UNIT 6: TOWARD A NEW WORLD-VIEW

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

List factors that led to the development of theNewtonian worldview.

Explain how the Newtonian worldview differedfrom the medieval worldview.

Discuss how the Newtonian worldview affectedsociety, religion, the economy, and politics.society, religion, the economy, and politics.

Understand the connection between theNewtonian worldview and Enlightenmentthinking about religion, culture and politicalsystems.

Understand the concept of EnlightenedAbsolutism and discuss specific examples.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

The scientific revolution of theseventeenth century was the majorcause of the change in worldviewand one of the key developments inand one of the key developments inthe evolution of Western society.Only the West developed modern science; historians

disagree as to how important to its rise was to nonscientificeconomic, religious, and social factors.

Scientific thought in the early1500s

European ideas about the universewere based on Aristotelian medievalideas.Central to this view was the belief in a motionless

earth fixed at the center of the universe.Around the earth moved ten crystal spheres, and

beyond the spheres was heaven.

Aristotle's scheme suited Christianitybecause it positioned human beings atthe center of the universe andestablished a home for God.Science in this period was primarily abranch of theology.

THE UNIVERSE ACCORDING TOARISTOTLE

The Copernican hypothesis

Copernicus, a Polish clergymanand astronomer, claimed that theearth revolved around the sunand that the sun was the centerand that the sun was the centerof the universe.This heliocentric theory was adeparture from medieval thoughtand created doubts abouttraditional Christianity.

NICOLAUS COPERNICUS

From Brahe to GalileoBrahe set the stage for the modernstudy of astronomy by building anobservatory and collecting data.His assistant, Kepler, formulatedthree laws of planetary motion thatproved the precise relationshipsamong planets in a sun-centereduniverse.universe.Galileo discovered the laws of motion(including the law of inertia) using theexperimental method--the cornerstoneof modern science.He also applied the experimental method to astronomy,

using the newly invented telescope.Galileo was tried by the Inquisition for heresy in 1633

and forced to recant his views presented in Dialogue onthe Two Chief Systems of the World.

THE EXPERIMENTAL (SCIENTIFIC)METHOD

GALILEO GALILEI

THANK GOODNESS IT’S OVER!

Isaac Newton's SynthesisIn his famous book, Principia(1687), Newton integrated theastronomy of Copernicus andKepler with the physics ofGalileo.Galileo.He formulated a set of mathematical laws to explain

motion and mechanics.The key feature in his synthesis was the law of universal

gravitation.

Henceforth, the universe could beexplained through mathematics.

SIR ISAAC NEWTON

Causes of the ScientificRevolution

The scientific revolution was theproduct of individual genius--suchas Newton building on the works ofCopernicus and others.Also, medieval universitiesAlso, medieval universitiesprovided the framework for the newscience.The Renaissance stimulated scienceby rediscovering ancientmathematics and supportingscientific investigations.

CAUSES OF THE SCIENTIFICREVOLUTION…CON’T

The navigational problems of sea voyagesgenerated scientific research and newinstruments.

Better ways of obtaining knowledge aboutthe world improved scientific methods.Bacon advocated empirical, experimental research.Bacon advocated empirical, experimental research.Descartes stressed mathematics and deductive

reasoning along with a unique perspective of allmatter (Cartesian Dualism).

The modern scientific method is based on a synthesisof Bacon's inductive experimentalism and Descartes'deductive mathematical rationalism.

After about 1630 (the Counter-Reformation),the Catholic church discouraged sciencewhile Protestantism tended to be "pro-science."

MARINER’S ASTROLABE

NEW SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

Some Consequences of theScientific Revolution

A scientific community emerged whoseprimary goal was the expansion ofknowledge.A modern scientific method arose thatwas both theoretical and experimentalwas both theoretical and experimentaland refused to base its conclusions ontradition and established sources.Because the link between pure scienceand applied technology was weak, thescientific revolution had little effect ondaily life before the nineteenth century.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

The Enlightenment was an intellectualand cultural movement that tiedtogether certain key ideas and was thelink between the scientific revolutionand a new worldview; these ideas were:and a new worldview; these ideas were:Natural science and reason can explain all aspects of

life through rational, critical, and scientific thought(Rationalism).

The scientific method can explain the laws of humansociety.

Progress--the creation of better societies and betterpeople--is possible.

The Emergence of theEnlightenment

Many writers made scientific thoughtunderstandable to a large nonscientificaudience.de Fontenelle stressed the idea of progress.He was also cynical about organized religion and

absolute religious truth.

Skeptics such as Bayle concluded thatnothing can be known beyond all doubtnothing can be known beyond all doubtand stressed open-mindedness.

The growth of world travel led Europeansto look at truth and morality in relative,not absolute, terms.

In his Essay Concerning HumanUnderstanding, Locke insisted that allideas are derived from experience--thehuman mind at birth is like a blanktablet (tabula rasa).

The Philosophes and the PublicThe Philosophes broughtEnlightenment ideas to theignorant people and brought theEnlightenment to its highest stageof development in France.of development in France. The French language was the international language of the

educated classes of Europe, and France was Europe's wealthieststate.

Intellectual freedom was possible in France, in contrast toeastern Europe.

The Philosophes were committed to bringing new thinking tothe public, but not necessarily the masses.

In their plays, histories, novels, dictionaries, and encyclopedias,they used satire and double meanings to spread their messagesto the public.

