons and especially along their margins such as the Lewisian complex, parts of the North

Atlantic and central Greenland cratons and, although not specifically considered by Park

(2005), also the West Troms Basement Complex (WTBC).

The role of the West Troms Basement Complex

The question of a possible exotic origin of the Precambrian rocks in WTBC (and also

Vesterålen and Lofoten) with regards to the geology of the Fennoscandian shield is

sometimes raised (e.g. Koistinen et al., 2001). The reason is that these provinces occupy an

interior position within the Caledonide orogen, far from shield rocks and bounded by faults

(mainly extensional but some thrusts as well) against the Caledonian nappe stack in the east

(Zwaan et al., 1998). They are usually not considered part of the Fennoscandian Shield

(Hölttä et al., 2008; Koistinen et al., 2001), but instead assigned an uncertain

tectonostratigraphic status (Koistinen et al., 2001). Whereas the interpretation of Svalbard's

Albert I Land as an exotic Caledonian terrane with respect to Baltica is rather

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straightforward and accepted (paper I), the situation in WTBC is more complicated and

unresolved. This is mainly due to the uncertainty regarding what role it played during

Caledonian orogeny, with apparently only very minor (paper II, III and IV) effects on the

Precambrian rocks and with no younger rocks present, in contrast to Lofoten which likely

has Caledonian eclogites (Steltenpohl et al., 2003, 2011), and the metasedimentary Leknes

group (Corfu, 2004b).

Regardless of whether the WTBC is an exotic Caledonian terrane or not, its position on the

very edge of Baltica calls for considerations regarding its position within the various

Neoarchaean and Palaeoproterozoic reconstruction efforts of the international Precambrian

research community. Neoarchaean and Palaeoproterozoic areas, with many similar

characteristics and ages but also notable differences, are present in the north Atlantic region

as well as Fennoscandian craton: e.g. in the Lewisian complex (e.g. review by Park (2002),

the Nagssugtoqidian orogen (Connelly and Mengel, 2000; Connelly et al., 2000), the

hinterland of the east Greenland Caledonides (Thrane, 2004, 2002) and the Svecofennian or

Lapland-Kola mobile belts within the Fennoscandian shield (e.g. reviews by Lahtinen et al.

(2008); Hölttä et al. (2008).

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Additional results: Svecofennian (1790-1775 Ma) metamorphic zircon and titanite U-Pb ages from metabasites in the WTBC

The Palaeoproterozoic (Statherian) tectonic evolution of the WTBC involved intrusion of

bimodal plutons, NE-SW shortening followed by transpression, and greenschist, amphibolite

or local granulite facies metamorphism (Bergh et al., 2010 and references therein).

In order to document the timing of metamorphism, several samples of metabasite dykes from

Grøtfjord, Torsnes and Grunnfarnes (see Fig. 4i and paper III for locations) were investigated

for geochronology, and two samples were dated by ID-TIMS at the Department of Earth and

Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta. The ID-TIMS analytical protocol is described

in Heaman et al. (2011). The procedure first involved thin section studies by electron

microprobe (EMP) to determine the presence of any suitable geochronometres, i.e.

baddeleyite or zircon. No baddeleyite was found in any of the samples, presumably because

of their metamorphic nature. Instead zircon was present, ranging in size from sub-micron to

20-30 microns in thin section. Small quantities (< 500 grams) of sample were crushed with a

hammer and then disc mill, and zircons were concentrated by Wilfley-table separation

followed by incremental magnetic separation up to 1.8A using a Frantz magnetic separator.

After magnetic separation only minor amounts of quartz and feldspar was present in the

separates. In one case (pim07-32), heavy liquid floatation was done. Following this

procedure, two samples (pim07-73 and pim07-32) yielded zircon with sufficient grain size

and abundance for dating, and below follows a description of these samples and the results.

In addition, sample k04-6 (representing the same dyke as pim07-32), was processed, and

titanite analysed, at UiO.

