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Twort's Water Supply
Seventh Edition
Malcolm J. Brandt
BSc, FICE, FCIWEM, MlWater
K. Michael Johnson
BSc, FICE, FCIWEM
Andrew J. ElphinstonBSc, MIChemE, MCIWEM
Don D. RatnayakaBSc, DIC, MSc, FIChemE, FCIWEM
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
mELSEVIER Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
Contents
Authors' Biographic Details xxv
Foreword xxvn
Preface XX1X
Abbreviations for Organizations xxxi
Contributing Authors, Reviewers and Advisors xxxiii
CHAPTER 1 The Demand for Potable Water 1
1.1 Categories of Consumption 1
1.2 Levels of Total Consumption 2
1.3 Domestic Demand 3
1.4 Standpipe Demand 9
1.5 Suggested Domestic Design Allowances 10
1.6 Non-Domestic Demand 12
1.7 Public and Miscellaneous Use of Water 15
1.8 Water Losses 15
1.9 Real Losses (Leakage) From 24-Hour Supply Systems 20
1.10 Supply Pipe Leakage and Consumer Wastage 22
1.11 Minimum Night Flow as Indicator of Leakage and Wastage 23
1.12 Variations in Demand (Peaking Factors) 24
1.13 Growth Trends of Consumption and Forecasting Future Demand 25
1.14 Water Conservation and Demand Management 26
1.15 The Question of Metering Domestic Supplies in the UK 29
1.16 Effect of Price on Water Demand 30
1.17 Assessing Future Demand in Developing Countries 31
1.18 Consumption Surveys 32
1.19 Test-Metering In-House Domestic Consumption 33
References 35
CHAPTER 2 Water Supply Regulation, Protection, Organizationand Financing 37
Development, Regulation and Protection 37
2.1 Control of Public Water Supplies 37
2.2 Control of Abstractions 38
2.3 Public Water Supplies in the USA 38
2.4 Public Water Supplies in Mainland Europe 40
2.5 Public Water Supplies in the England and Wales 42
2.6 Public Water Supplies in Scotland and Northern Ireland 47
V
vi Contents
Organization 48
2.7 Organization of a Water Utility 48
2.8 Staffing Levels 50
Project Appraisal and Financing of Capital Works 50
2.9 Appraisal Requirements 50
2.10 Comparison of Proposed Capital Projects 51
2.11 Comments on the Use of Discounting 55
2.12 Sustainability, Resilience and Engineering Choices 55
2.13 Financing of Capital Works 56
2.14 Depreciation and Asset Management Planning 57
2.15 Private Sector Participation in Water Supply 57
2.16 Private Sector Operation Agreements 58
2.17 Charging for Public Water Supplies 59
2.18 Comparison of Charges for Water and Other Data 61
References 62
CHAPTER 3 Hydrology and Surface Supplies 65
Part I Hydrological Considerations 65
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Catchment Areas 66
3.3 Data Collection 67
3.4 Streamflow Measurement 68
3.5 Rainfall Measurement 70
3.6 Evaporation and Transpiration Measurement 74
3.7 Soil Moisture Measurement 75
3.8 Catchment Losses 76
3.9 Streamflow Naturalization 78
3.10 Long-Term Average Catchment Run-Off 80
3.11 Minimum Rainfalls 81
3.12 Minimum Rates of Run-Off 82
3.13 Maximum Rainfalls 84
3.14 Maximum Run-Offs 85
Part II Yield of Surface Sources 88
3.15 Introduction, Definitions and Concepts 88
3.16 History of Yield Estimation in the UK 91
3.17 Methods of Yield Estimation - General 92
3.18 River Intake Yields 92
3.19 Yield of Direct Supply Impounding Reservoirs 95
3.20 Yield of a Pumped Storage Reservoir 99
3.21 Yield of Regulating Reservoirs 100
Contents vii
