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TYPES OF NOUNS

NOUN -

Noun. A noun is person, place, thing, idea, quality, or action. Used most commonly as the subject or

object of a sentence but occasionally as a modifier.

Person Sam, mom, doctor, Mr. Jones, teacher

Place city, Omaha, mall, school, street

Thing pencil, book, table, science, kingdom

Idea realism, democracy, conviction

Quality radiance, baldness, beauty, resilience

Action admission, judgment, defiance,

The first three are the most commonly taught, but the last three often throw students off when identifying

parts of a sentence. Common Noun endings for those parts of speech are the following:

-acy, -dom, -iance, -ience, -ion, -ism, -ist, -ment, -ness

Collective Noun. A Noun that refers to a group of things but functions as a singular Noun.

Though the word “herd” refers to multiple elephants, the Verb conjugates in the singular form.

Example: The herd of elephants is stampeding

This type of Noun is tested to highlight Subject/Verb agreement and uses a phrase with a plural Noun to

confuse the reader as to which Noun is the subject.

Collective Nouns

army

committee

class

jury

Plural Noun. A Noun that refers to more than one thing and conjugates the Verb in the plural form.

Regular Nouns are made plural by simply adding an “s.” Be aware of irregular plural Nouns.

-f or -fe -ves

knife knives

loaf loaves

-o -oes

potato potatoes

volcano volcanoes

-us -i

cactus cacti

nucleus nuclei

-is -es

analysis analyses

thesis theses

-on -a

phenomenon phenomena

criterion criteria

Odd ball

plurals

woman women

tooth teeth

person people

mouse mice

Both singular

and plural

sheep

moose

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SUBJECTIVE CASE -

Subject Noun. The Noun does the action or is receiving the condition.

In a diagram, the Subject and Verb go on a horizontal line called the “base line” with a vertical line

separating them.

Subject doing Subject receiving

Subject Verb Subject Linking Verb

Example: The teacher collected the papers. Example: Popsicles taste great on a hot day.

Teacher collected Popsicles taste

Predicate Noun. A Noun that provides a description of the Subject after a Linking Verb. Predicate

Nouns are separated from the Linking Verb by a diagonal line that stops at the base line.

Example: She is my teacher.

“teacher” is a Noun that describes Who “she is”

The Predicate Noun is technically in the subjective case because it is describing the subject Noun. This

distinction would only been needed when determining the Pronoun needed to replace the Predicate Noun.

Example: I am he. though the example sounds wrong, it is grammatically correct.


OBJECTIVE CASE -

Objective Noun. The Noun receives the action or links with a Preposition or Participle

Direct Object. A Noun as a Direct Object receives the action of the Verb, while the subject is doing the

action. In a diagram, a Direct Object is separated from the Verb with a Vertical line that stops at the base

line.

It can be found by stating the Subject and the Verb followed by “Who?” or “What?”

Subject Verb Direct Object

Example: Tommy threw the ball with his father.

Tommy threw What? – Tommy threw the ball

Object of the Preposition. A Noun in relation to another Noun and is bound with a preposition. This can

be found by stating the preposition and the question “Who?” or “What?” In a diagram, Objects of the

Preposition are on a flat line the come off of a Preposition dangler.

Prepositional Phrase Example: Johnny gave the assignments to Mary.


Object of the preposition

Indirect Object. Shows a similar relationship, but it is found by stating the subject and Verb and the

question “to whom?” or “for whom?” An Indirect Object would replace a prepositional phrase that

provides the same detail. In a diagram, Indirect Objects diagram just like a Prepositional Phrase just

without the preposition.

Indirect Object Example: Johnny gave Mary the assignments.


Indirect Object


MODIFIER NOUN -

Adjectival Noun. A Noun can modify another Noun similar to an Adjective. This can also be understood

as a compound Noun. Noun Adjectives hang from the base line at a 45 angle under its modified word.

Subject Verb

The last word in the chain will be the Noun and the preceding Nouns will be Adjectives.

Example: The government research program was underfunded.

Noun as an Adjective Noun as an Adjective Noun

program

research program

government research program

Possessives. Possessives also function as Adjectives. They modify a Noun and answer the adjectival

question of “whose?”. Possessives are marked with an Apostrophe.

Singular Possessive Nouns simply add ‘s to the end of the word.

Plural Possessive Nouns ending in “s” are made plural by adding an ‘ after the “s.”

Plural Possessive Nouns NOT ending in “s” are made plural by adding ‘s to the end of

the word.

Singular Nouns Plural Nouns w/ “s” Plural Nouns w/o “s”

Michael’s

student’s

house’s

boss’s

girls'

companies’

babies’

volcanoes’

people's

women’s

children’s

teeth’s

Study Tip: “ its ” is the possessive form of the pronoun “it.” The word “ it’s ” is the contraction

“it is.” A common WRONG answer its’ which is NOT a word.


TYPES OF PRONOUNS

PROUNOUNS -

Pronoun. a word used in place of a Noun or Noun Phrase that has been previously mentioned in the

sentence or understood in the context. They can function in all of the same ways as a Noun.

The Antecedent is the previously mentioned or understood Noun that the Pronoun is replacing.

Pronouns must have a clear antecedent that you can put your finger on. If there are too many Nouns that

could be the antecedent, then the Noun must be restated.

WRONG Example: Lucy tried to call her grandmother. Sadly, her phone was dead.

o It is unclear whether “her” is referring to Lucy or her grandmother.

CORRECT Example: Lucy tried to call her grandmother. Sadly, Lucy’s phone was

dead.

New paragraphs CANNOT start with a Pronoun. Even if the antecedent seems clear, Pronouns cannot

refer to an antecedent in a previous paragraph.

In a diagram, Pronouns can be anything a Noun can: Subject, Predicate Noun, Direct Object, Object of

the Preposition, and even an Adjective.

PERSONAL PRONOUN –

A word that is associated to a particular Noun. It must agree with that Noun in Person (1st, 2nd, 3rd),

Gender, Number, and Objective or Subjective Case.

Person. Person depends on the voice used by the author. Informal essays will use any type of pronoun

while formal essays use only third person pronouns.

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

I, me, we, us, my,

mine, our, ours

you, your, yours he, she, it, they, him, her,

them, his, hers, their, theirs, its

Person is tested for consistency in the author’s tone. If an author writes a passage in a formal third person

voice, an answer choice will NOT shift into 1st or 2nd person. Formal essays will only contain 3rd person.

However, if an author uses 1st or 2nd person Pronouns in the passage, it may allow for an informal answer

choice.

Pronoun Verb Subject Linking Verb Pronoun Subject Verb Pronoun

Subject Verb

Pronoun

Subject Verb


Gender. There are three Pronoun gender types: male, female, and neuter.

Male Female Neuter

he, him, his she, her, hers it, they, them, their, theirs, its

The Gender of the Pronoun MUST agreement with the antecedent. Male and female people must have

matching Pronouns. Animals, though they have a gender, will use a neuter Pronoun.

Groups of the same gender, mixed gender, and objects will all receive the plural neuter Pronouns.

Example: The boys liked to play sports. They especially like to play them with their

friends

Number. Singular Nouns take singular Pronouns. Plural OR a group of singular Nouns take a plural

Pronoun.

Singular Plural

First Person I, me, my, mine we, us, our, ours

Third Person he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its they, them, their, theirs

The Number of the Pronoun must agree with the antecedent. One subject will take a singular Pronoun.

Example: Juan went to the park. He went there yesterday.

Multiple subjects joined with an “and” take a plural Pronoun.

Example: Juan and Diego went to the park. They went there yesterday.

o The author CANNOT refer to one of the boys by saying “he” without confusing

the reader.

Though rare, if the subject antecedents are mixed gendered, an author CAN use a singular Pronoun to

refer to one of them.

Example: Juan and Stephanie went to the park. She went yesterday.

Case. Pronouns change depending on the Subjective or Objective case.

Subjective Objective

First Person I, we me, us

Second Person you you

Third Person he, she, it, they him, her, it, them

Test compounds by eliminating the other Nouns and only say the Pronoun.

Example: John and I took a ride on a roller coaster. I took a ride on a roller coaster.

Example: Becky honored Jason and me. Becky honored me.


REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS –

Reflexive Pronoun. The antecedent of a reflexive pronoun is the Subject of the sentence or clause.

Singular Reflexives Plural Reflexives

myself, herself, himself, yourself, itself ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Reflexives are only used to show that the Subject performed an action to or for that same subject. Though

it can clarify, it is primarily used for emphasis.

WRONG Example: I bought the hat for me.

CORRECT Example: I bought the hat for myself.

Reflexive pronouns are NOT punctuated as inserts.

WRONG Example: I, myself, enjoy playing baseball.

CORRECT Example: I myself enjoy playing baseball.

POSSESSIVES -

Possessive Pronouns. Possessive Pronouns function as an Adjective or a Predicate Adjective and show

ownership. Possessives must agree in gender and number with the antecedent and have the correct

possessive form: adjective or predicate adjective.

Adjectives Predicate Adjectives

my, your, its, her, his, their, our mine, yours, its, hers, his, theirs, ours

Adjectival Possessive Pronoun. Possessives must agree in gender and number with the antecedent.

Possessive Pronouns, like possessive Nouns, function like adjectives and are before the noun they modify.

Example: His jacket was draped over her shoulder.

Possessive Predicate Adjectives. If the possessive comes after a Linking Verb, then the Pronoun takes the

Predicate Adjective form.

Example: The jacket is mine, but the hat is hers.


This is a complete chart of all of the Personal Pronouns and their overlapping categories.

Singular

Subjective Possessive Objective

Predicate

Possessive Reflexive

1st Person I my me mine myself

2nd Person you your your yours yourself

3rd Person he, she, it his, her, its him, her, it his, hers, its himself, herself, itself

Plural

Subjective Possessive Objective

Predicate

Possessive Reflexive

1st Person we our us ours ourselves

2nd Person you your you yours yourselves

3rd Person they their them theirs themselves

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS -

An Indefinite Pronoun relates to a vague or unclear Noun. These pronouns are often tested for agreement

with the Verb. The Indefinite Pronoun will be the subject and then be followed by a Prepositional Phrase

to confuse the Verb conjugation.

Example: Many in the class are respectful.

Example: One of the soldiers is honored.

Singular Indefinite Pronouns. All of the following Pronouns take the singular Verb (even if they

reference a group like “everyone”). The mnemonic device that is commonly used is “A-NOSE”

Singular Indefinite Pronoun

A another, anybody, anyone, anything

N neither, nobody, no one, nothing

O one, other

S somebody, someone, something

E each, either, everybody, everyone, everything

Plus* much, whoever, whichever, whatever

*some words have to spoil the nice acronym

All of these Pronouns can be used in the following phrase: “__________ is”


Plural Indefinite Pronouns. All of the following Pronouns take the plural Verb

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

few, both, many, others, several

All of these Pronouns can be used in the following phrase: “__________ are”

Singular/Plural Indefinite. All of the following Pronouns take the singular or plural Verb depending on

the context of the sentence. Be sure to find the antecedent.

Either Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns

all, any, enough, more, most, none, plenty, some

Example: All is well “All” references to a single occasion or time.

Example: All are sick “All” references many people.

WARNING: Many Indefinite Pronouns can also be used as adjectives.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS -

Relative Pronouns. A Pronoun that “relates” a dependent claus to the sentence.

Relative Pronouns

that, which, who, whom, whose, what

Relative Pronouns create Relative Clauses. The Relative Pronoun must follow closely to the noun it is

replacing. Otherwise the antecedent could be confused. These Pronouns allow clauses to flow together

without sounding redundant.

Example: I saw the balloon. The balloon soared overheard. I saw the balloon that

soared overhead

The word “that” replaces the words “the balloon”

which is why the dotted line connects them.


DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS -

Demonstrative Pronouns. A Pronoun that points to a specific thing. Demonstrative Pronouns must fully

replace the Noun. Do NOT confuse this with demonstrative adjectives.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Singular Plural

this, that these, those

THIS is a Pronoun

THIS sentence has an Adjective.

INERROGATIVE PRONOUNS -

Interrogative Pronouns. A Pronoun that helps ask a questions.

Interrogative Pronouns

Subject Object

Person who whom

Thing what

Person/Thing which

Possessive whose

Though the Interrogative Pronoun comes first in the sentence, it can replace a Subjective Noun or an

Objective Noun. To know which one, simply answer the question the Pronoun created.