Sample pim07-73 from Grøtfjorden, Kvaløya (sample locations in Fig. 4i) represents

metabasite which intruded presumably Neoarchaean migmatitic felsic and mafic gneisses.

The sample consists of plagioclase, hornblende and clinopyroxene with minor quartz, zircon

and titanite. Subhedral, coarse-grained plagioclase and clinopyroxene presumably represent

relict igneous phases, with metamorphic growth of hornblende defining the foliation. Zircon

17

in the thin section are present as < 1µm to 20-30 µm round grains that occupy internal

positions within metamorphic phases, typically hornblende (Fig. 4b), plagioclase or quartz.

In some cases, trails of zircon can be observed within hornblende (Fig. 4b). Zircons found in

the mineral separates are typically somewhat larger than those observed in thin section,

commonly 50 - 70 µm in size. Otherwise they show the same sub-spherical morphology, and

have a pink colour and clear interior. A group of pale titanite retrieved from the separates did

not contain any U (Table 1), or was misidentified. Analysis of 4 multigrain fractions of

zircon show a U content between 64 and 186 ppm (Table 1), and they form a collinear array

on the concordia diagram (Fig. 4a), with one concordant analysis at 1791 ± 5 Ma. The

discordia line trends towards c. 1.22 Ga, but since the three upper analyses plot very close

together, a weighted average 207/206Pb-age is calculated for those at 1780 ± 5 Ma. To account

for some non-recent Pb-loss, this can be taken as a minimum age. The concordant analysis

seem to be slightly affected by the Pb-loss, and its concordia age can be taken as a maximum

age of the zircon population.

Sample pim07-32 and k04-6 comes from a 20 metre wide mafic dyke in Grunnfarnes on

Senja. The dyke is visible in the northwestern part in the map of Grunnfarnes in paper III. It

cuts the Neoarchaean stromatic migmatite and is itself cut by a second generation of aplites.

The dyke is almost completely recrystallized to amphibolite, with local garnet. Both samples

have plagioclase, hornblende, garnet and ilmenite, and minor quartz, rutile and apatite.

Biotite and zircon is observed in pim07-32, where ilmenite is intact and no titanite was

discovered. In contrast, k04-6 contains no biotite, and ilmenite is in a decomposed state with

coronas of titanite (Fig. 4g). This can also be observed in heavy mineral separates, where

titanite commonly has black inclusions of ilmenite (Fig. 4h). One euhedral, U-rich tip was

recovered from k04-6, and it does not plot near any of the other discordia lines in Fig. 4d and

could be xenocrystic. Zircon from pim07-32 observed in EMP occurs as < 1 µm up to 30 µm

round grains within quartz (Fig. 4e) and hornblende, and commonly associated with cracks

and triple junctions. They have a similar morphology in the non-magnetic separates,

reaching 70 µm in size and with a colour-less and clear appearance (Fig 4f). Three

multigrain analyses of zircon are 4 - 8 % discordant and plot quite close to each other (Fig.

18

4d). A Pb-loss line that goes to 0 Ma can be fitted through the analyses, and assuming that

recent Pb-loss is the cause of the discordance, a weighted average 207/206Pb-age of 1780 ± 6

Ma is calculated for the zircons. Titanite analyses from sample k04-6 plot with a wider range

of discordant values, and a discordia line through 6 analyses of brown titanite with

occasional ilmenite inclusions give an upper intercept age of 1762 ± 13 Ma, with a lower

intercept of 440 ± 50 Ma. One analysis of clear, anhedral and flat titanite grains plot

somewhat above this line, defining a trajectory towards 1715 ± 20 Ma with a lower intercept

of c. 0 Ma. Incidentally, the five analyses defining this discordia have overlapping 207/206Pb-

ages, a weighted average gives 1713 ± 2 Ma.