3.22 Yield of Catchwaters 102
3.23 Compensation Water 104
3.24 Yield of Water Resources Systems 105
3.25 Conjunctive Use and Operation Rules 106
3.26 Rainwater Collection Systems 108
3.27 The Likely Effects of Climate Change 109
References 113
CHAPTER 4 Groundwater Supplies 117
4.1 Groundwater, Aquifers and Their Management 117
4.2 Yield Uncertainties and Types of Abstraction Works 120
4.3 Potential Yield of an Aquifer 122
4.4 Assessment of Aquifer Characteristics 126
4.5 Groundwater Modelling 128
4.6 Test Pumping of Boreholes and Wells 131
4.7 Geophysical and Other Investigation Methods 134
4.8 Borehole Linings, Screens and Gravel Packs 135
4.9 Construction of Boreholes and Wells 138
4.10 Development and Refurbishing Boreholes and Wells 140
4.11 Pollution Protective Measures: Monitoring and Sampling 141
4.12 River Flow Augmentation by Groundwater Pumping 143
4.13 Artificial Recharge and Aquifer Storage Recharge 145
4.14 Groundwater Mining 147
4.15 Island Water Supplies 147
4.16 Collector Wells and Other Underground Water Developments 150
4.17 Borehole and Well Layouts 152
4.18 Choice of Pumping Plant for Wells and Boreholes 154
4.19 Environmental Impact Assessments 156
References 157
CHAPTER 5 Dams and Reservoirs 159
5.1 Introduction 159
5.2 Essential Reservoir Conditions 160
5.3 Watertightness 160
5.4 Strength and Durability of a Dam 163
5.5 Types of Dam:
164
Embankment Dams 165
5.6 Types of Design 165
5.7 Pore Pressure and Instrumentation in Earth Dams 166
5.8 Stability Analysis in Dam Design 168
viii Contents
5.9 Drainage Requirements for an Earth Dam 170
5.10 Surface Protection of Earth Dams 171
5.11 Rockfill and Composite Dams 173
Concrete and Masonry Dams 175
5.12 Gravity Dam Design 175
5.13 Gravity Dam Construction 177
5.14 Roller-Compacted Concrete Dams 178
5.15 Arch Dam Design 179
5.16 Buttress or Multiple Arch Dams 179
Flood and Discharge Provision 180
5.17 Design Flood Estimation 180
5.18 Spillway Flood Routing 184
5.19 Diversion During Construction 186
5.20 Flood Spillways 187
5.21 Draw-Off Arrangements 192
5.22 Seismic Considerations 193
Dam Regulation, Supervision and Inspection 193
5.23 Statutory Control Over Dam Safety in the UK 193
5.24 Dam Deterioration Signs 195
5.25 Reservoir Sedimentation 197
5.26 Environmental Considerations and Fish Passes 199
5.27 Statutory Consents and Requirements 200
5.28 Dam Incidents 200
References 202
CHAPTER 6 Intakes 205
6.1 Intake Function, Types and Main Considerations 205
General Considerations 206
6.2 Intake Capacity 206
6.3 Hydrology, Bathymetry and Hydraulics 206
6.4 Water Quality and Protection From Pollution 207
6.5 Abstraction Restrictions 207
6.6 Trash and Coarse Screens 208
6.7 Ice 209
6.8 Environmental Issues 210
6.9 Fish Behaviour 211
6.10 Fish Exclusion 212
6.11 Fish Protection Systems 214
6.12 Screening — Passive 214
6.13 Screening - Active 215
Contents ix
6.14 Biological Fouling of Screens and Intake Conduits 216
6.15 Headloss Through Screens 217
6.16 Coping With Water Level Variations 218
6.17 Interference With Other Users 219
6.18 Stability and Construction 219
6.19 Access for Operation and Maintenance 220
6.20 Intake Location and Siting 220
Intakes on Streams and Rivers 221
6.21 Sediment Transport 221
6.22 Sediment Exclusion and Removal 222
6.23 Flood Passage 222