Example: Who called this morning? Grandma called this morning.

Example: Whom do you want? I want the doctor.

Study Tip: To clearly indicate the objective form, the ACT will only test “whom” as an object of a

preposition. ONLY pick whom if the answer contains a preposition such as “to whom” or “for

whom.”

NEVER pick “whom” by itself.


TYPES OF VERBS

VERBS -

Verbs. Verbs express an action or a state of being. Subject/Verb agreement is a very common question on

the ACT. Identifying the proper Primary Verb is ABSOLUTELY necessary.

Verbs must agree in number with the Subject of the sentence.

Nouns become PLURAL by adding an ‘”s.” Verbs become SINGULAR by adding an “s.”

Verbs must also agree with the tense of the surrounding sentences.

Tense Singular Plural

Past Simple He walked They walked

Perfect He had walked They had walked

Present Simple He walks They walk

Perfect He has walked They have walked

Future Simple He will walk They will walk

Perfect He will have walked They will have walked

ACTION VERB -

Action Verbs. Describes a behavior or an action.

Intransitive Verb. An Intransitive Verb is identified by an Action Verb without a Noun receiving that

action. Prepositional phrases and Adverbs do not receive any action and are therefore NOT Direct

Objects

Subject Intransitive Verb

Example: Tommy played.

Example: She ate before school.


Transitive Verb. A Transitive Verb is identified by an Action Verb and a Direct Object. Direct Objects

are found by saying the Subject and the Verb followed by the question “What?”

.

Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object

Example: Tommy played baseball.

Example: She ate a muffin before school.

LINKING VERBS –

Linking Verbs. Words that describe a state of being (meaning a description of the subject follows the

Verb)

The following is a list of common Linking Verbs.

Common Linking Verbs

Forms of the Verb “to be” am, are, is, was, were, be

Sensory Verbs feel, look, smell, sound, taste

Other Common Linking Verbs appear, become, get, grow, remain, stay

WARNING: Some Linking Verbs can function as Action Verbs.

A Linking Verb is followed by a Predicate Adjective or a Predicate Noun. Predicate Adjectives and

Predicate Nouns describe the subject of the sentence.

Subject Linking Verb Predicate (Noun/Adjective)

Example: The flowers smell beautiful “beautiful” describes the flowers.

Example: My mother is a piano teacher. “teacher” describes mother

Difficult Example: Though the test was stressful, Audrey remained calm.

o Within the Introductory Subordinate Clause, ”stressful” describes the test, while in

the independent clause, “calm” describes Audrey.


VERB/SUBJECT AGREEMENT-

Some sentences have the Subject AFTER the Verb, and those must still agree in number.

There Here

Singular There is… Here is…

Plural There are… Here are…

Example: There is a book on the table.

o “Book” is the subject and makes the verb “is” singular.

Example: Here are your books.

o “Books” is the subject and makes the verb “are” plural.

This means that “there” and “here” are both Adverbs to the Linking Verb. It would be the same as saying

“A book is there on the table” or “Your books are here.” They would diagram the same regardless of the

placement of the Pronoun. Other Examples are used in creative writing. Often this starts with a

Prepositional Phrase followed by a Verb.

Example: Under the warm sun are beautiful flowers.

o “Under the warm sun” is a prepositional phrase, which can only be a Modifier,

not a Subject

o “flowers” is the subject of the sentence with “are” as the verb.


VERB PHRASES CONSTRUCTION -

Helping Verbs. Many helping verbs can stand alone as action or linking verbs. However, when paired

with a participle, they become helping (auxiliary) verbs.

Helping Verbs

Forms of the Verb “be” am, are, is, was, were, be, being, been

Forms of the Verb “have” have, has, had

Forms of the Verb “do” do, does, did

Forms of the Verb “can” can, could, would, should

Forms of the Verb “may” may, must, might

Forms of the Verb “will” will, shall

Verb Contractions. Contraction Combine the Subject and the Verb together using an apostrophe.

Verb Contractions

am are will would had have

‘m ‘re ‘ll ‘d ‘d ‘ve

Study Tip: ALWAYS pronounces both the Subject and the Verb of a contraction.

Common Contraction Errors Contraction Correction

its = possessive it’s = it is

your = possessive of “you” you're = you are

that's = incorrectly used as the

possessive for “that.” Correct form is

“their”

that's = that is

should of -- would of -- could of

= NEVER grammatically correct

should've = should have

would’ve = would have

could’ve = could have

Pronouncing the contraction prevents redundant or conflicting Helping Verbs

Example: They should’ve had done their chores. ‘ve and had are Helping Verbs with

conflicting tenses.

The toughest and most common contraction question is its versus it’s. Remember this memory devise:

Look at me! IT ‘ S an apostrophe!

But who can see, ITS apostrophe?

Study Tip: NEVER pick its’ or thats. They are not words in the English language.


PARTICIPIALS -

Participial Verb. Helping verb phrases will mostly use the Past Participial conjugation. The only

exception is the Continuous tense discussed later. Though a Participle looks like a full verb, it only

indicates the action and NOT the tense.

ALL Verbs have two elements: Tense and Action

Simple Past: He traveled “traveled” shows the tense (past) and the action (to

travel)

Perfect Tense (Helping Verb with a Past Participle) splits those two elements.

Tense Verb Action Verb

Helping Verb Participle

Present Perfect: He has traveled “has” is the tense (present). “traveled” is the action.

Past Perfect: They were told “were” is the tense (past) while “told” is the action.

The Helping Verb and the Action Verb are diagrammed together and is considered the

Verb Phrase


The following is a list of common Irregular Past Participles.

Irregular Past Participles

Present Simple Past Past Participle

awake awoke awoken

is, are was, were been

become became become

begin began begun

blow blew blown

break broke broken

bring brought brought* not broughten

choose chose chosen

come came come

do, does did done

drink drank drunk

drive drove driven

eat ate eaten

fly flew flown

forbid forbade or forbad forbidden or forbade

forget forgot forgotten

freeze froze frozen

give gave given

go went gone

hide hid hidden

know knew known

lay laid laid

lie lay lain

ride rode ridden

rise rose risen

run ran run

see saw seen

sing sang sung

sink sank sunk

speak spoke spoken

steal stole stolen

swim swam swum

take took taken

tear tore torn

throw threw thrown

wear wore worn

write wrote written


VERB PHRASE TENSE –

Agreement. A Verb Phrase is a combination of Helping Verb(s) and a Past or Present Participle to form a

single action and tense. When creating a Verb Phrase, the TENSE and NUMBER are determined by the

Helping Verb and NOT the Participle.

Singular: She was walking to the mall

Plural: They were walking to the mall.

Past: She was walking to the mall.

Present: She is walking to the mall.

Singular Helping Verbs Plural Helping Verbs

am, is, was, has, does are, were, have, do

To determine the tense, all Modifiers between the Helping Verb and the Participle need to be omitted.

Otherwise, the participle may be mistaken for the Primary Verb.

Example: She has, with some prompting from her coach, walked to the mall.

o On the ACT, they would likely underline “coach, walked” and give you “walks”

as two of the answer choice, one with and the other without the comma. This is

to confuse Action Verbs and Verb Phrases.

Perfect Tense. Many have difficulty with the Perfect tense. In English grammar, “Perfect” means

“Past.”

Have/Had + Past Participle = Perfect Tense

This means that the action happened prior to (or in the past from) another action

Using “I run” Definition

Past Perfect I had run. Running took place prior to another past event.

Present Perfect I have run. Running took place prior to right now. More

immediate than simple past.

Future Perfect I will have run.

I would have run.

Running will take place prior to a future event

Running will take place prior to a future event

but it is conditional upon something else.

The difference between a Simple and Perfect tense is the relationship between the action and another

event. In the case of Present Perfect, that other event is the present moment.

Example: Logan ran a mile today. Simple Past Tense

Example: Logan has run a mile today. Present Perfect Tense

o Grammatically, the past tense is a vague time in the past and could be referring to

hours ago. Even though the Adverb identifies “today,” it is unclear whether it

was recent or hours ago.


Continuous Tense. The Continuous Tense is formed with “to be” and a Present Participle. Present

Participles are verbs ending in “ing.” The continuous tense can be in the Past, Present, or Future

Continuous. The Continuous Tense generally refers to a specific time or event being between another or

paralleled to it. This can often be called an interruption.

Tense Format Example Meaning

Past

Continuous

was/were +

Present

Participle

I was taking a test last period. The period was interrupted by

the test.

I was taking a test when the

principal called me to the office

The test was interrupted by

the principal

Present

Continuous

am/is/are +

Present

Participle

I am studying for the test. Now, the present moment, is

between the studying.

I am studying to be a lawyer.

This “now” is longer,

referring to years rather than

the moment

Future

Continuous

will be +

Present

Participle

I will be taking a test tomorrow Tomorrow will be interrupted

by the test

I will be taking a test while you are

enjoying your summer vacation.

Those two events will parallel

one another in the future.

Perfect Continuous Tense. The Perfect Continuous Tense is forming with “to have” plus the word

“been” and a Present Participle ending in “ing.” The Perfect Continuous Tense can also be in the Past,

Present, or Future. In this case, the tense specifies an event starting in the past and ending prior to another

event in the Past, Present, or Future.

Tense Format Example Meaning

Past

Perfect

Continuous

had been +

Present

Participle

I had been studying for the test, so I

earned a good score.

Studying happened up to and

ended at the test in the past

Present

Perfect

Continuous

have/has been +

Present

participle

I have been taking a test. Taking the test ended at the

present moment.

Future

Perfect

Continuous

will have been

+ Present

Participle

I will ace the test because I will have

been studying for days now.

Studying happened in the

past, is continuing in the

present and will end before a

future test.


PARTICIPLES -

Participles. Participles and participial phrases function as Adjectives and modify Nouns or Pronouns.

They can be identified because they lack a Helping Verb. Participial Adjectives can be conjugated in the

present with an “ing” or in the past with and “ed.” Irregular past tense participles use the same irregular

chart.

Participles look like Action Verbs, but they are providing detail about the Noun. It typically answers

“what kind” or “which one” from the list of Adjectival Questions.

Example: The barking dog bit the postman.

o “barking” is not the action of the dog. Instead, the dog’s action was biting the

postman. “barking” instead is describing the dog

Example: That dog is annoying.

o In this example, annoying is the present participle of the verb “to annoy.”

GERUNDS -

Gerunds. Verbs that function as a Noun Subject or Object. Gerunds are ALWAYS Present Participles:

“-ing” verbs. Gerunds refer to an activity as a thing (Noun). Therefore, you can determine if a Gerund is

used by replacing the Gerund with the word “something.” Be careful not to confuse Gerunds and

Participles!

Gerund Example: Jeremy likes swimming.

o Jeremy likes “something.” Swimming is the Noun Object of the sentence.

Participle Example: Jeremy likes his swimming coach.

o What kind of coach was she? Swimming describes the coach.

This can be tricky during the test because Gerunds are ALWAYS singular.

Example: Jogging is a great exercise.

The action “jogging” is the subject of the sentence.

Note that “jogging” uses the singular verb “is.”


PASSIVE VOICE -

Passive Voice. Indicated that the subject of the sentence is NOT doing the action.

[Thing receiving action] + [form of to be] + [past participle] + [by] + [thing doing action]

Example: Wanda is loved by Damon.

o [Wanda] + [is] + [loved] + [by] + [Damon]

This format does have a place in Standard English grammar. It can emphasize the recipient of the action:

Example: The teacher was respected by her students.

o In the sentence the students were doing the action of respecting; however, the

teacher is emphasized by the passive voice.

Passive Voice can allow for a sentence with an unknown subject.

Example: Mistakes were made on the test.

o Who made the mistake? We don’t know. The subject(s) that made the mistakes

are unspoken. That is why this passive sentence is missing the last two elements:

[by] + [thing doing the action].

Study Tip: If given the choice between an Active Voice and a Passive Voice on the ACT, ALWAYS

choose the active voice. This is because passive voice has the inherent flaw of being too wordy.

Conciseness (being to the point) is a key rhetorical question on the test. Also, most of your English

teachers will mark your paper as grammatically incorrect because passive voice is not accepted in

formal writing.


TYPES OF MODIFIERS

MODIFIERS –

Modifiers. a word or phrase that provides extra detail to a sentence. Modifiers are non-essential

grammatical parts of a sentence. HOWEVER, omitting a Modifier may change the MEANING.