The age derived from the brown titanite in sample k04-6 of 1762 ± 13 Ma can be interpreted

as the timing of the breakdown reaction of ilmenite to titanite described above, and is

slightly younger than the zircon age in sample pim07-32. This discrepancy in ages could

reflect that titanite formed after the zircons, alternatively the age calculation for titanite could

be inaccurate due to the slight scatter of the data points around the discordia line. As an

alternative, it is also possible that there is some mixing of two titanite generations, one

coeval with the zircon age and the other one represented by the pale anhedral grains and a

component of the brown titanite fractions that give the 1713 Ma 207/206Pb-age.

The morphology and textural position of zircons in samples pim07-73 and pim07-32 is

consistent with a metamorphic origin (Corfu et al., 2003a) and they could possibly have

formed from breakdown of igneous baddeleyite as described for mafic rocks by Davidson

and Breemen (1988). Thus I interpret the ages of these zircons to date amphibolite facies

metamorphism in the two locations in Grøtfjorden and Grunnfarnes between 1790 and 1775

Ma, possibly earlier in Grøtfjorden than in Grunnfarnes.

This postdates the bimodal intrusion stage in the WTBC by 10-30 Myr (c. 1800 Ma, Corfu et

al. 2003a; Kullerud et al., 2006b; Myhre and Corfu, unpublished data). The timing is nearly

coeval with metamorphic titanite at 1768 ± 4 documented in mafic dykes from Ringvassøya

19

by Kullerud et al. (2006a), and data on granulite facies metamorphism in Sandøya (west of

Ringvassøya) presented by Gjerløw (2008, unpublished MSc-thesis). Metamorphic titanite in

the Ersfjord granite and syntectonic dykes in Kvaløya were formed between 1774 and 1750

Ma (Armitage and Bergh, 2005; Corfu et al., 2003b). These data also post-dates the main

AMCG stage in Lofoten (Corfu, 2004a) and amphibolite and granulite facies metamorphism

in Lofoten and Vesterålen (Corfu, 2007b)

Thus, it is clear that the Svecofennian bimodal intrusion stage in WTBC was followed by

metamorphism up to at least amphibolite, locally granulite facies between 1790-1775 Ma,

and eventually a late stage of deformation and continued metamorphism until c. 1750 Ma.

The data indicate that there were some local variation in the timing of the amphibolite -

granulite stage in the WTBC, but apparently no systematic variations in a southwest-

northeast transect.

20

Considerations for future research

For the Caledonian exotic terranes in the North Atlantic region there is still a way to go

before we reach an understanding nearly as complete as the equivalent North American

Appalachian orogen (e.g. van Staal 2007). It remains a challenge to test the validity of the

Cordilleran-style model that has been proposed, and document in more detail the geological

history of various terranes.

For the WTBC, a more firm basis of structural, geochemical and geochronological mapping

is necessary, because the WTBC is still in some aspects a geological Terra incognita.

Internally within the WTBC there are still large areas, e.g. within the Senja shear belt and

parts of Kvaløya, where the Neoarchaean and/or Palaeoproterozoic rocks are largely lacking

documentation. For example, the Senja shear belt was proposed as the link between WTBC

and the Fennoscandian shield (Zwaan, 1995), but this has yet to be tested and documented.

Another partially unresolved question is whether some of the metasupracrustal belts within

WTBC represent sutures between Neoarchaean pieces of crust. A better structural

understanding of the supracrustal belts, ideally with some qualitative strain estimations,

reconstruction of the metamorphic history, and geochemical and petrogenetic isotope data

would enable more concrete interpretations regarding this question. For example, to evaluate

any differing geochemical affinities, a similar approach to Connelly and Thrane (2005);

Duebendorfer et al., (2006) could be taken, using common Pb isotopic evidence to define

different terranes.

We note finally, that the recent global effort towards improving Neoarchaean and

Palaeoproterozoic palaeogeographical reconstructions, means that results from the WTBC

are of international interest.