6.24 Upland Intakes 223
6.25 Barrages and Weirs 224
6.26 Bankside Intakes 225
6.27 Radial Well Intakes 227
Intakes for Open Water 228
6.28 Shoreline Intakes 228
6.29 Intakes on Jetties or Pontoons 228
6.30 Tower Intakes 229
6.31 Offshore Intakes 229
References 232
CHAPTER 7 Chemistry, Microbiology and Biology of Water 235
7.1 Introduction 235
Part I Significant Chemical and Physico-Chemical Parameters in Water 235
7.2 Acidity 235
7.3 Acrylamide 236
7.4 Algal Toxins 236
7.5 Alkalinity 236
7.6 Aluminium 237
7.7 Ammoniacal Compounds 238
7.8 Arsenic 238
7.9 Asbestos 239
7.10 Boron 239
7.11 Bromide and Iodide 239
7.12 Cadmium 240
7.13 Calcium '. 240
7.14 Carbon Dioxide 240
7.15 Chloride 240
7.16 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 241
Contents
7.17 Chlorine Residual 241
7.18 Chromium 242
7.19 Colour 242
7.20 Copper 242
7.21 Corrosive Quality 243
7.22 Cyanide 243
7.23 Detergents 244
7.24 Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) 244
7.25 Electrical Conductivity and Dissolved Solids 246
7.26 Endocrine Disrupting Substances 246
7.27 Epichlorohydrin 247
7.28 Fluoride 247
7.29 Hardness 248
7.30 Hydrocarbons 248
7.31 Iron 249
7.32 Lead 249
7.33 Manganese 250
7.34 Nickel 251
7.35 Nitrate and Nitrite 251
7.36 Organic Matter, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 253
7.37 Pesticides 254
7.38 pH Value or Hydrogen Ion 255
7.39 Phenols 256
7.40 Phosphates 256
7.41 Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 256
7.42 Radioactive Substances 257
7.43 Selenium 258
7.44 Silica 258
7.45 Silver 259
7.46 Sodium 259
7.47 Sulphates 259
7.48 Suspended Solids 260
7.49 Taste and Odour 260
7.50 Turbidity 260
7.51 Zinc 261
Part II Water Quality Guidelines and Standards for Chemical
and Physical Parameters 261
7.52 Drinking Water Guidelines or Standards (Chemical and Physical) 261
Contents
7.53 Comment on the Application of Health-Related Standards 272
7.54 Sampling for Physical and Chemical Parameters 273
7.55 Raw Water Quality 276
7.56 Basic Priorities in Water Quality Control 279
7.57 Monitoring at Water Treatment Works 280
7.58 Methods of Chemical Analysis 281
7.59 Quality Assurance of Water Treatment Chemicals and Materials
in Contact With Drinking Water 282
Part III Water Microbiology 283
7.60 Diseases in Man That May Be Caused by Waterborne Bacteria
and Other Organisms 283
7.61 Bacterial Diseases 283
7.62 Other Bacteria 285
7.63 Protozoal Diseases 286
7.64 Viral Diseases 288
7.65 Microbiological Standards for Drinking Water 289
7.66 Use of Coliforms as an Indicator of Microbiological Pollution 291
7.67 Frequency of Sampling for Microbiological Parameters 291
7.68 Sampling for Routine Microbiological Parameters 292
7.69 Routine Tests for Bacterial Contamination of Water 294
7.70 Methodology for Microbiological Examination 296
7.71 Protozoal Examination 297
7.72 Virological Examination 298
7.73 Other Problem Organisms 298
Part IV Water Biology 299
7.74 Introduction 299
7.75 Source Waters and Storage Reservoirs 300
7.76 Transfer Stages 303
7.77 Treatment Stages 304
7.78 Service Reservoirs and Distribution Systems 305
Part V New and Emerging Issues 306
7.79 Introduction 306
7.80 Chemical Issues 306
7.81 Microbiological Issues 309
Part VI Water Safety Plans 311
7.82 Introduction 311
7.83 Structure of a Water Safety Plan 312