Example: This is not red. “not” is the modifier

o Omitting “not” wouldn’t affect the grammatical structure, but it does affect the

meaning.

Beginning with a root sentence, it can be seen that the basic structure of Subject, Verb, Direct Object

doesn’t change with the addition of Modifiers.

Root Sentence: I spotted the store.

Adjective Modifier: I spotted the candy store.

Adverb Modifier: I quickly spotted the candy store.

Prepositional Phrase Modifier: I quickly spotted the candy store down the street.

Participial Phrase Modifier: Walking to school, I quickly spotted the candy store down

the street.

Appositive Phrase Modifier: Walking to school, I, a candy aficionado, quickly spotted

the candy store down the street.

Diagrams emphasize this idea by placing modifiers below the base line. Most Modifiers will dangle

under the word it modifies depending on the type of Modifier it is.

Omitting all of the modifiers takes the sentence back to the root on the baseline of the diagram. For this

reason, modifiers do not affect the Subject/Verb agreement because Modifiers can be omitted. This

omission skill can be useful when determining the subject/verb agreement

Example: Behind the hill the modern airport for the business executives is ready to receive

new clients.


TYPES OF ADJECTIVES

ADJECTIVES -

Adjective. A word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. Adjectives will answer the questions of what kind,

which one, how many, and whose. Common adjectival endings are as followed:

-al, -an, -ern, -ese, -ful, -ian, -iant, -ient, -ious, -ish, -ive

Adjectives have do have an order. Often it can be ordered by listening to your ear.

Determiners

Number/

Degree Observation Size/shape

Age/

Temp. Shape Color Origin Material Qualifier

Articles,

possessives,

indefinite

pronouns, or

demonstrative

pronouns

Numbers,

order, or

comparatives

or

superlatives

Adjectives

of

subjective

measure:

opinions

Adjectives

of mostly

objective

measure

Numeric

or

generic

Shape Color Typically a

Nationality

What is

it made

of

Often

nouns as

adjectives

or

participles

the, that,

both, john’s

two, last,

greatest

real, cool,

interesting

huge, tiny young,

mature,

dry

round,

sharp

red,

black

American,

Italian

wooden,

wicker

hard back,

fishing

the First nice large new oval dark American plastic lawn

chair*

The ACT will NOT test on adjective order mainly because there are so many exceptions to this rule.

However, knowing the order will help with adjective punctuation, which is commonly tested.

NEVER PUT A COMMA BEFORE THE TERMINAL NOUN!

WRONG Example: I want to sell my ragged, worn-out, sweater.

CORRECT Example: I want to sell my ragged, worn-out sweater.

If the Adjectives can be switched, then they MUST have a comma to separate them. They can be

switched because they are in the same category of Adjective.

Example: The flowery, fluffy dress. Both are “observation” Adjectives

Example: The fluffy, flowery dress. Both sentences have the same meaning.

If the Adjectives can NOT be switched without changing the meaning, then there is NO comma.

Example: I ate the last red popsicle. Determiner, number, color is the proper order.

Example: I ate the red last popsicle. This ordering doesn’t make sense.

Adjectives DO NOT require a Conjunction when in a list of three of more, although it is acceptable to do

either.

Example: The magnificent, delicious, sweet smell of the pastry fill my nose.

o “and” could go between delicious and sweet, but it is not required.


In a diagram, an Adjective hangs under the Noun or Pronoun horizontal line at 45° slant. This “dangling”

indicates that the words can be removed from the baseline sentence without affecting the grammatical

structure. However, a diagram cannot tell you the adjective order or whether a comma is necessary.

TYPES OF AJECTIVES

Articles. Articles are “a,” “an,” and “the.” Articles are sometimes considered their own part of speech

because they are a required sentence component, which means it is not technically a modifier. However,

they answer adjectival questions. “A” and “an” answers how many. “The” answers which one. Articles

function as adjective because they specify the noun.

Example: How many pens? I want a pen.

Example: Which book? I want the book.

Articles will NEVER have a comma after it. One reason is because it is essential. Another reason is

because a sentence cannot have two determiners and the comma rule is only for adjective in the same

category.

Example: The strong, oppressive heat beat down on us.

o A sentence can only have one determiner and therefore would not combine in an

Adjective list.

Possessives. Possessive nouns and pronouns show ownership. Possessives answer the adjectival question

of “whose.”

Example: I borrowed Liam’s book. whose book?

Example: I borrowed his book. whose book?

Possessives are NEVER the subject of the sentence since they dangle under the noun it modifies

Example: Liam’s friends later borrow the book.

o This makes the Subject “friends” and NOT Liam. This is significant because it

affects the conjugation of the Verb. Because “friends” is plural, the verb is the

plural verb “borrow.”


Indefinite Adjectives. Many of the Indefinite Pronouns can function as Adjectives if they modify another

Noun. Adding an Indefinite Adjective to a sentence adds a vague numeric value, answering “How

Many?”

Indefinite Adjectives

any, each, few, many, most, several, some

Pronoun Example: Many are going on the school trip.

Adjective Example: Many juniors are going on the school trip.

Pronoun Adjective

Demonstrative Adjectives. Demonstrative Adjectives indicate something(s) that is/are on hand or in

proximity. Demonstratives answer the question of “which one.”

Demonstrative Adjectives

this, that, these, those

Make a distinction between Demonstrative Adjectives and Demonstrative Pronouns

Pronoun Example: I would like a sample of those.

Adjective Example: I would like a sample of those cheeses.

o “Those” modifies the word “cheeses.”

Pronoun Adjective


Comparative and Superlatives. Comparatives show a degree between two nouns. Standard comparative

Adjectives end with “er.” Superlatives show a degree among three or more nouns. Standard superlative

Adjectives end with “est”

Comparative Examples: taller, smaller, prettier

Superlative Examples: tallest, smallest, prettiest

Most multi-syllabic Adjectives are made comparative with the Adverb “more” and superlative with

Adverb “most.” Adverbs diagram by slanting off of the dangling adjective.

Example: She is the most intelligent person

Two syllable word ending with “y” or “le” typically take the “er” or “est” ending.

Example: pretty, gentle

Example: prettiest, gentler

Some words violate these rules and are called idiomatic (expression by native speakers).

Example: This is the most fun I have ever had.

There are a few irregular comparative and superlative Adjectives

Irregular Comparative and Superlatives

Adjective Comparatives Superlatives

good better best

bad worse worst

little less least

much/many more most

far *distance farther farthest

far *progress further furthest

old *age order elder eldest

Irregular Example: Bill is the better soccer player.

Irregular Example: Mr. Hoy’s class is worse than Mrs. Stone’s.


Predicate Adjective. A Predicate Adjective provides a description of the subject after a linking verb.

Example: The boy is tall. “tall” describes the boy

Example: The ice cream tastes creamy. “creamy” describes the ice cream.

Predicate Adjectives are not considered modifiers because they are required in the grammatical structure

of the sentence. They are in their own group called “Subject Complements.”

Participial Adjective. Participial Adjective are Verbs that describe a subject. They are Present or Past

Participles and end in “ing” or “ed.” Participles answer the Adjectival Questions “what kind” or “which

one.”

Example: The barking dog bit the postman.

o “barking” is not the action of the dog. Instead, the dog’s action was biting the

postman. “barking” instead is describing the dog


TYPES OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS -

Adverb. A word that modifies adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. Just remember how to split the word

to remember what Adverbs modify. Adverbs answer the questions: how, when, where, to what extent,

why.

Ad verb - Adverb

Adj. Verb .

Adverbs may have been taught by category: manner, time, place, degree, purpose

Adverb/category Example

how/manner The teacher graded the tests slowly.

when/time I often saw him in the coffee shop.

where/place Becca went there to get some help.

to what extend/degree We took the test very fast

in what way/purpose * We went home to celebrate our high score.

*Adverbial Phrases answer this question

Diagramming Adverbs depends on what word is being modified. Adverbs modifying a Verb will dangle

just like an Adjective. Adverbs that modify Adjective or other Adverbs hang off of the word in a zig-zag

format.

Adverbs are unique because they can be placed in many parts of the sentence. The mobile nature does not

affect the diagram. The Adverb still modifies “ran.”

Example: Quickly, Steven ran the marathon.

Example: Steven quickly ran the marathon.

Example: Steven ran the marathon quickly.

Adverbs are NOT a part of the Verb Phrase. They often separate Helping Verbs from the Participle,

therefore creating confusion in the subject verb agreement.

Example: They have not very quickly run to the market.

o The tense is in the present due to the Helping Verb

“have."

Adverbs typically are known as “ly” words.

o Example: quick-ly, slow-ly, careful-ly

Subject Verb Phrase


Irregular Adverbs. Many Adverbs don’t have an “ly” ending

Common Adverbs without “ly”

almost long still

already more there

always never today

Back next tomorrow

Even not too

Far now well

Fast often when

Hard quite yesterday

Here soon yet

Some of the Adverbs without “ly” also act as other parts of speech. You must know what part of speech

is being modified or what Adverbial question is answered.

Example: The fast car went down the track. Adjective (what kind of car)

Example: The car went fast down the track. Adverb (how it went)

Adjective Adverb

Comparative and Superlatives. Adverbs ending in “ly,” like Adjectives, can take the comparative or

superlative form by adding more or most.

Example: I will examine the test more carefully.

Example: John’s score was most notably the highest in the class.


TYPES OF PHRASES

PHRASES -

Phrases. A group of related words that does NOT include a Subject and a Verb together. If it does

contain both a Subject and a Verb it is considered a Clause.

Predicate. A Predicate is considered to be everything in the Clause that is AFTER the subject. This

includes the Verb Phrase, Direct or Indirect Objects, and all Modifying words and phrases after the

subject. This is not a detachable modifying phrase, like many other phrases, but it is modifying the

subject of the sentence. It is necessary to have this term when later using Conjunctions.

Example: Slumping out of bed, Jacob went to work after a bad night’s rest.

In a diagram, the line the goes through the baseline, indicate the division between the subject and the

predicate.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES -

Prepositions. Prepositions indicate a relationship between a Noun and another word in a sentence by

creating a Prepositional Phrase.

Here is a list of common Prepositions:

Single Word Prepositions 2-word Prep. 3-word Prep.

about despite over according to by means of

above down past along with in addition to

across during regarding apart from in back of

after except round as for in case of

against for since because of in front of

along from through except for in place of

among in throughout out of in spite of

around inside till up to instead of

as into to on top of

at like toward

before near under

behind next underneath

below of unlike

beneath off until

beside on up

between onto upon

beyond out within

by outside without


Prepositions ALWAYS begin Prepositional Phrases. To complete the phrase it MUST have an object

called the Object of the Preposition. The Object of the Preposition (OP) can be found in a long phrase

with many modifiers by saying the preposition and asking “what.”

Preposition + Optional Modifiers + Object of the Preposition = Prepositional Phrase

Prepositional phrases can function as an Adjective or an Adverb. They can even modify other

Prepositional Phrases. Prepositional Phrases hang under the word they modify with the Preposition on

the slanted line and the Object of the Preposition on a connected horizontal line. Any words or phrases

that modify the Object of the Preposition will hang under it.

Example: The house at the end of the winding street sits beside a spooky graveyard.

o at what? = at the end

o of what? = of the street long and winding are Adjectives modifying the OP

o beside what? = beside a graveyard. spooky is an adjective modifying the OP

Many prepositions are orienting the time or place. So, think of Preppy the squirrel. “Preppy the squirrel

goes __(preposition)___ the tree.”

Prepositional Phrases mostly function as Adjectives or Adverbs by answering the Adjectival question

“which one” and the Adverbial questions “when” and “where.”

Example: The store down the street is having a sale. which store? - down the street

in

on

around

under

through


Study tip: Objects of the prepositions are never the subjects of the sentence!

A very common question on the ACT is subject/verb agreement. To make this a more difficult question,

the ACT will frequently insert prepositional phrases with objects that are opposite in number from the

subject. Since it is a modifier, Prepositional Phrases can also be deleted without effecting the

grammatical structure sentence.

Example: In the front of the cabinet the cups for our special guest [ is/are ] dirty.

o “in,” “of,” and “for” are all starting prepositional phrases.

o Therefore, the sentence root is “the cups are dirty.”