21

22

Presentation of papers

Paper I

Myhre, P.I., Corfu, F., Andresen, A., 2008. Caledonian anatexis of Grenvillian crust: a U/Pb

study of Albert I Land, NW Svalbard. Norwegian Journal of Geology 89, 173-191.

The field work and analyses presented in this paper were carried out during my master

studies at the University of Oslo and the paper was mainly written at the University of

Tromsø. The aim of the paper is to document the metamorphic and plutonic evolution of the

northwestern part of the Svalbard Caledonides in the so-called Albert I Land Terrane, and to

better establish its place in the context of exotic terranes in Svalbard and the North Atlantic

region. The U-Pb results document the presence of Grenvillian (968 ± 5 Ma) and Caledonian

(422 ± 1 and 418 ± 1 Ma) granitoids. Caledonian prograde metamorphism within the

Smeerenburgfjorden Complex was recorded by monazite growth preceding the granitoids by

8-10 Myr. Some evidence from migmatite samples suggest that the protolith sediments were

deposited after c. 1070 Ma. This sequence of events led to the conclusion that Albert I Land

terrane originated on the Laurentian margin along with many of the other Caledonian

terranes found in Svalbard and northern Scandinavia. We propose a two-stage model for the

metamorphic and plutonic evolution of Albert I Land Terrane: during the waning stages of

the Grenvillian / Sveconorwegian orogeny (termed Rigolet phase), Albert I Land terrane

records sedimentation followed by intrusion, volcanism and metamorphism at 980 - 930 Ma,

similar to other terranes in Svalbard and northern Scandinavia and probably at a common

margin with these between Baltica, Laurentia and Gondwana. This was followed, during the

Caledonian orogeny, by another similar tectonic cycle ending with translation, likely in a

strike-slip tectonic regime, to their current tectonic positions in Scandinavia and Svalbard.

Paper II

Myhre, P.I., Corfu, F., Bergh, S., 2011. Palaeoproterozoic (2.0-1.95 Ga) pre-orogenic

supracrustal sequences in the West Troms Basement Complex, North Norway. Precambrian

Research 186, 89-100.

23

The motivation for this paper were results from metagabbro dated by F. Corfu and detrital

zircon studies which had been initiated earlier at UiT and which I then conducted at Nordsim

in 2007, which showed that the two supracrustal belts that hosted the samples had a special

origin. The aim of the paper was to document the geologic setting and geochronology, and

place the supracrustal belts into their proper context of Palaeoproterozoic orogenies in the

North Atlantic region. Essentially, the West Troms Basement Complex consists of

Neoarchaean and Palaeoproterozoic gneisses and granites with supracrustal (greenstone)

belts of varying Neoarchaean and Palaeoproterozoic ages. The Mjelde-Skorelvvatn belt is

made up of deformed supracrustal rocks dominated by mafic metavolcanics including

subvolcanic metagabbro with a crystallisation age dated by zircon at 1992 ± 2 Ma. Psammite

from the base of the Torsnes belt of siliciclastic and overlaying metavolcanic mafic rocks has

a maximum deposition age of 1970 ± 14 Ma, and the absence of younger zircon

distinguishes it from most Svecofennian siliciclastic deposits in Fennoscandia. This lead to

the conclusion that the Torsnes belt is also a distinct pre-orogenic basin but with differences

in detail with respect to the Mjelde-Skorelvvatn belt. These data correlate with a period of

pre-orogenic continental extension and basin formation that is documented in several

locations in Fennoscandia and Laurentia, and the new results from WTBC constitute a small

but important piece of information about the pre-orogenic relationship between the cratons

of the North Atlantic region.

Paper III

Myhre, P.I., Corfu, F., Bergh, S.G., U-Pb geochronology along a Neoarchaean geotransect in

West Troms Basement Complex, North Norway. Manuscript.