7.84 Development of a Water Safety Plan 314
References 315
Contents
CHAPTER 8 Storage, Clarification and Chemical Treatment 323
8.1 Raw Water Storage 323
8.2 General Considerations for Water Treatment Plants 327
8.3 Microstrainers 327
Sedimentation and Settling Tanks 328
8.4 General Design Considerations 328
8.5 Plain Settling 329
8.6 Theory of Design of Tanks 331
8.7 Grit Tanks 332
Chemically Assisted Sedimentation or Clarification 332
8.8 Chemically Assisted Sedimentation 332
8.9 Chemical Mixing 332
8.10 Chemical Coagulation and Flocculation 336
8.11 Types of Flocculators 337
8.12 Factors Affecting Coagulation and Flocculation 339
8.13 Effect of Organic Content and Algae 341
Clarifiers 344
8.14 Horizontal Flow Clarifiers 344
8.15 Design Criteria 346
8.16 Sludge Blanket or Solids Contact Clarifiers 347
8.17 High Rate Clarifiers 350
8.18 Dissolved Air Flotation 354
8.19 Sludge Removal From Clarifiers 357
Coagulants and Coagulant Aids 359
8.20 Aluminium Coagulants 359
8.21 Iron Coagulants 361
8.22 Coagulant Aids and Polyelectrolytes 361
8.23 Rainwater Harvesting 363
References 363
CHAPTER 9 Water Filtration 367
Granular Media Filtration 367
9.1 Rapid Filtration — Introduction 367
9.2 Rapid Filtration - Mechanisms 367
9.3 Design and Construction of Rapid Gravity Filters 368
9.4 Backwashing 375
9.5 Operation of Filters 377
9.6 Construction and Operation of Pressure Filters 379
Multi-Layer and Other Methods of Filtration 381
9.7 Use of Anthracite Media 381
Contents xii
9.8 Use of Anthracite to Uprate Filters 383
9.9 Use of Granular Activated Carbon 383
9.10 Upward Flow Filtration 384
9.11 Direct Filtration 384
9.12 Filter Problems 386
Slow Sand Filtration 387
9.13 Introduction and History 387
9.14 Mode of Action of Slow Sand Filters 388
9.15 Construction and Cleaning of Slow Sand Filters 389
9.16 Use of Pre-Treatment With Slow Sand Filters 391
9.17 Limitations and Advantages of Slow Sand Filters 392
Membrane and Miscellaneous Filters 394
9.18 MF and UF Membrane Filtration 394
9.19 Miscellaneous Filters 399
Cryptosporidium Oocysts and Giardia Cysts Removal 401
9.20 Cryptosporidium 401
9.21 Giardia Cysts 402
References 403
CHAPTER 10 Specialized and Advanced Water Treatment Processes 407
Softening of Water 407
10.1 Hardness Compounds 407
10.2 Principal Methods of Softening 407
10.3 The Lime-Soda Process of Softening 408
10.4 Softening Plant 409
10.5 Water Softening by Crystallization 409
10.6 Stabilization After Softening 410
10.7 Base Exchange Softening 410
10.8 Plant for Ion Exchange (IX) Softening 411
10.9 Hardness and Alkalinity Removal by Ion Exchange 412
10.10 Demineralization of Water by Ion Exchange 412
Removal of Iron, Manganese and Other Metals 414
10.11 Iron and Manganese - General 414
10.12 Removal of Iron and Manganese From Underground Waters 414
10.13 Removal of Iron and Manganese From River and Reservoir Waters 418
10.14 Removal of Other Metals 419
10.15 Removal of Radionuclides 424
Defluoridation and Fluoridation 424
10.16 Defluoridation 424
10.17 Fluoridation 425
xiv Contents
Aeration 425
10.18 Purpose 425
10.19 Cascade Aerators 426
10.20 Packed Tower Aerators 428
10.21 Spray Aerators 429
10.22 Injection Aerators 429
10.23 Other Types of Aerators 430
Nitrate Removal 430
10.24 General 430