NEVER put a comma in a prepositional phrase unless the objects are a list of three or more.

WRONG Example: Nancy wanted to visit with, her aunts.

CORRECT Example: Nancy wanted to visit with her aunts, uncles, and grandparents.

Prepositional Phrases are NEVER considered inserts so they will not have comma separating them from

the rest of the sentence. However, commas may be placed around a Prepositional Phrase if those commas

serve another purpose.

WRONG Example: The house, over the hill, is newly refurbished.

CORRECT Example: Uncle Romero, the greatest uncle on earth, visited me.

o The comma after the phrase is the end of an inserted Appositive Phrase.

CORRECT Example: I like to run on grass, in the mud, and down hills.

o The commas separate items in a list and do NOT indicate an insert.

Avoid ending a sentence with a Preposition. The ACT will NOT test you on this skill because it is not a

100% rule. The ACT only asks questions with answers that are 100% correct. Many times a sentence

can be reworded to avoid ending with a Preposition, but it is something to look out for (!).


PARTICIPIAL PHRASE -

Participial Phrase. Participial Phrases ONLY function as Adjectives and modify Nouns or Pronouns.

They can be conjugated in the present with an “ing” or in the past with and “ed.” Irregular past tense

Participles use the same irregular Participle chart found in the Verbs section. A Participial is still a

Verbal, so it can take a Direct Object and/or Modifier(s).

(Past or Present) Participle as an Adjective + Object(s) / Modifier(s) = Participial Phrase

Example: Loudly answering his phone, Steven annoyed the movie theater patrons.

o “phone” is the Direct Object of the Participle “answering” and “Loudly” is the

Adverb.

o “Answering the phone” is describing Steve. His actual action is “annoying

patrons.”

Introductory Participial Phrases are ALWAYS followed by a comma!

CORRECT Example: Jumping on her bed, Jenna twisted her ankle

Introductory Participial Phrases must ALWAYS be followed by the Noun they modify.

WRONG Example: Jumping on her bed, Jenna’s ankle was twisted.

o The ankle isn’t jumping, Jenna is!


GERUND PHRASE -

Gerund Phrase. Gerund Phrases can do anything that a Noun can do. They can function as Subjects or

Objects. Gerund Phrases are not Modifiers since they can NEVER be omitted. A Gerund is a Present

Participial Verb ending in “ing” that functions as a Noun. Gerund Phrases begin with a Gerund and also

take a Direct Object and/or Modifier(s). A Gerund is diagrammed as a stair step that is propped up on a

stand to show a Verb standing in a Noun’s position.

Present Participle as a Noun + Object(s) / Modifier(s) = Gerund Phrase

Example: Studying for the ACT can be a difficult task.

o The Gerund Phrase “Studying for the ACT” is the Subject of the sentence

because that is the difficult task.

Be careful not to confuse a Participial Phrase and a Gerund Phrase

Participle Example: Skiing down the slopes, I thoroughly enjoyed my vacation.

Gerund Example: I thoroughly enjoyed skiing down the slopes.

o Note how the Gerund Phrase is followed by the primary verb and the Participial

Phrase is followed by the Noun it modifies.

Participle Gerund


INFINITIVE PHRASES -

Infinitives. Infinitives function as a Noun, Adjective, and an Adverb, anything BUT a Verb. No matter

the tense of the sentence, the infinitive does not conjugate.

To + Simple Verb = Infinitive form

Example: to run, to walk, to sing, to be, etc.

Example: I like to run.

o “to run” is the infinitive used as a Direct Object because it answers “what” I like.

An Infinitive Phrase takes a Direct Object and/or Modifier(s).

To + Simple Verb + Modifier(s) / Object(s) = Infinitive Phrase

Example: I like to run with the wind in my hair.

o “with wind in my hair” is a Prepositional Phrase modifying the Infinitive “to

run.”

Example: I like to drink iced tea after running.

o “ tea” is the Direct Object of the Infinitive “to drink.”

o “after running” is a Prepositional Phrase modifying “to drink.”


Infinitive phrase, as stated before, can be Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs.

Noun Example: I like to eat a lot of food. “to eat” is the Direct Object

Adjective Example: I always bring snacks to eat. “to eat” is describing the snacks

Adverb Example: You must eat quietly to watch the movie. “to watch” explains

why you must eat

quietly.

Noun (Direct Object) Adjective Adverb

If an Infinitive Phrase is functioning as a Noun, like a Gerund, it CANNOT be omitted from the sentence

without affecting the grammatical structure. Other infinites can be omitted. In many foreign languages,

unconjugated verbs have their own word (ie: hablar) and are then conjugated to match the person of the

noun (ie: hablo, hablas…). English doesn’t have this feature.

Example: I am able to speak English. Yo puedo hablar Inglés.

NEVER split the infinite:

WRONG Example: I want to quickly eat my food.

CORRECT Example: I want to eat my food quickly.


APPOSITIVE PHRASE -

Appositive Phrase. An Appositive Phrase is a Noun or Noun Phrase that renames or explains a Noun

right beside it. The Appositive Phrase MUST be right beside the Noun it is modifying. Appositives

diagram on the line of the Noun it modifies inside parentheses. Any Modifiers of the Appositive dangle

under it.

Appositive Example: I wrote a report on Thomas Edison, the inventor of the light bulb.

Appositive Phrase Example: My Halloween candy, chocolate from my neighbors, has

given me a tooth ache.

The Appositive Phrase DOES NOT change the Verb conjugation. Like other modifiers, it can be omitted

from the sentence without changing the grammatical structure. Appositives and Appositive Phrases can

be in the beginning, middle, or end of the sentence and require punctuation on both sides no matter what

the placement. Those punctuation marks may be any of the following combinations:

. appositive, , appositive, or , appositive.

Beginning Example: A local firefighter, Alex rescued a cat out of a silver maple.

Middle Example: Alex, a local firefighter, rescued a cat out of a silver maple.

End Example: Alex rescued a cat out of a silver maple, the tallest tree in Nebraska.

Don’t be confused on Nouns as Adjectives and Appositives!

Appositive Example: A local firefighter, Alex Rodriguez, rescued a cat.

Adjective Example: Local firefighter Alex Rodriguez rescued a cat.

o The words “local firefighter” became Adjectives modifying Alex. “Firefighter”

cannot be the subject because the terminal Noun is Alex Rodrigues. Without the

Adjective, the sentence still makes sense.

Appositive Adjective


TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS

CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions. A word that join other words, phrases, or clauses together.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Coordinating Conjunction. A word that provides equal emphasis of the words, phrases, or clauses. To

help remember all of the Coordinating Conjunctions and what they do, just try and remember that these

BOYS are FANs of equality.

F A N B O Y S

for and nor but or yet so

Note that the Coordinating Conjunction “for” and many of the Subordinating Conjunctions can also be

found on the list of Prepositions. Understanding whether a word is a Preposition or a Conjunctions is

significant because they are punctuated differently. The Preposition will only have a Noun (OP) attached,

while a Subordinating Conjunction will have a Noun (subject) and a Verb.

Joining Words. When joining two words together, the Coordinating Conjunction is simply placed before

the final listed word. The words joined should be the same part of speech: Subjects, Objects, Adjectives,

or Adverbs. In diagramming, Coordinating Conjunctions split the joined words into a bracket with the

Conjunction written horizontally on a dotted line.

Subject Example: Jordan and I can eat with chopsticks.

Object Example: I can eat rice with a fork or chopsticks.

Adjective Example: I can eat sticky and normal rice with chopsticks.

Adverb Example: I can quickly and easily eat rice with chopsticks.

Subject Object

Adjective Adverb


Not having the same part of speech joined would lack a Rhetorical skill called Parallelism.

When joining three or more words together, the Coordinating Conjunction is placed before the final word

in the list and MUST have a comma preceding it. Watch out for list that have a two-word pair as a list

item.

Example: My ideal breakfast would be milk, toast, eggs and bacon, and a muffin.

o Note that the word pair of “eggs and bacon” does not have a comma. This is

because it is a two-word pair and is considered merely the third item in the list.

Joining Phrases. When joining two or more Phrases together, the Coordinating Conjunction is again

placed before the final listed Phrase. The Phrases joined should be the same type of Phrase: Preposition,

Gerund, Predicate, Infinitive, or Participial.

Example: Jane likes games in the park yet hates picnics. Two Predicate Phrases

o As in this example, if two Predicate Phrases are joined, ALL Verbs must agree with

the subject.

When joining three of more words together, the Coordinating Conjunction is placed before the final word

in the list and MUST have a comma preceding it. Phrases that have internal commas are joined by semi-

colons “;” to create clarity on listed phrases.

Example: I enjoy climbing mountains, but not too steep; swimming in lakes, except for

polluted ones; and riding my motorcycle across the country.

Joining Clauses. Coordinating Conjunctions are the only words what can combine two independent

Clauses WITHOUT a period “ . ” or a semi-colon “ ; ”. A Coordinating Conjunction joining two

Independent Clauses MUST have a comma before it. This makes a distinction between two joined

Phrases and two joined Clauses. In diagramming, Coordinating Conjunctions are on a horizontal line and

connected to each Independent Clause with a dotted line.

Example: My favorite ice cream is Rocky Road, for it has chocolate, nuts, and

marshmallow.


Verb Agreement. Two subjects combined with and or both … and use the plural verb form.

Example: The students and the teacher learn about each other throughout the year.

o Even though the subject before the Verb was singular, the “and” makes the

subject (and therefore the verb) plural.

Two nouns that function as single subject use the singular verb form.

Example: Eggs and bacon is the breakfast of champions.

o Eggs and bacon is commonly considered a compound item. This means that the

verb conjugates in the singular form.

Two Subjects combined with an or, either ... or, neither ... nor, or not only ... but also use the Verb form

that agrees with the Subject nearest the Verb.

Example: Your homework or your tests make up the majority of your grade.

o “Tests” is a plural Subject and is closest to the Verb.

Example: Your tests or your homework makes up the majority of your grade.

o “Homework” is a singular subject and is closest to the verb.

Rhetorical Relationships. Coordinating Conjunctions are NOT interchangeable. Each one shows a

different relationship and it a useful skill for rhetorical questions.

Meaning Example

for

Illative

Shows an idea that is implied due

to another idea

Juan was no longer hungry, for he made a sandwich.

and Additive

Adds more to what is already there. Juan like peanut butter and banana sandwiches.

nor Alternative

Provides a replacement.

Juan doesn’t hate nor love ham sandwiches. He will

only tolerate them.

but

Contrastive

Shows something that clashes or is

opposite.

Juan wants a sandwich but no chips.

or Alternative

Provides a replacement. Juan wants a peanut butter or meatball sandwich.

yet

Contrastive

Shows something that clashes or is

opposite.

Juan is for hungry a sandwich, yet he is too tired to

make one.

so

Illative

Shows an idea that is implied due

to another idea.

Juan was full, so he stopped eating his sandwich.


CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS -

Correlative Conjunctions. A two word conjunctions that to do not appear next to each other is called a

Correlative.

Common Correlative Conjunctions Less Common Correlative Conjunctions

both ... and as ... as

either ... or just as … so

neither ... nor no sooner ... than

not … but rather ... than

not only ... but also so … as

whether ... or

the more … the less/more

Correlative Conjunctions combine to equal grammatical terms and indicate a relationship between the

items In diagramming, both Correlative Conjunctions would appear on the same line that separates the

joined words, Phrases or Clauses.

Adjective Example: I would like a car that is either red or blue.

Subject Example: Both Stephanie and Gina play tennis.

Predicate Example: Tom either plays baseball or track.

Clause Example: No sooner had my mother pulled to the driveway than my dad pulled

in right behind her.

Verb Agreement. Correlative Conjunctions (except for both…and) that join two Subjects use the Verb

form that agrees with the Subject nearest the Verb.

Example: Not only cats but also my dog always lands on its feet.

Example: Not only my dog but also cats always land on their feet.

Also, if two nouns are joined by a Correlative Conjunction, then future pronouns must agree with the

nearest antecedent.

Note in the previous example that the pronouns “its” agrees with “dog” and “their”

agrees with “cats.”


CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB -

Conjunctive Adverbs. An adverb that connects two Independent Clauses. Conjunctive Adverbs show a

relationship between one Clause and its previous the Clause

Conjunctive Adverbs

accordingly contrarily in addition moreover still

additionally conversely in comparison namely subsequently

again elsewhere in contrast nevertheless that is

almost equally in fact next then

anyway finally incidentally nonetheless thereafter

as a result further indeed notably therefore

besides furthermore instead now thus

certainly hence just as otherwise undoubtedly

comparatively henceforth likewise rather uniquely

consequently however meanwhile similarly

The relationship that can be shown are: continuation, for example, contrast, sequence of events, or

cause/effect. Conjunctive Adverbs are still Adverbs, so they dangle under the Verb in the Clause they

modify.

Example: Sheryl enjoys swimming. Instead, I enjoy hiking. Contrast

Example: I studied for the test; therefore, I earned an A+. Cause/effect

o Note how “therefore” dangles under “earned”

Conjunctive Adverbs MUST have punctuation on both sides. At the beginning of a sentence a

Conjunctive Adverb will have a period preceding it and a comma after it.

. Conjunctive Adverb ,

Example: Jeff went to go to the arcade. Meanwhile, Eric had fun at the amusement

park.


In the middle of a sentence a Conjunctive Adverb will have commas on both sides

, Conjunctive Adverb ,

Example: Jeff broke most of the high scores at the arcade. He is, henceforth, known as

the Master of the Arcade.

This rule is NOT absolute. Some sentences will have the Conjunctive Adverb with no commas. If the

sentence following was indirectly connected to the preceding sentence.

Example: I spilled juice on my shirt. It ruined my night indeed.

o The juice didn’t directly ruin the night. It was the embarrassment of having a

wet stain.

o The ACT will not test you on have no commas or having two properly placed

commas.

At the end of a sentence a conjunctive adverb will have a comma preceding it and a period at the end.

, Conjunctive Adverb .

Example: Eric had fun at the amusement park. He didn’t win any prizes, however.

A Conjunctive Adverb can join two independent Clauses. However, it is not as good at it as a

Coordinating Conjunction because it needs more than a comma. It MUST have a semi-colon before the

Conjunctive Adverb and a comma after it.

; Conjunctive Adverb ,

Example: Eric is actually the better video game player; as a result, Eric went to the

arcade the next week to beat Jeff’s scores.


TYPES OF CLAUSES

CLAUSES –

Clauses. A Clause contains a Subject and a Verb.

Independent Clauses. Clauses that express a complete thought and can stand alone as a complete

sentence are Independent Clauses. EVERY sentence needs at least one Independent Clause.

Simple Example: Anthony ran away.

Moderate Example: Fearing the outcome, Anthony ran away.

Hard Example: Anthony, who hasn’t exercised in years, ran away.

Sentences are made more complex by attaching Phrases or Dependent Clauses to them. The moderate

and hard example demonstrate this point.

Sentences are made into compound sentence by attaching two independent Clauses together with a

coordinating conjunction

Example: Anthony ran away, but he was caught

DEPENDENT CLAUSES -

Dependent Clause. A Dependent Clause has a Subject and a Verb but does NOT express a complete

thought. Therefore, a Dependent Clause is NOT a complete Sentence. A Subordinate Conjunction or a

Relative Pronoun

Subordinate Conjunction: Joins together an Independent Clause and a Dependent Clause.

Common Subordinate Conjunctions Two Word

Subordinates

Three Word

Subordinates

after now until as if as long as

although once when as though as much as

as since whenever even if as soon as

because than where even though in order that

before that wherever now that

how though whether so that

if unless while

Adding a Subordinate to the beginning of a Clause automatically makes it a Dependent Clause.

Independent Clause Example: I like your idea.

Dependent Clause Example: Although I like your idea


Dependent Clauses must be attached to an Independent Clause to make a complete sentence. To

distinguish a Subordinate from a Coordinate Conjunction, the Subordinates are slanted on a dotted line

and connects the two Clauses.

Complete Sentence Example: Although I like your idea, I will go with mine.

Dependent Clauses cannot stand alone and MUST be connected to an Independent Clause. There is no

acronym for memorizing the Subordinates, but if you say the phrase by itself, it should sound like an

unfinished statement.

Example: Since I can’t go to the dance.

o This should make you feel like there is something more that is unsaid.

Complete Sentence Example: Since I can’t go to the dance, I will study for the ACT.

Many elementary teachers say never to start a sentence with “because.” This is grammatically WRONG.

You CAN start a sentence with “because” if you attach it to an Independent Clause. Assuming the

Independent Clause can only happen in dialogue and is NEVER acceptable in formal writing or on the

ACT. Punctuating Subordinate Conjunctions can be difficult.

WRONG Example: Because I am sun burnt.

CORRECT Example: Because I am sun burnt, I can’t go outside today.

o Often in spoken English we will respond to questions starting with Dependent

Clauses because the Independent Clause is assumed.

Example: Q: Why can’t you go outside today?

A: Because I am sun burnt

If a sentence begins with a Subordinate Conjunction, a comma MUST come right before the start of the

Independent Clause it is attached to.

Example: Until you ask me nicely, I will not share my Halloween candy with you.


No matter how complex the Dependent Clause or how many other punctuation marks there are,

ALWAYS precede the Independent Clause with a comma

Example: While I sit here staring at the beautiful sunset, admiring the glory that is it nature,

and reflecting on the meaning of life, I know I should be doing my homework.

o There were three long Gerund Phrases making the Dependent Clause seem complete.

Don’t let length fool you. Omit additive phrases and find the Independent Clause.

However, if a Subordinate Clause comes AFTER the Independent Clause then NEVER put a comma after it.

RELATIVE CLAUSES –

Relative Pronouns. A word that begins a Relative Pronoun Clauses which function a Dependent Clause.

Relative Pronouns will replace the preceding Noun. The entire Clause will function as an Adjective and

answer the questions “what kind?”, “which one?”, and “how many?”

Relative Pronouns

that, which, who, whom, whose, what, when, where

Relative Pronouns are followed by the Verb in the Dependent Clause. In a diagram, the Relative Pronoun

is the Subject, Object, or Modifier of the Subordinate Clause and is connected to the independent Clause

with a dotted line.

Relative Pronoun + Verb = Relative Clause

Relative Pronoun Example: who called earlier Note that this is NOT a question.

Sentence Example: Jeff, who called earlier, wanted to wish you good luck.


Relative Pronouns can also act like a Subordinate Conjunction and join a Dependent and Independent

Clause.

Relative Pronoun + Subject + Verb = Relative Clause

Relative Pronoun Example: that Anthony enjoyed

Sentence Example: That is the restaurant that Anthony enjoyed.

*Note that this example has the relative pronoun as the Object.

Relative Pronoun Example: which Adam found interesting

Sentence Example: The lecture, which Adam found interesting, was taught by Dr. Feng

*Note that “which” this example of an Interrogative Adverb

Relative pronouns are tested for their complicated comma rules.

Restrictive = the Clause is needed in the sentence. Restrictive clauses follow a vague or generic Noun

and the Relative Clause adds needed detail. NO COMMA for NEED details.

Example: All students who complete this course should see an improvement on their

score.

Example: This is the class that got me my perfect 36.

Non-restrictive = the Clause is NOT needed in the sentence (add-on Clause). Non-restrictive clauses

follow a specific Noun and adds unneeded detail to the sentence. Commas MUST separate the

UNNEEDED phrase.

Example: John Marshall, who was a track star, broke the school record.

Example: This class, which helped me get my perfect 36, will be offered again.

Study Tip: Never put punctuation before the word “that.” It will always be ESSENTAIL.


Relative pronouns are also tested for proper use with people or things. “Who” and “that” refer to people

while “that” and “which” refer to things.

WRONG Example: I visited my grandmother which makes me cookies

CORRECT Example: I visited my grandmother who makes me cookies.

Verbs that follow Relative Pronouns conjugate based on the antecedent of the Relative Pronoun.

Example: John Marshall, who was a track star, broke the school record.

o “John Marshall” is singular and the Pronoun uses the singular verb “was.”

Example: All students who complete this course should see an improvement on their

score.

o “Students” is plural and the Pronoun uses the plural verb “complete.”


TRANSITIONAL WORDS –

Transitional words. Transitional words show a relationship between clauses. They show continuation,

for example, contrast, sequence of events, or cause/effect.

Example: Sheryl enjoys swimming. Instead, I enjoy hiking. Contrast

Example: I studied for the test; therefore, I earned an A+. Cause/effect

The following is a list of Transitional Words and their corresponding category.

Category Meaning Interchangeable Words

AND Continuing the

Same Thought.

and also as well either

essentially furthermore in addition to in other words

likewise moreover or same

similarly

FOR

EXAMPLE

Introducing an

Example of the

Previous

Statement.

as as if for example for instance

indeed in fact just as like

such as to illustrate

BUT Making a

Contrast.

although all the same besides but

compared to despite even so even though

except however in contrast in spite of

instead neither nevertheless nonetheless

nor not on the one hand on the other hand

otherwise regardless still though

whereas while yet

BECAUSE

Showing

Cause and

Effect.

accordingly as a result as proof because

because of by means of consequently due to

for for this reason hence in response to

on account of since so so that

then therefore thus

Conditional: if unless whether

SEQUENTIAL Showing

Order.

after afterward at last at once

before beginning earlier eventually

finally first in conclusion initially

later meanwhile next now

originally previously so far sometimes

sooner start then when


TYPES OF PUNCTUATION

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation Marks. Punctuation marks make words, phrases, clauses, and the intent of the author clearer.

Tested Punctuation

Period Comma Semi-Colon Colon Dash Apostrophe

. , ; : - ‘

APOSTROPHES

Apostrophes. Punctuation that indicate possession, contraction, or missing letters.

Possessives. Possessives also function as Adjectives. They modify a Noun and answer the adjectival

question of “whose?”. Possessives are marked with an Apostrophe.

Singular Possessive Nouns simply add ‘s to the end of the word.

Plural Possessive Nouns ending in “s” are made plural by adding an ‘ after the “s.”

Plural Possessive Nouns NOT ending in “s” are made plural by adding ‘s to the end of

the word.

Singular Nouns Plural Nouns w/ “s” Plural Nouns w/o “s”

student’s girls' people's

Contractions. Contraction Combine the Subject and the Verb together using an apostrophe.

Verb Contractions

am are will would had have

‘m ‘re ‘ll ‘d ‘d ‘ve


COMBINING SENTENCES

Two Independent Claues (two complete sentences) can be combines in three ways: a period, a semi-

colon, and a comma plus a Coordinating Conjunction.

Sentence. Sentence Sentence; Sentence Sentence, conj. Sentence

Coordinating Conjunctions:

On the ACT, the three options are interchangeable. Though technically sentences can only combine with

a semi-colon or a comma conjunction if they are interrelated, they do NOT test on this skill because it is

not a 100% rule.

Period Example: John saw the alien. Mary missed it.

Semi-Colon Example: John saw the alien; Mary missed it.

o Though the ACT does not test on capitalization, do not capitalize the word after

the semi-colon unless it is a proper noun.

o You can test the semi-colon by replacing it with the word “and.”

Comma Conjunction Example: John saw the alien, but Mary missed it.

Because those three can all combine two Independent Clauses, they are equal answer choices. Therefore,

if ALL of the words and punctuation marks are the same and the only difference are these three marks,

then they are ALL WRONG.

Although it is not entirely an interchangeable option, a colon can join two independent clause. If the

colon can logically be replaced with the word “because,” it is grammatically acceptable.

Colon Example: I don’t compete in competitive eating contests anymore: I gained too

much weight.

WARNING: One comma is not enough to join two sentences. It must be a comma and a FANBOYS.

LISTED ITEMS

Commas. A Comma can separate three or more items in a series. Three or more words or phrases in a

list REQUIRE commas separating each item with a Coordinating Conjunctions before the terminal (last)

list item. The “Oxford Comma” is the comma before Coordinating Conjunction. The ACT requires the

Oxford comma.

Example: I enjoy baseball, football, and soccer.

If there are only two items in the list, there is no need for a comma.

2 Item Example: My favorite classes are English and gym.

3 Item Example: I have to send out an email, organize my desk, and call tech support.

F A N B O Y S

O

R

N

D

O

R

U

T

R

E

T

O


Commas are NOT required with a series of Adjectives unless the Adjectives are interchangeable

Example: I don’t want to drink that pungent, potent cup of coffee.

Example: I don’t want to drink that potent, pungent cup of coffee.

o If you can insert “and” between the Adjectives and it still makes sense, then they

are likely interchangeable and REQUIRE a comma.