This paper reports U-Pb-data from 7 locations within the oldest gneisses in a geotransect

from Ringvassøya via Kvaløya to Senja. Many of the samples were collected and initially

analysed by F. Corfu, and I collected more samples and continued the analyses. These rocks

have a long and complex history and this is reflected in the U-Pb-data. Through careful

investigations of field relationships, characterisation of zircon and combining TIMS, CA-

TIMS and SIMS analytical techniques, the paper presents a detailed account of the

24

Neoarchaean geological evolution of the WTBC. Essentially, including some published data,

the cratonic evolution can be divided in three stages: the oldest rocks are found in the

northeast, on Ringvassøya and Vannøya, and they record formation of a paired tonalite

complex and greenstone belt from 2.92-2.80 Ga. This oldest complex is in contact with

younger Neoarchean rocks along a high-grade shear zone. Although there is also some

evidence of 2.83 Ga rocks in the geotransect to the southwest of the high-grade shear zone in

Ringvassøya, the majority of those rocks record a two-stage (2.75-2.70 and 2.70-2.67 Ga)

magmatic and migmatitic evolution. A swarm of mafic dykes documented in one location in

Kvaløya concluded this event, possibly closely related with granitoid magmatism and

migmatization of earlier rocks. Then, there is some evidence from zircons in two neosomes

of a latest Neoarchaean high-grade event. The documented Neoarchean geotransect can

probably be correlated with rocks in Vesterålen to the southwest, but a definitive correlation

with the Fennoscandian shield rocks in the Norrbotten province cannot be confirmed or

refuted. Instead, various correlative Neoarchaean - Palaeoproterozoic areas in the north

Atlantic region as well as the Fennoscandian shield can be considered.

Paper IV

Bergh, S.G., Kullerud, K., Armitage, P.E.B., Zwaan, K.B., Corfu, F., Ravna, E.J.K., Myhre,

P.I., 2010. Neoarchaean to Svecofennian tectono-magmatic evolution of the West Troms

Basement Complex, North Norway. Norwegian Journal of Geology 90, 21-48.

This paper compiles the results from many years of geological investigations in the WTBC

by many workers and institutions. The scope of the paper is to establish a tectonic

framework for WTBC with special attention to high-strain mylonitic supracrustal belts that

separate Neoarchaean gneisses, and discussing mechanisms for growth and stabilisation of

the crust here. The synthesis builds on a large number of published, unpublished and

preliminary radiometric ages. Many of these U-Pb-ages and the geology they are part of are

presented and further elaborated in detail in papers II and III. The WTBC is made up of

Neoarchaean gneisses with variable protoliths, Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic

25

supracrustal units and dyke swarms and Svecofennian bimodal plutons. The main

conclusions are that the WTBC records Neoarchaean crustal contraction followed by

Palaeoproterozoic rifting and basin formation. Following this, the Svecofennian event

brought about NE-SW-directed contraction, initially expressed as low-angle thrusts, then as

upright folds and as a late phase, sinistral strike-slip movement. A possible orogenic front in

the SW can explain the NE-wards decreasing metamorphic grade.

26

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Figures and table

32

Fig. 1: Concordia diagrams from Whitehouse and Kemp (2010) (left-hand side) and Corfu et al. (1994) (right-hand side) from high-grade rocks from the Scourie area in the Lewisian Complex, northwest Scotland.

Fig. 2: A model for the situation between Laurentia and Baltica leading up to emplacement of the exotic Scandinavian Magerøya nappe and Seve-Kalak superterrane, and the exotic terranes in Svalbard. A strike-slip orogenic model (Cordilleran tectonics) allows for long translations of the terranes into their current positions in Svalbard and northern Scandinavia, and can explain the lack of a suture in the northern Scandinavian nappes. Figure is from Corfu et al 2011.

