Tuscan Order

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    Tuscan Order - Close to Roman Doric but the columnsdon't have fluting

    Composite Order - Combination of Ionic and Corithian,large scale valutes and acanthus leaves

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    Innovation

    Clearly the Romans were excellent engineers and this allowed enormous freedom to architecture.Destructive fires in the city pushed innovations such as the use of pozzolanic concrete. Concretenot only allowed fire-prone materials to be eliminated but its greater strength permitted theconstruction of enormous structures which until then had been impossible to conceive. Theenormous, single-span, dome of the Pantheon is one such example.

    Other architectural innovations can be found in great buildings such as the Domus Aurea, Nero'sGolden House. Its vast dimensions allowed the designers to surprise the visitor with unexpectedfeatures such as the vaulted octagonal room.

    The Domus Aurea also gives us an interesting parallel with the architects and buildings of laterperiods. For example it is interesting to note how the Romans enjoyed using false structuralfeatures to aesthetic ends like building false vaults into their ceilings. These could be plasteredand painted as in the Domus Aurea but in fact they performed no real weight-bearing function.There is merely a space between them and the beams of the floor above, which at best providedthe function of improved insulation and sound proofing. I find an interesting similarity andcounterpoise to this in the Gothic aesthetic trick of accentuating the structural ribs of churches in

    order to render a stronger sensation of height rather than to actually perform a structural function.The manipulation of "space" in Roman architecture also shows through in the arts closelyassociated with Roman architecture. For example inRoman mosaics we see a breadth ofsolutions which manipulate the sense of space through a modular "flat" approach which enhancesoverall size versus a central "emblema" which creates a focus in the centre - a device rathersimilar to that employed during the Roman Baroque and counter reformation when the altar wasplaced closer to the centre of the church.

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    As the "First-born" daughter of Jupiter, Fortuna Primigenia was believed to fix the new-bornchild's destiny or fate. Her name could also be interpreted as "First-bearer", as in the first to bearchildren; and She was depicted as suckling two infant children, who were said to be Juno andJupiter, i.e., the supreme female and male principles, symbolizing totality as Mother and FatherDeities. Naturally as a Goddess connected with childbirth, She was especially favored bymarried women.

    Her temple complex in Praeneste was built into the side of a great hill, and had several levels ofterraces and staircases, a basilica, and curia (meeting-hall), with the small circular temple toFortuna at the top. It was a huge complex, measuring 1300-plus feet at the base of it andstretching vertically up the hillside for 450 feet, and it incorporated two reservoirs whichprovided water for a great fountain as well as for the surrounding town. The ruins today are veryimpressive, though a palace was built on the foundations in the Renaissance; following theoriginal layout, it kept the semicircular shape of the colonnade just below the temple (alas, thetemple itself has long since vanished), as is not uncommon of medieval or Renaissance structuresbuilt over ancient sites, since it's easier to built on foundations that are already there than to takethem apart and start from scratch. On the oldest level, that of the basilica, are two small caves orgrottoes, the one to the west most likely being the original shrine of Fortuna around which thecomplex was built. The temple of Fortuna Primigenia was one of the largest in ancient Italy, ifnot the largest, and owing to its spectacular situation on a hill, could be seen from all over

    Latium, even from as far away as Rome.

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    The aqueducts and bridges in Roman period exist in Rome, Merida, Segovia, Tarragon inSpain and Nimes in France.Pont du Gard in Nimes is one of the famous one which preserve original style of

    Augustus era. Now the bridge exists about 300m long, 49m above of the river.

    The bottom arches, which spans are 15.75m to 21.5m, are about 155m long, 20m high.On the top of the bottom arches is a 7m wide road which has expanded for the trafic ofcars in 1743.The middle arches are same spans of the bottom arches and the length is about 265m intotal. The height of middle part is about 21m and width is 5m.On the top of the 35 small arches, about 8.5m high 3m wide, support the waterway.The big arch, the bottom arch and middle arch, have 3 times or 4 times of the small archin span and 6 times of the small arch in height.

    There was only 17m fall from the headwaters to Nimes and that meant the incline was34cm per 1km.