Example: I would like a caffeine-free strawberry green tea.

o No commas are used because the items CANNOT be interchanged

“I would like a green strawberry caffeine-free tea,” doesn’t make sense.

NEVER put a comma between the final Adjective and the Noun.

Semi-Colon Comas. Listed phrases can have a comma within them. To avoid comma confusion, list items

are separated with semi-colons. In this instance, the list separating commas would be replaced with a semi-

colon, including the comma before the coordinating conjunction. Let’s call it the “Oxford Semi-Colon.”

Punctuation must also be consistent. If the list is separated with semi-colons the sentence must continue

using semi-colons. The same is true is the list is initially started with commas.

Example: I enjoy reading for English class, especially poetry; completing math

worksheets, except for geometry; and winning dodge ball in gym class.

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB

Conjunctive Adverbs MUST have punctuation on both sides. See the Conjunction chapter for a complete

list of Conjunctive Adverbs. Common Conjunctive Adverbs: also, finally, furthermore, however, instead,

moreover, nevertheless, still, therefore, thus. Conjunctive Adverbs can be in many locations in a

sentence.

. Conjunctive Adverb, ; Conjunctive Adverb, , Conjunctive Adverb, , Conjunctive Adverb.

Beginning Example: Shawn is in Athens. Finally, the family is back in Greece.

Two Sentences Example: I am not family; therefore, I don’t want to go.

Middle Example: You, nevertheless, make a good point.

End Example: The family could ask me to come, however.

INTRODUCTORY PHRASES

Sentences that begin with a Subordinate Clause or a Participial Phrase MUST immediately be followed

by a comma to separate the introduction from the Independent Clause.

Introductory Subordinate Clauses. They begin the sentence with a Subordinate Conjunction. Eg.) after,

because, if, since, until, when, while, etc. See page 4-40 for a complete list.

Example: Since I earned a perfect 36 on my ACT, I received a full-ride scholarship.

Example: If you ever need more help, just ask.


Introductory Participial Phrases. They begin the sentence with a Past or Present Participle. Most Past

Participles end in “ed,” check the Verbs chapter for the irregulars, and Present Participles end in “ing.”

Be careful not to confuse a sentence beginning with a Gerund Phrase for an introductory Present

Participle.

Present Participle Example: Thinking that she might get away with it, Ashley ate

Olivia’s lunch

Past Participle Example: Torn by feelings of guilt, Ashley admitted that she ate

Olivia’s lunch.

Gerund Example: Apologizing to her friend was the best decision.

o Note, placing a comma after the Gerund Phrase would be like placing a comma

between the subject and a verb in a sentence. NEVER place 1 comma between a

subject and a verb.

Introductory Infinitive Phrases. They begin the sentence with the word “to” followed by an unconjugated

Verb. It will have a comma after it unless the Infinitive is functioning as the subject.

Introductory Phrase Example: To perform at our best, we need to exercise really hard.

Subject Example: To perform at our best is the goal for the Olympics.

Introductory Prepositional Phrases. They begin the sentence with a Preposition. Often they have their

comma omitted. The only requirement for keeping the comma is for longer phrases or to prevent

confusion with the subject. The ACT will NOT test you on this subject because it is not a 100% rule.

Long Phrase Example: After a long phrase before a sentence, you must follow it with a

comma.

Confusion Example: After winter sports finally start for me.

o After winter, sports finally start for me. the comma is needed to prevent

“winter” modifying “sports.”

APPOSITIVE

Appositive Phrases. Appositive Phrases describe or renames a Noun the comes immediately before or

after the phrase. These phrases can be in the beginning, middle, or end of the sentence and require

punctuation on both sides no matter what the placement. Those punctuation marks may be any of the

following combinations:

. Appositive, , Appositive, , Appositive.

Beginning Example: A local firefighter, Alex rescued a cat out of a silver maple.

Middle Example: Alex, a local firefighter, rescued a cat out of a silver maple.

End Example: Alex rescued a cat out of a silver maple, the tallest tree in Nebraska.


PARENTHETICAL THOUGHT

Parenthetical Phrases. Parenthetical Phrases add unnecessary information to the sentence. Commonly, it

is commentary inserted by the narrator. It can also provide emphasis, definition, and explanation. This

will often have a different “voice” to it if read aloud. Parenthetical Thoughts can be added with commas

on either side OR with two dashes.

, parenthetical, – parenthetical–

Example: I have been cursed with the evil eye – given to me by a witch doctor –

because I was not respectful to his culture.

Example: Nixon, according to her theory, should have beaten Kennedy in the election.

If a Parenthetical Thought is started with a comma or a dash, the punctuation on the other side MUST

match.

WRONG Example: She ran, I assume – over the hill to meet Tim.

CORRECT Example: She ran – I assume – over the hill to meet Tim.

Study Tip: Two Dashes and Two Comma are EQUAL punctuation.

NON-ESSENTIAL VS ESSENTIAL CLAUSES

Relative Clauses. Relative Clauses must start with a Relative Pronoun. Relative Clauses are Dependent

Clauses where the Relative Pronoun “relates” back to the subject of the Independent Clause. These

phrases can be added to a sentence; however, its punctuation depends on whether the clause is essential or

non-essential.

Relative Pronouns

that, which, who, whom, whose, what, when, where

Essential Clauses. These Relative Pronoun Clauses follow vague Nouns and provide needed

clarification. Needed information does NOT need any punctuation.

Example: I am afraid of the monsters in the closet where mom likes to store creepy old

dolls.

Example: The men who packed up the house must have lost the old dolls.

Non-Essential Clauses. These Relative Pronoun clauses follow a named, specific, or proper noun and

provides only additional information. Additional information MUST have commas to separate it from the

sentence, much like a parenthetical thought.

Example: My mother’s bedroom closet, where she likes to store creepy old dolls, gives me

nightmares.

Example: My Dad and Uncle Fred, who packed up the house, must have lost the old

dolls.


AFTERTHOUGHT/LIST

Afterthought. Similar to a Parenthetical Thought, an Afterthought is unneeded words. An Afterthought

MUST follow after an independent clause and is punctuated with either a dash or a colon. Afterthought

always describe or elaborate the previous independent clause. The first word of the Afterthought, unless

it is a Proper Noun, it NOT capitalized.

Independent Clause: Afterthought. Independent Clause – Afterthought.

Afterthought can be and frequently is a list of specifics.

Example: I love the smell of flowers: roses, chrysanthemums, and lilacs.

Example: I love the smell of flowers— roses, chrysanthemums, and lilacs.

Afterthoughts can be “anything logical” following the Independent Clause. “Anything Logical” can be a

single word, a phrase, or a clause.

Word Example: Angela scored the highest score on the ACT: 36.

Phrase Example: Japan has the highest literacy rate – even more than the U.S.

Clause Example: Life is like a box of chocolates: you never know what you’re going to get.

o When joining two independent clauses, students often get confused on colon or

semi-colons. Semi-colon can replace an “and.” Colons replace a “because.”

This is because what follows a colon MUST describe or elaborate the previous

sentence, not provide an addition thought.

If given the choice between one colon and one dash given that all words are the same, NONE are correct

because they are equal punctuation marks.

Example: …in the kitchen. Jake …

A. No Change

B. in the kitchen: Jake

C. in the kitchen— Jake

The Answer is A! This must be the case because the other answer choices are interchangeable.

Study Tip: When a Colon or One Dash is offered as an Answer Choice, it is the correct Answer

Choice over 70% of the time.


QUOTATION MARKS

Quotation marks. These punctuation marks indicate what a person is saying exactly or to indicate the title

of a short work: article, chapter, poem, etc. Quotation marks do require “ “ but they often require more.

Additional punctuation like a comma or a period ALWAYS goes INSIDE the quotation marks.

Quote Beginning With a Sentence. Sentences that begin with quotes will have punctuation inside the

quote and at the end of the sentence. When a statement sentence is followed by the speaker indicator, the

period inside the quote turns to a comma.

Example: “I don’t want to go to the dentist,” Billy said.

Quote With a Question. Questions inside the quote retain the question mark inside the quotation marks.

Example: “Why don’t you want to go?” asked his mother.

Quote With an Understood Speaker. If the speaker is understood, because there are only two speakers

alternating their lines, then the speaker indicator can be dropped. The end punctuation then goes inside

the quotation marks. Note that a comma is NOT used.

Example: “The office is scary.”

Interrupted Quote. An interrupted quote means that the speaker indicator is place in the middle of the

sentence. The initial part of the sentence is followed by a comma and an end quote. That is then

followed by the speaker indicator and a comma. Last, the sentence is completed using the proper end

punctuation inside the quotation mark. Note that the second half of the quote is not capitalized. It does

not start a new sentence, so it is not capitalized.

“ ,” speaker, “ .”

Example: “I won’t go,” the boy cried, “even if you bribe me.”

Quote Ending a Sentence. Sentences that end with quotes still have the end punctuation inside the

quotation marks. The speaker indicator is followed by a comma and the quote (beginning with a capital

letter) is ended by the proper punctuation mark.

Example: Billy’s mother said, “Well, go ahead and get ready for breakfast.”

Example: Billy asked, “What are we having?”

o No period is needed because the question mark supersedes it.

Titles. Even listed titles or other items with quotation marks have punctuation on the inside. Each poem

retains its capitalization and the commas, including the Oxford Comma, are placed inside the title.

Example: My favorite poems are “The Road Not Taken,” “Seeker of Truth,” and “Bear

in There.”

The only exception to end punctuation going inside the quote is if the narrative poses a question that ends

in a quoted item. This is a very rare instance is will NEVER be tested on the ACT.

Example: Have you heard of the phrase, “Breakfast is for champions”?

o Note that the sentence inside the quote has the period omitted. Sentences only

need one end punctuation mark, and a question mark supersedes a period.


PUNCTUATION QUICK TIPS

COLON AND ONE DASH -

Independent Clause Afterthought

PERIOD, SEMI-COLON, AND COMMA PLUS COORDINATING CONJUNCTION -

Independent Clause Independent Clause

Independent Clause Conjunctive Adverb Independent

Clause

COMMAS -

1st Part of Sentence Inserted Word(s) 2nd Part of Sentence

Subordinate Clause Independent Clause

Introductory Phrase Independent Clause

Independent Clause Non-Essential Relative Pronoun Clause

1st Item in List 2nd Item in List and/or Last Item in List

Colon

:

One Dash

-

Period

.

Semi-Colon

;

Comma + Conj.

, and , or , but

Period

.

Semi-Colon

;

Comma

,

1st

Comma

,

1st Dash

-

2nd Comma

,

2nd Dash

-

Comma

,

Comma

,

Comma

,

Comma

,

Semi-Colon

;

Comma

,

Semi-Colon

;


Grammar Do’s And Don’ts

DO test the answer choice with no commas first if all other words are the same.

DO pronounce each word of a contraction. It’s is the contraction for it is. Its it the possessive form of it.

DO eliminate interchangeable punctuation if all other words are the same.

DO eliminate phrases to check for subject/verb agreement.

DO pick have instead of of.

DO find the antecedent of a Pronoun before selecting an answer to determine gender and number.

DO make sure that possessives are followed by the Noun that it possesses. For possessive Pronouns,

make sure that the Pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent.

DO check what introductory Participial Phrases are modifying. The word they modify should come

immediately after the introductory phrase.

DO test Preposition options by reading the word before the preposition, the preposition, and its object.

DO use the Oxford comma. Watch for items with an internal “and” in them: eggs and bacon

DO answer the easier question first if you have two underlined portions in a single sentence.

DO test a colon or a dash first. They are right 70% of the time.

DON’T place ONE comma between a Subject and its Verb. Two comma is acceptable as they indicate an

inserted phrase.

DON’T choose whom unless it has a preposition before it: “to whom,” “for whom.”

DON’T put punctuation before the relative pronoun that.

DON’T place ONE comma between a Verb and the Direct Object

DON’T place a comma between an Adjective and the Noun/Pronoun that it modifies

DON’T place a comma between a Preposition and its object.

DON’T place comma around a Prepositional Phrase like it is inserted. Commas may go around a

Prepositional phrase if it is serving another purpose.

DON’T pick its’ or thats. They are NEVER correct because they are not words in the English language.

DON’T chose an answer that inserts the word “being” into the test. It is always used in a wordy manor.