10.25 Ion Exchange (IX) Process for Nitrate Removal 431
10.26 Biological Process for Nitrate Removal 432
Removal of Ammonia 433
10.27 Chemical and Physical Methods 433
10.28 Biological Methods 433
Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds From Groundwater 435
10.29 General 435
10.30 Packed Tower Aerators 435
10.31 Adsorption and Chemical Oxidation 435
Taste and Odour Removal 436
10.32 Causes of Tastes and Odours 436
10.33 Methods of Removal of Tastes and Odours 437
Natural Organic Matter and Micropollutants Removal 439
10.34 General 439
10.35 Advanced Treatment Processes 440
10.36 Advanced Oxidation Processes 444
10.37 Colour Removal 446
Corrosion Causes and Prevention 447
10.38 Physical and Electrochemical Corrosion 447
10.39 Bacterial Corrosion 448
10.40 Corrosion Caused by Adverse Water Quality 449
10.41 Corrosiveness of Various Waters 451
10.42 Dezincification 453
Desalination 453
10.43 Introduction 453
10.44 Ion Exchange 454
10.45 Electrodialysis 455
10.46 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration 456
10.47 RO and NF Plant Design 460
10.48 Thermal Processes 463
10.49 Post Treatment 464
10.50 Effluent Disposal 465
Contents xv
10.51 The Costs of Desalination 465
References 467
CHAPTER 11 Disinfection of Water 475
11.1 Disinfectants Available 475
Disinfection Using Chlorine and Chloramines 475
11.2 Action of Chlorine 475
11.3 Chlorine Compounds Produced 476
11.4 Factors Relating to the Disinfection Efficiency of Chlorine 477
11.5 Chlorine Residual Concentration and Contact Time 478
11.6 Efficiency of Chlorine in Relation to Bacteria,
Enteric Viruses and Protozoa 481
11.7 Chlorination and the Production of DBPs 482
11.8 The Ammonia-Chlorine or Chloramination Process 483
11.9 Breakpoint Chlorination 484
11.10 Superchlorination 485
11.11 Typical Chlorine Dose 486
11.12 Dechlorination 486
11.13 Use of Ammonia 487
11.14 Hypochlorite Production on Site by Electrolysis 487
11.15 Testing for Chlorine 489
11.16 Use of Chlorine Dioxide 489
11.17 Sodium Hypochlorite Solution 491
11.18 Calcium Hypochlorite 491
Disinfection Using Ozone 491
11.19 Action of Ozone 491
11.20 Production of Ozone 493
11.21 Ozone Dissolution and Contact 496
11.22 Ozone Safety 498
Disinfection Using Ultraviolet Radiation 498
11.23 UV Disinfection 498
11.24 UV Equipment 499
11.25 UV Dose and Process Design Considerations 502
11.26 UV Reactor Validation 503
11.27 Emerging UV Issues 505
11.28 Boiling Water 505
Disinfection of Waterworks Facilities 506
11.29 Disinfection of Water Mains and Tanks 506
11.30 Control of Aftergrowth (Regrowths) in Distribution Mains 507
11.31 Disinfestation of Distribution Mains, Wells and Boreholes 507
References 508
xvi Contents
CHAPTER 12 Chemical Storage, Dosing and Control 51312.1 Chemicals Used in Water Treatment 513
12.2 Chemical Dosing Equipment 514
12.3 Chemical Dosing 522
Coagulants and Coagulant Aids 523
12.4 Coagulants 523
12.5 Coagulant Aids and Polyelectrolytes 527
pH Adjustment and Water Conditioning Chemicals 527
12.6 pH Adjustment 527
12.7 Sulphuric Acid 528
12.8 Hydrochloric Acid 528
12.9 Carbon Dioxide 529
12.10 HydratedLime 529
12.11 Sodium Hydroxide 531
12.12 Sodium Carbonate 531
Chlorine-Based Chemicals 531
12.13 Chlorine 531
12.14 Sodium Hypochlorite 535
12.15 Sodium Hypochlorite Production by Electrolysis 536