F . 4. Speculative plate tectonic setting of the Lewisian complex during the Palaeoproterozoic, based on the North Atlanticreconstruction of Buchan et al. (2000). CGC, central Greenland craton; Goth, Gothian belt; Kar, Karelia craton; Ket,Ketilidian belt; Kol, Kola craton; Lap-Kol, Lapland–Kola belt; Lew, Lewisian; NAC, North Atlantic craton; Nag,Nagssugtoqidian belt; NI, north Ireland; NS, north Scotland. (A) Distribution of cratons and orogenic belts during theMesoproterozoic. (B) 2.0 Ga. Subduction and creation of a volcanic arc in oceanic crust between two continental plates (NACand CGC/Kol) followed by accretion of oceanic/arc elements along the leading edge of the NAC. (C) 1.87 Ga. Collision of thetwo continents followed by underthrusting of the CGC/Kol craton beneath the NAC, causing the early Laxfordian deformationand metamorphism. At the same time, collision occurs in the Lapland/Kola belt to the SE caused by collision with the Kareliacraton. Note the NW–SE movement direction. (D) 1.80 Ga. Development of a volcanic arc in oceanic crust SW of theamalgamated continent created in B. (E) 1.75 Ga. Collision between the ‘Malin arc’ and the continent, causing late Laxfordiandeformation, metamorphism and granitic melt formation in the Lewisian complex.

Fig. 3: A model of a possible Palaeoproterozoic cratonic configurations in the North Atlantic region published by Park (2005).

Zircon:Weighted mean 207/206 Pb-age =1780 ± 5 Ma 2s, MSWD = 2.5

1810

1710

1730

1750

1770

1790

206 P

b/23

8 U

~ 0 M

a

2.6 3.4 4.2

0.31

0.19

0.23

0.27

Weighted mean 207/206Pb-age =1780 ± 6 MaMSWD = 0.60

Zircon (pim07-32):

207Pb/235U

2 samples of mafic dyke, Grunnfarnes.

440

Ma

~ 0

Ma

207/206

Titanite, (k04-6):Brown titanite:Upper icpt = 1762 ± 13 Ma,l.i. = 439 ± 49, MSWD = 6,1

Secondary component: Pb-age of 5 analyses:= 1713 ± 2 Ma, MSWD = 0,70

~ 0

Ma

Spherical zircon

0.302

0.310

0.318

0.326

4.5 4.7 4.9

pim07-73: Metabasite from Grøtfjord, Kvaløya

Concordia age = 1791 ± 5 MaMSWD (of concordance) = 0.42

1750

1650

1550

1450

1350

a

zircon

plagioclase

hornblende

zircon

garnet

hornblende

quartz

biot

ite

I

T

P

T

IlmeniteI

100 µm

Titanite

hornblendeGarnet

Quartz

Plagioclase

Grøtfjord

Grunnfarnes

10 km

b

c

d e

f

gi

h

Fig. 4: U-Pb data and sample descriptions for metabasites from the Grøtfjorden and Grunnfarnes. Age calculations and error ellipses are 2 sigma. Scale bars are 100 micrometres. a): U-Pb-TIMS data from metabasite in Grøtfjorden (pim07-73). b): EMP backscattered electrons (BSE) image from sample pim07-32. c): picking scope photo of zircons from pim07-32. d): U-Pb TIMS data from mafic dyke in Grunnfarnes, Senja. e): EMP (BSE) image from sample pim07-32. f): picking scope photo of zircons from pim07-32. g): sketch of metamorphic assemblage from sample k04-6. h): brown titanite with local black inclusions of ilmenite. i): locations of samples (see paper III for legend and map description.