TYPES OF RHETORICAL QUESTIONS

Rhetorical Questions. They require more strategies in answering the questions. Answering Rhetorical

Questions requires a focus on Key Words and Answer Choice Selection.

In EACH type of the Rhetorical question, underline key words in the question and/or answer choices to

determine which answer fits.

Many students have difficulty because it often seems like multiple answers could be correct; however,

only one answer choice will be correct due to a key word.

Passage Example: Mr. Reinders was attempting to test to earn his black belt in TaeKwonDo. He

knows that this will be a lot of work, so he set a practice schedule to get him prepared. 3

Example Question: Given that all of the following are true, if added here, which of the following

answer choices details the difficulty of Mr. Reinders’s practices?

A. He practiced very hard.

B. He practiced night and day for hours on end.

C. 632.055

D. He ran 10 miles for endurance, lifted weights for strength, and sparred for 2 hours for agility.

E. His own instructors thought that his practice schedule was too rigorous and may result in him

hurting himself.

All of the given answer choices indicate that the practice was “difficult.” The key word for to

find the right answer is actually “details.”

o “A” is too vague

o “B” only provides a vague time but no detail of difficulty

o “D” is long and makes the practice sound difficult, it still lacks specific details.

o “C” is the correct answer because it provides specifics for his difficult practice

schedule.

Some may think that “C” can’t be the answer because it doesn’t provide

adjective to describe how difficult it is. Instead the specifics of the practice

are given and its difficulty assumed in the exercise and the duration.


KEY WORDS IN RHETORICAL QUESTIONS

Strategy. Rhetorical questions have identifying words that point to a specific answer choice. In order to

properly answer a rhetorical question you must find the “key word” and the “what.”

Example: Which of the following phrases illustrates the view from outer space?

o Key Word: illustrates

o What: outer space

Example: If added here, which line best describes the trip to the moon?

o Key Word: describes

o What: trip to the moon

Key Word What the Key Word Suggests

Another Find a new example: one not mentioned already in the passage.

Characterize To describe what something or someone is like.

Clarify To make the meaning clear by use of an example.

Contrast To find a detail opposite of the previous statement.

Describe To use details to depict.

Descriptive Serving to describe in specific detail.

Details Specific facts or an example.

Develop To expand on an idea using details.

Diversity A wide variety of examples.

Dramatize To express in a vivid or intense manner.

Emphasize To highlight with specific detail(s).

Example Look for the answer choice containing the most details.

Exemplify To illustrate by example.

Explain To make clear in detail. To make clear the cause.

Illustrate To make clear with specific or visual examples.

Reflect To express or show.

Reinforce To provide further support not already mentioned.

Specifically Looking for details.

Support To reinforce a statement with examples. Look for details.

Variety Many different kinds of examples.

Visualize To create a mental image of.

Vividly To create a striking mental image of.


DELETIONS / ADDITIONS

Format. The writer will “consider deleting (omitting) the following” word, phrase, or sentence. You will

then be asked what is lost by its deletion or be given two “keep” and two “delete” answer choices followed

by a justification. Addition questions will ask you whether a line should be added and answer what would

be gained or two “yes” and two “no” answers followed by a justification

Passage Example: The scientist wanted to analyze rocks which had fallen from space 2 .

Example Question 1: The writer is considering

deleting the underlined portion. If the writer were

to delete this phrase, the essay would primarily

lose:

A. An illustration of the rocks being analyzed

B. Needed details of what the scientists are

studying.

C. A transition into the next paragraph.

D. An explanation of why the rocks fell.

Example Question 2: The writer is considering

adding the phrase “which normally hit the moon” to

the sentence. Should the writer make this addition?

A. Yes, because it explains why the rocks fell

from space.

B .Yes, because it further illustrates the

example.

C. No, because it detracts from the topic.

D. No, because the essay does not say if they

are moon rocks or not.

Strategies. If an underlined portion were deleted, go back and reread the line with the addition or deletion.

You may want to strike out the deleted phrase to help you read it in isolation.

What Would Be Lost. Use your rhetorical words to eliminate wrong answer choices.

In the first example, answer A is wrong because of the key word “illustrate.” The underline

does not provide a physical or visual description of the rocks. The line may be an

explanation, but it doesn’t explain “why the rock fell.” However, assuming that it is not a

transition, the answer would be B.

Should It Be Deleted/Added. Determine if you would “keep” or “delete” then use the key words to

eliminate answer choices. If you can’t determine keep or delete easily, then start with the justifications.

The line must provide unique information (not mentioned elsewhere).

The information should fit the paragraph. If it does not, it will say something like the line

“distracts the reader from the focus of the essay”

The line must fit the tone/writing style: informal versus formal.

The line must answer the “key word” and the “what”.

In the second example, answer choice A and D present inaccurate information. Answer

choice B is close. Though it does elaborate the description it is NOT an illustration. Leave

answer choice C as the correct answer.

Personal Bias.

Remove your personal opinion of whether YOU would add or delete the line.

The words “needed,” “important,” and “relevant” will be frequently used by are often not the

sole reason for the answer choice being right or wrong. Use other key words to evaluate.


PURPOSE

Format. The passage will contain an underlined word, phrase, or sentence. You will be given a question

often preceded by “Given that all of the choices are true” and four answer choices that fulfill the question.

Passage Example: After his marathon John saw that he completed the race in record time: his personal

best.

Example Question 1: Given that all of the choices are true, which provided the best illustration of the

difficulty of his run?

A. No Change

B. collapsed from exhaustion.

C. was proud of his accomplishment.

D. felt like he had never felt before.

Strategies. The “key word” and the “what” are vital to this type of question. Underline them!

Additional Key Words. The following words are more commonly seen in purpose questions, but purpose

questions will ALSO use key words from the main list.

Tone. The writer of a passage will have a voice. This tone can be formal or informal. Questions will ask

something like “which answer choice matches the tone of the author?”.

If the writing should maintain its voice: formal stays formal, informal stays informal.

Read the sentences around the underlined portion and look for hyperbole and metaphors

Remember to avoid personal bias as YOU may prefer a writing style.

Details. When looking for details or examples, choose the answer with the most concrete information.

Students often choose the tone answer when the question was looking for a “specific example.”

TONE Example: The mountains were vast and stretched as far as the eye can see.

DETAILS Example: The mountains went from Colorado to Wyoming.

o Colorado to Wyoming is more specific and gives concrete information.

Key Words What the Word Suggests

Analogy A comparison between a familiar item and a less familiar item.

Balance To include a contrasting idea.

Cause The reason that a specific result occurs.

Complex Showing to be complicated or involved.

Contrast To show a difference or unlikeness.

Dramatic Changing in a large way.

Emphasize To stress the importance of.

Narration The description of the events or actions occurring in a story.

Reason The cause of an event, or a justification or explanation.

Tone The attitude of the writer expressed in the passage (formal vs. informal).


WORDING

Format. The passage will contain an underlined phrase. That four answer choices will have the similar

wording or meaning with different additions. There will be no grammar errors though there may be

grammar differences. Typically, no question is given.

Passage Example: Once the race was over, John celebrated

when he finished.

A. No Change.

B. celebrated being overwhelmed that the race was done.

C. celebrated and rejoiced.

D. celebrated.

Strategies. Eliminate redundancies and wordiness and use your ear.

Concise. Read the sentences around the underlined phrase to see if concepts are repeated. Answer choice

A in the example above repeats that the “race was over” with “finished.” Also, “celebrated” and

“rejoiced” are synonyms and create a redundancy.

NEVER insert the word “being” into the passage. Like in answer choice B, “being” will

ALWAYS be used in a wordy manor. “Being” may in a justification, but not inserted.

If the words start the same (like the sample) or are similarly worded, test the shortest answer first.

It has a high likelihood of being right, as the other answers will likely have redundancies. Be

aware that Omit or Delete will be the shortest answer. You will have to determine if it is needed

information.

If an ENTIRE line (from the capital letter to the period) is underlined, choose DELETE/OMIT.

o This is only if a line is underlined and the answer choices are replacement lines. This is

NOT for questions with two answer choices saying KEEP and two saying DELETE.

Word Choice. The four answers will have similar looking words. Read each answer choice in the

sentence to differentiate the definitions. The vocabulary isn’t too advanced, but a strong vocabulary does

help. Use the sentences around unfamiliar vocabulary to build context.

Example: The clouds dissipated so the stars could _________ the night sky.

A. radiate

B. dazzle

C. gleam

D. illuminate

Radiate, dazzle, and gleam all mean “shine,” which is what stars do. However, it is not

fitting in this example. Illuminate means “to light up,” which is CORRECT.

Idioms. Idioms have no explanation grammatically but is how the phrase is said. This includes words,

phrases, and prepositions. Use process of elimination to remove awkward wording: use your ear.

Examples: “This is for naught,” “Can’t get a word in edgewise,” “No harm, no foul.”

Example: “Believe in” not “Believe on”


TRANSITIONS

Format. Transitional words will have underlined words and no question. A transition statement will have

either an underlined statement and three alternatives or a box with the question number in it: 17 . This

indicate where the inserted answer choice will go.

Passage Example: I enjoy camping in the summer with my family.

Additionally, my wife hates any outdoor activity.

A. No Change.

B. However,

C. Similarly,

D. Therefore,

Strategies. You must determine the relationship between the ideas. You will have to read beyond the

underline or box. While reading the sentence or paragraph, answer any questions you come across and

come back to the transition question.

Transition Sentences. This line joins paragraphs. Read the following paragraph to determine what it is

about. This will pose a question saying “which of the following sentences transitions/guides/leads….”

A “transition” will initiate the paragraph. The correct answer should have a detail in it

referring to the paragraph’s purpose like a topic sentence.

Many questions will ask you to transition “from one paragraph to another.” The correct

answer must have a reference from the previous paragraph AND the following paragraph.

o Example: [Bus Safety Paragraph] Riding a bus safely across the country can help you

meet new and interesting people [Bus People Paragraph].

The word “safely” is enough of a reference to the previous paragraph.

Answer questions you pass while reading the joining paragraph.

Transition questions have their own set of key words.

Choose Best Transition

Guide/Lead To transition from one sentence or paragraph to another.

Shift in focus To change from one idea to another. A good transition is needed.

Transition A word, group of words, or sentence which provides a logical flow from one idea

to another. The best transitional sentence makes reference to both ideas.

Transition Word. Read the statement before and after the word to determine the sentences’ relationship.

This, like the example above, will not have a question attached, just four answer choices.

Answer choices can be eliminated because they are in the same transition word category.

o Example: If “Despite” and “However” are both answer choices, they are both wrong

because they are both in same category.

Sometimes Delete or Omit are options. If there sentences have no relationship, then no

transition is needed.

See the list of transitional words on the following page.


The Transitional Words are as follows. Underline all Transitional Words:

Category Meaning Interchangeable Words

AND Continuing the

Same Thought.

and also as well either

essentially furthermore in addition to in other words

likewise moreover or same

similarly

FOR

EXAMPLE

Introducing an

Example of the

Previous

Statement.

as as if for example for instance

indeed in fact just as like

such as to illustrate

BUT Making a

Contrast.

although all the same besides but

compared to despite even so even though

except however in contrast in spite of

instead neither nevertheless nonetheless

nor not on the one hand on the other hand

otherwise regardless still though

whereas while yet

BECAUSE

Showing

Cause and

Effect.

accordingly as a result as proof because

because of by means of consequently due to

for for this reason hence in response to

on account of since so so that

then therefore thus

Conditional: if unless whether

SEQUENTIAL Showing

Order.

after afterward at last at once

before beginning earlier eventually

finally first in conclusion initially

later meanwhile next now

originally previously so far sometimes

sooner start then when


MAIN IDEA

Format. Main idea questions have the most variety. They can appear with an underlined sentence, a question,

and four answer choices; a box with a number inside, a question, and four answer choices; or underneath a box

saying “question # asks the preceding passage as a whole,” a question, and four answer choice.

Passage Example: Even a state like Maine

has a desert. 18

Passage Example: [a passage on Irish immigrants

coming to the United States due to the potato famine]

Example Question: 18 Given that all the

answer choices are true, which answer

choice best concludes the preceding

paragraph?

A. Maine is a northern State with above

average rain fall.

B. Scientist now understand the

importance of crop rotation.

C. That desert is in Freeport, Maine and

is now a tourist attraction.