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    Arch

    The Romans not only demonstrated their power to adapt what already existed to many purposesin their use of the arch, but in that of the various orders of architecture also; they not onlyemployed these in ways not before known, but they combined features of different orders, andcreated the so-called composite capitals and bases. In the Colosseum, for example, we see twostyles most inappropriately used. The entire structure is arched, and a net, as it were, of Grecian

    columns, supporting an entablature, applied to it. The first glance reveals its faults, and a regretthat buttresses were not used is involuntary; these would appear to sustain the whole, and wouldhave added an effect of vast strength as a constructive element; while the columns used have theeffect of sustaining the entablature only, and of adding their own burden to what the archesalready had to bear.

    The Roman Doric, derived from the Greek, differs from it through the introduction of anindependent base, and certain ornamental additions to the capital. This order was used in Romanforums, courtyards, etc., and in the three-quarter columns in arcades, as well as for usefulsupports in civil buildings; but no purely Greek temple existed in the entire Roman territory. Itwould seem that these exquisite edifices, in the perfection of Greek refinement, were toosublimated in effect to please the ruder Romans.

    The Ionic order suffered absolute degradation at the hands of the Romans, who appear neither tohave understood nor appreciated this column. However, their structures were so lofty that theyfound it necessary to use the three orders of pillars, one above the other, and so placed the Ionicin the centre. Two capitals from the Temple of Concord, now in the Palace of the Conservators,having a pair of rams' heads at each corner, show the degeneration to which Ionic capitals weresubjected. It is to be deplored that the two orders which had reached perfection in Greece werenot appreciated and properly used at Rome.

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    With the Corinthian order it was quite different. That was still incomplete in the estimation of theHellenes; for while exquisite in design and grace, the Greeks had not given it the strength whichis an indispensable feature of a supporting architectural member. This the Romans accomplished,or perhaps it would be more just to say that Greek artists perfected this order in Rome. Withinthe Roman territory the Corinthian order underwent many modifications; and it is stated that asmany as fifty varieties of Corinthian capitals were produced for Roman uses during the threefruitful centuries mentioned above. They vary from the elegant simplicity of the Greek artistictaste to that florid ornamentation loved by the Romans. Those in the portico of the Pantheonhave fine capitals, not over-ornamented; but the incongruity of a plain shaft with a Corinthiancapital affords an example of Roman methods.

    The Romans introduced stone arch technology over two thousand years ago. They applied tobridges they constructed across the known world and examples can still be seen today. Thetechnology they used has stood the test of time and some Roman construction methods are stillused today. The arch is an prime example of Roman technology that is still used world wide eventhough modern materials are now used. A basic example of the construction of a typical RomanStone Arch is shown below.

    As described on previous sheets, a wood frame was first constructed in the shape of an arch. Thestone work was built up around the frame and finally a keystone was set in position. The woodframe could then be removed and the arch was left in position. Stone arch technology was usedeven on Roman monuments such as the Colosseum in Rome. Many of the monuments built withstone arch technology can still be seen today, such is the strength of the arch.

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    Stone arches are not built entirely from stone. Stone is as expensive today as it was in Romantimes. The Romans had a great understanding of material costs and consequently constructedstone bridges and viaducts from a combination of materials. The diagram above shows thataccurately cut and shaped stone was used for the external walls. Gravel, sand and rough stonewas used to fill all cavities. This filling was cheap to produce and use, compared to cut stone andit could be used by unskilled labour to fill the cavities of structures such as bridges andaqueducts.

    Voussoir

    The keystone is surrounded on each side by voussoirs, or wedge-shaped bricks or stones.The term voussoir comes from French and Latin roots meaning "to turn." The thrust ofthe voussoirs pushes outward and downward in a Roman arch. Roman arches are notedfor their semi-circular, non-pointed curves. The use of voussoirs creates arches which can

    be be used to span large distances and which can bear heavy loads. An example of thiscan be seen in the arches used in construction of ancient Roman aqueducts, many ofwhich still stand today.