MONTESQUIEU AND VOLTAIRE

Montesquieu's theory of the separationof powers was extremely influential.The parlements of Paris were anexample.Voltaire challenged traditional Catholictheology and exhibited a characteristictheology and exhibited a characteristicphilosophe belief in a distant God wholet human affairs take their own course.He opposed legal injustice and unequal treatment before

the law.He was influenced by his longtime companion, Madame

du Châtelet, who was a scientist but who wasdiscriminated against because of her sex.

He was skeptical of social and economic equality; hehated religious intolerance.

OTHER WRITERS CONTRIBUTEDDiderot and d'Alembert edited the

Encyclopedia, which examined all of humanknowledge and attempted to teach peoplehow to think critically and rationally.

The later Enlightenment writers built rigidand dogmatic systems.and dogmatic systems.Paul D'Hobach argued that humans were completely

controlled by outside forces.David Hume argued that the mind is nothing but a

bundle of impressions that originate in senseexperiences.

J. J. Rousseau attacked rationalism and civilization; heclaimed that children must develop naturally andspontaneously, and in The Social Contract argued that

the general will of the people is sacred and absolute.

Urban Culture and PublicOpinion

The cultural transformation brought on bythe Enlightenment was related to a growthin the market for books.Most of the new buyers of books came from the middle

classes, the clergy, and the aristocracy; a tenfold increasein books resulted.

Publishing in the fields of art and science grew the most;a majority of the new books came from publishers outsideof France, largely the Netherlands and Switzerland.

Underground literature (Illegal Book Trade) inpornography was of concern to the state because much ofit centered on aristocratic immorality.

All of this resulted in a new emphasis on individual andprivate reading (a "reading revolution"); some, likeImmanuel Kant, argued that freedom of the presswould bring an enlightened age.

THE SALON SOCIETY

Enlightenment ideas--includingnew ideas about women's rights--were spread in the salons ofupper-class women.upper-class women.The salons were often presided over by women.Madame Geoffrin's salon was famous; she was the

unofficial godmother of the Encyclopedia.These salons seemed to have functioned as informal

"schools" for women.

SALON DE MADAMEGEOFFRIN

THE ENLIGHTENMENT ANDABSOLUTISM

Many Philosophes believed that"enlightened" reform would comeby way of "enlightened" monarchs.The Philosophes believed that a benevolentThe Philosophes believed that a benevolent

absolutism offered the best chance for improvingsociety.

The rulers seemed to seek the Philosophes' advice.The Philosophes distrusted the masses and believed

that change had to come from above.

ABSOLUTISM IN CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPETHE MOST INFLUENTIAL OF THE NEW STYLEMONARCHS WERE IN PRUSSIA, RUSSIA, AND AUSTRIA.

Frederick the Great of PrussiaFrederick II used the War of the Austrian

Succession (1740-1748) to expand Prussia into agreat power by seizing Silesia.

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) saw anattempt by Maria Theresa, with the help ofFrance and Russia, to regain Silesia, but itFrance and Russia, to regain Silesia, but itfailed.

Frederick allowed religious freedom andpromoted education, legal reform, and economicgrowth but allowed the Junker nobility to keepthe middle-class from power in government.Frederick allowed the repression of Prussian Jews--who

were confined to overcrowded ghettos.

FREDERICKII (“THE GREAT”) OF PRUSSIA

Catherine the Great of RussiaCatherine II imported Westernculture to Russia, supported thePhilosophes, and began a programof domestic reform.The Pugachev uprising in 1773 ledThe Pugachev uprising in 1773 ledher to reverse the trend towardreform of serfdom and give noblesabsolute control of their serfs.She engaged in a policy ofterritorial expansion and, withPrussia and Austria, carved upPoland.

CATHERINE THE GREAT OFRUSSIA

The Austrian HabsburgsMaria Theresa of Austria introducedreforms that limited church power,revised the tax system and thebureaucracy, and reduced the power ofthe lords over the serfs.the lords over the serfs.Her successor, Joseph II, was adedicated reformer who abolishedserfdom, taxed all equally, and grantedreligious freedom.Because of opposition from both thenobles and the peasants, Joseph'sreforms were short-lived.

MARIA THERESA AND JOSEPH II

Absolutism in FranceSome philosophes, such as Voltaire,believed that the monarchy was thebest system, while some of thearistocracy sought to limit theking's power.king's power.Favored by the duke of Orléans,who governed as a regent until1723, the French nobility regainedmuch of the power it had lost underLouis XIV.The Parlement of Paris won two decisive victories

against taxation. It then asserted that the king could not levy taxes

without its consent.

LOUIS XVUnder Louis XV the French ministerMaupeou began the restoration ofroyal absolutism by abolishing theParlement of Paris.Louis XVI reinstated the oldParlement and the country driftedtoward renewed financial and politicalcrises.

LOUIS XV

The Overall Influence of theEnlightenment

In France, the rise of judicial andaristocratic opposition combined withliberalism put absolutism on thedefensive.In eastern Europe, the results ofIn eastern Europe, the results ofenlightened absolutism were modestand absolutism remained strong.By combining state building with theculture and critical thinking of theEnlightenment, absolute monarchssucceeded in expanding the role of thestate in the life of society.

NEXT: UNIT7…AGE OF REVOLUTIONS