D. The definition of “desert” is more

expansive than originally thought.

Example Question: Suppose the author indented to

write an essay on fungicides in the prevention of a future

potato blight, would this essay accomplish that goal?

A. Yes, because it discussed how Irish immigrants

suffered from the potato famine due to “blight.”

B. Yes, because detailed how fungicides are getting

better at protected tomato and potato crops.

C. No, because the essay focused on the emigration

of Irish settlers from Ireland.

D. No, because the essay focused on more on the

famine the blight causes rather than the

fungicides.

Strategies. Do NOT skip from question to question. Read sentences even if they do not have a question

in them. Do NOT recall information from memory. Go back and look at the paragraph or passage to find

the main idea. Underline Key Word in the question and the answer choices.

Paragraph Summary. A paragraph introduction should initiate the main idea of the paragraph (topic

sentence), and the conclusion must summarize the paragraph.

Eliminate answer choices that only summarize the detail immediately before or after like answer

choice A and C in sample question 1.

Passage Summary. At the end of a passage, a question will insert a conclusion sentence or ask if the

essay met a specific goal, often starting with “Suppose the writer had intended.”

Wrong answer choices will be off topic, summarize a part of the essay, or misrepresent the information.

KEY WORD(s) What the Word(s) Suggest

Begin / Introduce / Open Read the passage or paragraph and determine the tone and purpose.

Conclude / Summarize Summarizes the main idea of the passage.

Focus of a paragraph Main idea of a paragraph.

Main idea / As a whole Topic of a paragraph or the thesis statement of a passage.

Remainder of essay / Rest of essay How an idea relates to what comes later in the passage.

Sharpen the focus To make a more precise paragraph or the passage.

Theme / Topic Main idea of a passage.


ORDERING

Format. Brackets [ ] with a number in it will appear between sentences to ordering sentences and above

paragraphs to order paragraphs.

Passage Example: [1] Grilling a steak on a charcoal grill requires

heating the coals to 450°. [2] The charcoal briquettes can range from

250° to 550°, and it is the oxygen allowed in from the vents that

makes the grill hotter or colder. [3] This high heat will allow for an

immediate sear.

Example Question: For the sake of logic and coherence, in which

order should the sentences be places?

A. 1, 2, 3

B. 1, 3, 2

C. 3, 1, 2

D. 2, 3, 1

Strategies. Whether ordering or inserting sentences or even rearranging entire paragraphs, look for

references/antecedents.

Sentence Ordering. You may be asked to order given sentences or choose where to place a new sentence.

1. Pronoun references: Pronouns CANNOT refer back to the previous paragraph, so make sure

the antecedent comes before the pronoun

WRONG Example: I drove for hours to get there. I arrive at my parents’ house.

CORRECT Example: I arrive at my parents’ house. I drove for hours to get there.

2. Cause/Effect Chains: The cause MUST come before the effect.

WRONG Example: So, I ate a huge lunch. I was so hungry after that.

CORRECT Example: I was so hungry after that. So, I ate a huge lunch.

3. Chronological Sequence: Sequence words like then or after may be present, but more often

the events a logically ordered.

WRONG Example: The wind messed up my hair. I walked outside in the tornado.

CORRECT Example: I walked outside in the tornado. The wind messed up my hair.

Paragraph Ordering. When reordering paragraphs, notice 4 main concepts:

1. Intro/Body/Conclusion

2. Cause/Effect

3. Logical/Chronological Ordering

4. Transitional Words/Sentences


COMMON MISTAKES

General –

Taking too much time because you did not underline the key words

Picking a true statement that does not answer the question’s key word

Evaluating an answer choice due to punctuation. The ACT will test on Rhetoric OR Grammar.

Deletions/Additions –

Inserting your personal opinion determining if YOU think a line is necessary or relevant.

Putting too much value in words like “needed” or “necessary.”

Not reading the context.

Purpose –

Not properly analyzing your “key words” and “what.”

Having a personal bias against an answer because YOU wouldn’t write that way.

Choosing a correct answer that doesn’t match the tone.

Choosing a correct vague answer rather than a detailed answer.

Wording –

Not knowing the vocabulary in the answer choices.

Not reading the preposition in context

Transition –

Not reading before and after to have enough information for an answer.

Picking a transition that only summarizes rather than guide from one paragraph to the next.

Main Idea –

Going off of memory rather than looking back.

Figuring the topic off of one of the ideas in the passage rather than the entire passage.

Reading too deeply. Many answers can appear correct if you try justifying answers.

Ordering –

Not finding the references/antecedents.

Given the author too much credit. The reading must be VERY literal.


READ THIS BEFORE TAKING AN ENGLISH TEST

CHECKLIST -

_____ Find a quiet location to take the test

_____ Tell your family not to disturb you for the next 45 minutes (no phone calls either)

_____ Turn off your cell phone

_____ Pull out a Grademaster bubble sheet. (use the blue side only)

_____ Use your watch (you cannot use the stopwatch function on the watch)

_____ Have two #2 pencils (do not use mechanical pencils)

_____ Review strategies below

MAIN STRATEGIES –

1. Find differences between answer choices (don’t just plug in answer choices).

2. Apply appropriate English rules.

3. Eliminate wrong answer choices (line through the letter).

4. Circle the correct answer choice in booklet.

OVALS - Fill in ovals on the answer sheet at the end of each passage (except for the last passage).


ACT ENGLISH TEST STRATEGIES

1. PACING

45 minutes to do 5 passages means: Time Assessment Target Pace

After 1st passage 9 minutes

After 2nd passage 18 minutes

After 3rd passage 27 minutes

After 4th passage 36 minutes

After 5th passage 45 minutes

2. DON’T GUESS TOO QUICKLY

Most students immediately plug in each answer choice to see which will work. They depend on their ears

to tell them the right answer. The ACT works hard to trick your ear. Instead, apply the English rules and

strategies.

3. HAVE AN INITIAL IDEA OF THE RIGHT ANSWER

When you first read a sentence with an underlined portion, you may recognize that an error needs to be

corrected. That may eliminate the first answer choice of “No Change.”

4. NOTE DIFFERENCES IN THE ANSWER CHOICES

Compare the answer choices to determine what is different among them (e.g. change in punctuation,

different verb tenses, different words, etc.). The differences indicate what English rules are being tested.

Apply the rules to find the right answer choice.

5. IF IT’S NOT UNDERLINED THEN YOU CAN’T CHANGE IT

Only the portion that is underlined can be changed. Therefore, any part of the sentence that is not

underlined can’t be changed and may require a change in the underlined portion.

6. READ SENTENCES APPEARING IMMEDIATELY BEFORE AND AFTER

Many times you need to read several sentences before and after the sentences containing the underlined

portion in order to find the correct answer. This provides the context.

7. ELIMINATE WRONG ANSWER CHOICES

Just do it! When you find an error, eliminate all answer choices containing that error.

8. BEWARE OF MULTIPLE ERRORS

Don’t select an answer choice that corrects one error but contains another error.


9. TWO UNDERLINED PORTIONS IN THE SAME SENTENCE

Because these two questions may be interdependent, you must consider the answer choices for both of

them together. Answer the easier of the two underlined portions first. These questions can be very

difficult if the answer to one questions depends on finding the correct answer to the other question.

10. IDENTIFY WORDINESS AND REDUNDANCY

Sometimes all of the answer choices have proper punctuation and are grammatically correct. Wordiness

or redundancy is likely being tested. In these cases, the shortest answer is the best answer.

11. FREQUENCY OF “NO CHANGE” BEING CORRECT

“No Change” is the correct answer choice about one-fourth of the time. So it is no more or less likely to

be the correct answer choice than any other. Do NOT make it the default answer choice.

12. FREQUENCY OF “OMIT” BEING CORRECT

“OMIT the underlined portion” is the correct answer choice over fifty percent (50%) of the time. So if

you are given “OMIT” as an answer choice, test it first by reading that part of the passage without it.

13. READ SENTENCES USING YOUR SELECTED ANSWER

When you have found an answer, read the sentence using your selected answer choice as a final check.

14. DELAY ANSWERING RHETORICAL QUESTIONS ON MAIN IDEA

Sometimes a Rhetorical question about the main idea of a passage is placed near the beginning of a

passage. Skip this question until after you have answered the remaining questions in that passage. By

that time you will know the main idea of the passage.

15. LOOK FOR RHETORICAL CLUES

The question stems for Rhetorical Questions contain clues for identifying the correct answer choice.

Determine exactly what you are asked to do. If you find the clue, you will find the correct answer choice.

16. OMITTING ENTIRE SENTENCES

If an entire sentence is underlined an “OMIT the underlined portion” is an answer choice, OMIT the

sentence.

17. ANSWER TWO PART QUESTIONS

Some Rhetorical questions ask for a YES or NO answer and then a reason. Determine whether Yes or No

is correct; then determine the reason. The reason must be a correct statement given the entire passage and

must also correctly answer the questions stem. A wrong answer could be a true statement about the

passage but not answer the question.


18. ORDER SENTENCES OR PARAGRAPHS

Some Rhetorical questions ask you to reorder the sentences in a paragraph or the paragraphs in a passage.

For reordering sentences in a paragraph, look for the topic (first) sentence of the paragraph. This sentence

will have the Antecedent Nouns the other sentences reference. Then eliminate any answer choices that do

not have that sentence appearing first. Then find sentences that must follow one another due to context or

antecedents. You will likely not have to order all of the sentences, so eliminate answer choices as you are

ordering.

Use a similar approach for paragraphs.

19. COMPLETE A PASSAGE BEFORE PROCEEDING

Complete all the questions in a passage before proceeding to the next passage. It takes too long to get

reoriented back into a passage once you have left it.


TOP 30 ACT ENGLISH RULES

1. Test OMIT the Underlined Portion first. It is correct over 50% of the time.

2. Always choose PAST instead of PASSED.

3. Always choose HAVE instead of OF.

4. It’s is the contraction for it is. Its is the possessive of the pronoun it. It’s me, the apostrophe!

5. Be aware of comas serving a different purpose. Two comas MAY be creating an inserted clause

or it MAY have two different purposes like insert phrases, lists, or introductory phrase

6. Independent Clause [ . ] [ ; ] [ , FANBOYS ] Independent Clause

7. Independent Clause [ : ] [ - ] Afterthought/List

8. Subordinate Clause [ , ] Independent Clause

9. Participial Phrase [ , ] Independent Clause

10. [ , ] Afterthought, Appositive, Non-essential Relative Clause, Parenthetical [ , ]

11. [ , ] Conjunctive Adverb [ , ]

12. Never Put Punctuation before the word that or because. (even the unspoken that)

13. One Comma between a Subject and a Verb is always WRONG.

14. One Comma between a Verb and the Direct Object is always WRONG.

15. If the words are the same in all 4 answers and the only difference is Commas, then test the answer

choice with NO Commas first. Then add only comas you can justify.

16. The letter s at the end of a verb means is it Singular.

17. Most Indefinite Pronouns that Begin with A,N,O,S, or E are Singular.

18. “Whom” can only be an option if it is preceded by a Preposition: for whom, to whom, to whom.

19. All the Verbs in the Independent Clauses in a paragraph should be in the SAME TENSE.

20. Adverbs modify Adjectives, Verbs, and Adverbs, NOT Nouns and Pronouns

21. “Its” is a Singular Possessive Pronoun. “Their” is a Plural Possessive Pronoun.

22. Singular vs. Plural Verb options should begin by finding the Subject. It must agree in Number.

23. Replace Pronouns with no obvious Antecedent with a clear Noun.

24. Personal Pronouns must agree in Number and Gender with the Antecedent Noun

25. A Period and a Semi-Colon are always interchangeable. Eliminate both when they both are

offered as answer choices.

26. If an entire sentence is underlined and “OMIT the Underlined Portion” is offered, always OMIT.

27. Underline key words in Rhetorical Questions. Focus on these words when answering the

question.

28. Do “Main Idea” questions last.

29. Add a sentence only if it is relevant to that particular paragraph. Remember that it is not whether

YOU would add it, but whether it fits the context.

30. NOT or EXCEPT questions must use (Y)es and (N)o marking: three will be (Y) and one (N).

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TYPES OF NOUNS - Weeblyasnoza.weebly.com/uploads/5/9/1/8/59184693/english_review__72... · TYPES OF NOUNS NOUN - Noun. A noun is person, ... I took a ride on a roller coaster