12.16 Calcium Hypochlorite 536
12.17 Chlorine Dioxide 537
Dechlorination Chemicals 537
12.18 Sulphur Dioxide 537
12.19 Other Dechlorinating Chemicals 538
Chloramination Chemicals 538
12.20 Ammonia 538
Oxidation Chemicals 539
12.21 Potassium Permanganate 539
12.22 Hydrogen Peroxide 539
Organics Removal 540
12.23 Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) 540
Plumbosolvency Control 541
12.24 Phosphate Dosing 541
Caries Control 542
12.25 Fluoridation 542
Control Techniques 542
12.26 Chemical Dose Control 542
12.27 Flow Proportional Control 543
12.28 Feedback Control 543
12.29 Cascade Control 544
Contents xvi
12.30 Feed Forward Control 544
12.31 PID Control 545
Sampling and On-Line Analysis 545
12.32 Sampling 545
12.33 Water Quality Monitors 546
12.34 pH Monitors 548
12.35 Chlorine Analysers 549
12.36 Turbidity Monitors 550
References 551
CHAPTER 13 Energy Use, Sustainability and Waste Treatment 553
Part I Energy and Sustainability 553
13.1 Energy Use 553
13.2 Energy Efficiency 554
13.3 Water Conservation and Demand Management 558
13.4 Recovery of Energy and Chemicals 558
13.5 Carbon Accounting and Embedded Carbon 559
13.6 Sustainability and the Future 561
Part II Waterworks Waste and Sludge Disposal 562
13.7 Types of Waste 562
13.8 Types and Quantities of Sludge 564
13.9 Filter, Ion Exchange and Radionuclide Waste Disposal 567
13.10 Sludge Thickening and Disposal 570
13.11 Sludge Dewatering 572
13.12 Beneficial Uses of Sludge 577
References 579
CHAPTER 14 Hydraulics 581
14.1 The Energy Equation of Fluid Flow 581
14.2 Boundary Layers 583
14.3 Pipe Flow 584
14.4 Headlosses in Pipes (1) — The Colebrook—White Formula 586
14.5 Headlosses in Pipes (2) - Empirical Formulae 590
14.6 Local Headlosses at Fittings 592
14.7 Open-Channel Flow 594
14.8 Critical Depth of Flow 596
14.9 Froude Numbers 599
14.10 Headlosses in Channels 600
14.11 Hydraulic Jump 602
14.12 Non-Uniform, Gradually Varied Flow 603
xviii Contents
14.13 Weirs, Flumes and Gates 606
14.14 Measurement Weirs 610
14.15 Measurement Flumes 614
14.16 Venturi and Orifice Flow Meters 616
14.17 Other Flow Meters 618
14.18 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) 618
References 619
CHAPTER 15 System Design and Analysis 621
15.1 Introduction 621
15.2 System Layouts 622
15.3 Pipeline and System Planning 625
15.4 Distribution System Characteristics 628
15.5 Designing Trunk Mains 630
15.6 Designing Distribution Pipework 631
15.7 Hydraulic Design of Pipelines 633
15.8 System Curves 634
15.9 Longitudinal Profile 637
15.10 Air in Pipes 640
15.11 Transient Pressures: Water Hammer and Surge 642
15.12 Cavitation 646
15.13 Sizing a Pumping Main 647
15.14 Design of a Gravity Main 649
15.15 Pipeline Design Techniques 650
15.16 Water Quality Modelling 655
15.17 Updating of Network Models 656
15.18 Software Developments 656
References 657
CHAPTER 16 Distribution Practice 659
16.1 Condition and Performance of Network Assets 659
16.2 Service Levels 662
16.3 Distribution Network Management 664
16.4 Firefighting Requirements 668
16.5 Service Pipes 668
16.6 Waterworks Byelaws 675
16.7 Distribution System Maintenance 676
16.8 The Importance of Controlling Water Losses 677
16.9 Active Leakage Control 679
16.10 District Metering 680
Contents xix
16.11 Pressure Management 682