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    Colosseum

    The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin:Amphitheatrum Flavium, ItalianAnfiteatro Flavio orColosseo), is an ellipticalamphitheatre in the centre of the city ofRome,Italy, the largest ever built in theRomanEmpire. It is considered one of the greatest works ofRoman architecture and Roman

    engineering. Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started in 72 AD[1] under

    the emperorVespasian and was completed in 80 AD underTitus,[2] with furthermodifications being made during Domitian's reign (8196).[3] The name "AmphitheatrumFlavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from thegensFlavia).

    Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorialcontests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The buildingceased to be used for entertainment in theearly medieval era. It was later reused for suchpurposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, aquarry, and a

    Christian shrine.

    Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused bydevastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconicsymbol ofImperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most populartourist attractions and still has closeconnections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads atorchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

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    The Parthenon

    Work began on the Parthenon, built on the Acropolis, in 447 BC to replace an existing templewhich was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BC and cost 469 silver talents to build. The workbegan under the orders of Pericles to show the wealth and exuberance of Athenian power. Thename of the building most likely came from a cult statue of Athena Parthenos housed in theeastern room of the building. This magnificent structure was built of ivory and gold and wassculptured by the renowned sculptor Phidias. As with most buildings on the Acropolis it wasdedicated to Athena to thank the Goddess for their success. The Parthenon was finally finished in432 BC and was to show the world the dominance and power of Athens. The vast majority of themoney used in the construction came from the Delian League funds. The Delian League was atreaty between the Greek states in league against the Persian Empire. However two years beforework started on the Parthenon, the Athenians had struck a peace treaty with the Persians ending

    the war, although the League continued to exist. It is believed that because of this the leaguestopped being a mutual defence against Persia but part of the Athenian Empire. This theory wasreinforced when Athens moved the Leagues treasury from the Pan-Hellenic sanctuary at Delos tothe Parthenon (Opisthodomos room). Not only was the Parthenon a magnificent structure to lookat, but it also showed Athenian dominance over the rest of the Greek peninsula and that Athenswas its Greek imperial master.

    The five main instigators of the design and construction on the Parthenon were Pericles, Phidias,Kalamis, Ictinus and Calibrates. Pericles was the leading Athenian statesman at the time, Phidiasand Kalamis were in charge of the design of the sculptures and decorations, and Ictinus and

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    Calibrates were the main architects. The vast majority of the 469 silver talents spent on the Parthenonwent on transporting the stone from Mount Pantelakos, which was about 16 kilometres fromAthens, to the Acropolis. It is thought there are around 13400 stones in the building. The

    Parthenon is a clear example of Doric design with Ionic architectural features. The architectsused a clever visual effect in their design of the building. The curvature of the Stylobate, thetaper of the Naos walls (housing the cult statue) and the Entasis of the columns allow the visualeffect to make the temple appear more symmetrical than it actually is. This design was sorenowned it has been copied centuries later, even the Romans incorporated it into the design oftheir buildings, and a good example of this can be seen at the Roman library at Ephesus.Measured at the top step, the dimensions of the base of the Parthenon are 69.5 meters by 30.9meters (228.0 x 101.4 ft). The Cella was 29.8 meters long by 19.2 meters wide (97.8 x 63.0 ft),with internal Doric colonnades in two tiers, structurally necessary to support the roof. On theexterior, the Doric columns measure 1.9 meters (6.2 ft) in diameter and are 10.4 meters (34.1 ft)high. The corner columns are slightly larger in diameter. The Stylobate has an upward curvaturetowards its centre of 60 millimetres (2.36 in) on the east and west ends, and of 110 millimetres

    (4.33 in) on the sides.

    Roman Houses

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    The lower class Romans(plebeians) lived in apartmenthouses, called flats, above or

    behind their shops. Even fairlywell-to-do tradesmen might chose

    to live in an apartment-buildingcompound over their store, withmaybe renters on the upper stories.Their own apartments might bequite roomy, sanitary and pleasant,occasionally with running water.But others were not that nice.

    In the apartment houses, or flats,an entire family (grandparents,

    parents, children) might all be

    crowded into one room, withoutrunning water. They had to haultheir water in from publicfacilities.