Table 1: U-Pb-TIMS-results

Sample U Th/U 2σ 2σ rho 2σ 2σ Disc.[ppm] [abs] [abs] [abs] [abs] [%]

6.3 64 0.50 9.3 877 4.720 0.023 0.3148 0.0011 0.66 0.10873 0.00040 1765 1771 1778.2 6.8 0.93.4 151 0.48 4.1 2421 4.476 0.025 0.3040 0.0016 0.88 0.10680 0.00028 1711 1727 1745.5 4.8 2.22.9 133 0.60 7.3 1079 4.849 0.049 0.3203 0.0011 0.55 0.10980 0.00096 1791 1794 1796 16 0.33.0 186 0.56 2.8 3920 4.713 0.027 0.3146 0.0013 0.70 0.10867 0.00046 1763 1770 1777.2 7.6 0.94.4 0 2.33 34 15

<1 282 0.09 5.0 1029 4.397 0.021 0.29272 0.00092 0.70 0.10893 0.00036 1655 1712 1781.7 6.2 8.02.0 123 0.09 5.9 803 4.520 0.055 0.3025 0.0025 0.68 0.10839 0.00096 1704 1735 1773 16 4.41.3 119 0.09 7.9 379 4.411 0.078 0.2945 0.0020 0.53 0.1086 0.0016 1664 1714 1777 27 7.2

1 4743 0.0 1.3 52180 3.0454 0.0068 0.22484 0.00044 0.96 0.09823 0.00006 1307 1419 1591 1 203 48 1.8 8.6 312 4.040 0.025 0.2797 0.0010 0.53 0.10478 0.00056 1590 1642 1710 10 8

18 102 2.2 32 969 3.841 0.013 0.26542 0.00064 0.80 0.10497 0.00021 1517 1601 1714 4 13184/s.18 tit [30] 120 65 2.4 243 548 3.851 0.014 0.26602 0.00056 0.60 0.10498 0.00032 1521 1603 1714 6 13184/s.17 tit [30] 138 102 1.8 266 885 3.776 0.011 0.26136 0.00053 0.76 0.10479 0.00020 1497 1588 1711 4 14

10 131 1.5 22 788 2.7852 0.0095 0.20272 0.00046 0.72 0.09965 0.00024 1190 1352 1618 4 2912 73 1.4 30 380 2.671 0.014 0.19745 0.00049 0.48 0.09812 0.00046 1162 1321 1589 9 2924 2.7 1.2 62 23 1.14 0.32 0.1208 0.0046 0.01 0.068 0.020 735 770 873 >100.00756835937517

U-Pb Isotopic Ratios f

Wt.2 Pbc4 206Pb5 207Pb6 206Pb6 207Pb6 207Pb6 206Pb6 207Pb6

mineral description1 [ug] calc. [pg] 204Pb 235U 238U 206Pb 235U 238U 206PbPIM07-73: Metabasite from Grøtfjorden on Kvaløya UTM: [33N 636083 7746462]6

A: pink, round na [10]H: pink, round, small na [10]F: pink, round na [10]G: pink, round, small na [10]I:clear tit fragments na [5]pim07-32: Mafic dyke from Grunnfarnes on Senja. UTM: [33N 575675 7689041]6

B: colorless round na [7]C: small colourless round na [8]E: small pinkish round na [7]K-04-6 Mafic dyke from Grunnfarnes on Senja UTM: [33N 57567x 768904x]7

106/54 z eu tip [1]197/s.13 tit small cl anh na [6] 197/s.7 tit fr br abr [5]

197/s.5 tit fr br abr [1]197/s.10 tit br polycryst na [1] 197/s.12 tit cl polycryst na [4]

1 : eu = euhedral, an = anhedral, clr = clear, incl. = inclusion, a =air abrasion, na = not abraded, [1]= no. of grains, frgt = fragment, tit: titanite, br = brown2 : Weight is known to within 10 %. 3 : Th/U is modelled based on measured 208/206 Pb-ratio and 207/206Pb-age. 4 : Pbc = total common Pb in sample (initial + blank)5 : Corrected for fractionation.6 : Corrected for fractionation, blank, spike and initial Pb.7 : Approximate coordinates of sample location, 8 : Sample location from GPS with a few metres uncertainty

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