16.12 Waste Metering and Step-Testing 682
16.13 Locating and Repairing Leaks 683
16.14 Mains Rehabilitation 686
16.15 Pipe Lining Methods 689
16.16 Pipe Replacement 690
16.17 Improvement of Distribution Systems in Disrepair 691
Reference Standards 692
References 692
CHAPTER 17 Pipeline Design and Construction 693
17.1 Introduction 693
17.2 Pipe Development 693
17.3 Materials and Potable Water 694
17.4 Abbreviations and Definitions 694
Pipeline Alignment and Material Selection 695
17.5 Alignment 695
17.6 Changes in Direction 695
17.7 Selection of Pipe Material 696
Pipeline Structural Design 697
17.8 Behaviour of Buried Pipes 697
17.9 Longitudinal Stresses in Buried Pipes 698
17.10 Buried Flexible Pipes 699
17.11 Above Ground Pipelines and Piping 701
17.12 Buried Pipework in Plants 702
Iron Pipes 703
17.13 Cast or 'Grey' Iron Pipes 703
17.14 Ductile Iron Pipes 703
17.15 External Coatings and Internal Linings 705
17.16 Joints for Iron Pipes 705
Steel Pipes 707
17.17 Steel Pipe Manufacture and Materials 707
17.18 Steel Pipe Wall Thickness 708
17.19 Factory-Made Bends and Other Steel Fittings 709
17.20 External and Internal Protection of Steel Pipe 710
17.21 Mortar and Concrete Linings 712
17.22 Joints for Steel Pipes 713
17.23 Lining and Coating Continuity at Field Joints 715
17.24 Cathodic Protection (CP) 715
Contents
Plastic Pipes 716
17.25 Polyethylene (PE) Pipes 716
17.26 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipes 719
17.27 Glass Reinforced Plastics (GRP) Pipes 720
Concrete and Fibre Cement Pipes 723
17.28 Prestressed Concrete Pressure Pipes 723
17.29 Reinforced Concrete Cylinder Pipes 726
17.30 Reinforced Concrete Pressure Pipes 727
17.31 Fibre and Asbestos Cement (AC) Pipes 727
17.32 Polymer Concrete Pipes 728
Resistance to Internal Forces 728
17.33 Forces Due to Pressure and Velocity 728
17.34 Pipe Restraint and Thrust Blocks 729
Pipeline and Pipe System Construction 731
17.35 Choice of Pipes 731
17.36 Pipe Laying and Installation 731
17.37 Changes in Direction (Bends) in the Field 735
17.38 Testing of Pipelines 735
17.39 Making Connections 737
17.40 Underwater Pipelines 738
Reference Standards 739
References 742
CHAPTER 18 Valves and Meters 743
Part I Valves 743
18.1 Valve Development 743
18.2 Valve Functions 743
18.3 Isolation 744
18.4 Regulation 744
18.5 Control 744
18.6 Valve Selection and Specification 747
18.7 Gate Valves 749
18.8 Butterfly Valves 750
18.9 Globe Valves 751
18.10 Screwdown Valves 752
18.11 Ball Valves 753
18.12 Plug Valves 754
18.13 Diaphragm Valves 754
18.14 Pinch Valves 755
18.15 Needle Valves 755
Contents xxi
18.16 Sleeve Valves 755
18.17 Hollow-Jet Discharge Valves 756
18.18 Non-Return (or Check) Valves 756
18.19 Flap Valves 757
18.20 Cavitation at Valves 758
18.21 Valve Operating Equipment 759
18.22 Valve Closure Speed 760
18.23 Washouts 760
18.24 Air Valves 761
18.25 Valve Chambers 765
Part II Measurement of Flow and Consumption 766
18.26 Purposes of Flow Measurement 766
18.27 Types of Flow Meter 766
18.28 Volumetric Flow Meters 768
18.29 Permanent Flow Meter Installations 769
18.30 Temporary Flow Measurement Devices 770
18.31 Supply (Revenue) Meters 771
18.32 The Accuracy of Water Meters 773
18.33 Future Trends in Metering 774
References 775
CHAPTER 19 Pumping, Electrical Plant, Control and Instrumentation 777
Part I Pumps 777
19.1 Pumping Plant 777
19.2 Centrifugal Pumps 777
19.3 Types of Centrifugal Pump 778
19.4 Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps 782
19.5 Axial Flow and Mixed Flow Pumps 785
19.6 Reciprocating Pumps 786
19.7 Selection of Pumps for Water Supply 787
19.8 Pump Body and Impeller Selection 789
19.9 Standby Pumping Plant 789
19.10 Boosting 789
19.11 Increasing Pumping Station Output 791
19.12 Station Arrangement and Plant Layout 792
19.13 Pump Suction Design 794
19.14 Thermodynamic Pump Performance Monitoring 795
19.15 Cavitation Damage 796
19.16 Corrosion Protection 796
19.17 Transient Pressures: Water Hammer and Surge 797
xxii Contents
19.18 Efficiencies and Fuel Consumptions 797
19.19 Pump Drives 798
Part II Electrical Plant 799
19.20 Electric Motors for Pump Drives 799
19.21 The Induction Motor 801
19.22 Induction Motor Starting Methods 803
19.23 Induction Motor Protection 805
19.24 Speed Control of Induction Motors 806
19.25 Harmonic Filters 808
19.26 Effect of Electricity Tariffs 808
19.27 Electrical Power Supplies 809
19.28 Standby and Site Power Generation 811
19.29 Transformers 812
19.30 HV and LV Switchboards 812
19.31 Motor Control Centres 813
19.32 Electrical Cabling 814
19.33 Heating and Ventilation 815
Part III Control and Instrumentation (C&I) 815
19.34 Introduction 815
19.35 Control 816
19.36 Automation 817
19.37 Control System Definition 817
19.38 Instrumentation 818
19.39 Systems 821
19.40 Communications 823
19.41 Hardware 826
19.42 Ancillary Equipment 827
19.43 Automation and Operation and Maintenance 827
References 827
CHAPTER 20 Treated Water Storage 829
20.1 Functions of Treated Water Storage 829
20.2 Storage Capacity Required 830
20.3 Ground or Elevated Storage 832
20.4 Statutory Consents and Requirements 832
20.5 Water Quality Considerations 833
20.6 Sampling and Water Testing 834
20.7 Instrumentation 834
20.8 Overflow and Drain Down Design 835
20.9 Ventilation 836
Contents xxiii
20.10 Loadings on Water Storage Reservoirs and Tanks 836
20.11 Water Retaining Concrete Design 836
20.12 Prestressed Concrete Circular Tank Design 838
20.13 Welded Steel Plate Design 838
Service Reservoirs 839
20.14 Reservoir Shape and Depth 839
20.15 Covering and Protecting Reservoirs 840
20.16 Service Reservoir Structures 841
20.17 Rectangular Jointed Concrete Reservoirs 842
20.18 Monolithic Concrete Reservoirs 845
20.19 Circular Reinforced Concrete Reservoirs 845
20.20 Cast In-Situ Prestressed Concrete Reservoirs 848
20.21 Precast Concrete Panel Reservoirs 849
20.22 Steel Plate Reservoirs 850
20.23 Panel or Sectional Tanks 851
20.24 Drainage and Waterproofing Concrete Service Reservoirs 852
20.25 Access to Service Reservoirs 853
20.26 Service Reservoir Pipework 853
20.27 Valve Houses for Service Reservoirs 856
20.28 Baffles in Service Reservoirs 856
Water Towers 857
20.29 Use of Water Towers 857
20.30 Concrete Water Towers 857
20.31 Welded Steel Water Towers 859
20.32 Segmental Plate Tanks 859
20.33 Pipework and Access for Water Towers 860
Testing Service Reservoirs and Tanks 860
20.34 Testing Procedure 860
20.35 Searching for Leaks 861
20.36 Cleaning and Disinfection 862
20.37 Inspection and Repair of Service Reservoirs 862
Reference Standards 862
References 863
Conversion Factors 865
Index 867