    Fire was a very real threat becausepeople were cooking meals incrowded quarters, and many of the

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    flats were made of wood.

    They didn't have toilets. They hadto use public latrines (toilets).

    The upper class Romans (patricians)lived very differently. Their homes were single familyhomes, which in ancient Rome meant the greatgrandparents, grandparents, parents, and kids of onefamily lived in a home together.

    Homes were made, quite often, of brick with red tileroofs, with rooms arranged around a central courtyard.The windows and balconies faced the courtyard, not thestreet, to keep homes safe from burglars. There were

    painting on the walls and beautiful mosaics on the floor.There was very little furniture, and no carpeting.Wealthy Romans might have a house with a front door,

    bedrooms, an office, a kitchen, a dining room, a garden,a temple, an atrium, a toilet, and a private bath.

    THE PERISTYLIUM

    Instead of surrounding their houses with large lawns and gardens, the Romans created theirgardens inside theirdomus. Theperistylium was an open courtyard within the house; thecolumns surrounding the garden supported a shady roofed portico whose inner walls were often

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    embellished with elaborate wall paintings. (one famous painting from a garden in Pompeii is theso-called Venus on the half-shell). See this cutaway view of the rear of the house from thecomposite model in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology, including acloserview of the peristyle garden. Sometimes the lararium, a shrine for the gods of the household, waslocated in this portico, or it might be found in the atrium. The courtyard might contain flowersand shrubs, fountains, benches, sculptures and evenfish ponds. This reconstruction of a peristyleshows how attractive this part of the house could be.

    Atrium

    The formal, central hall of the Roman domus was the atrium. Small bedrooms orcubicula branched off from the atrium. Typically beyond the atrium was a receptionor office area known as the tablinum, beyond which would be an enclosedcolonnaded garden. The atrium was open to the air and held a small pool to collectrain. Between the atrium and the street were the doors and a corridor (vestibulum,

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    from which comes vestibule).

    Cubiculum

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    On the walls can be seen remnants of paintings in red on a white background, of a typethat is common, for example, in Pompei. These paintings are probably from a later date than theAugustan period (27 BC- 14 AD). According to Arvid Andrn this indicates that Tiberius musthave also used the villa.

    The floor is a simple mosaic floor in white with black decor, made with small mosaic tiles, so-called tesserae. On the right side of the room the floor is somewhat raised; the bed probably wasplaced here. Above this cubiculum Munthe had a roof erected to protect it.

    Immediately next to the cubiculum there are further traces of Roman masonry. Perhaps this isfrom an adjacent room or from a portico facing the sea. Here as well a corner of a mosaic floorsimilar to the cubiculum floor is preserved, with traces of wall plaster, painted in Pompei red.

    The most interesting aspect here, however, is the masonry itself. It is Opus reticulatum, a type ofbrickwork where small squared blocks were laid in a fishnet pattern in the cement core. This typeof brickwork is very common in the Augustan period.

    It is these remnants of a Roman villa that Amedeo Maiuri called the poorest and most famousruins on Capri.

    THE CULINA

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    The culina or kitchen was usually small, dark, and poorly ventilated, relegated to an obscurecorner of the house. Wealthy matronae did not prepare meals; that was the job of their numeroushousehold slaves, so it did not matter if the room was hot and smoky. Baking was done in ovens,

    whose tops were utilized to keep dishes warm. Embers from the oven could be placed belowmetal braziers for a form of stove-top cooking; some braziers were more elaborately decorated,like thisbronze brazierfrom Chiusi.

    Ancient Roman Mosaics

    Ancient Roman mosaics complemented Roman painting both in terms of pictorial effects as wellas in terms of their function in Roman architecture as elements ofRoman buildings and Romanhouses. The great benefit of mosaics with respect to paintings was the greater durability andvibrancy of colour, so much so that in many cases there will be little left of an excavated villa butthe mosaic on the floor may well be close to intact. Amazing examples have been found, forexample atHadrian's villa (bowl with doves, over 60 tesserae per square cm), the mosaics in theHouse of the Faun in ancient Pompeii, the villa atPiazza Armerina in Sicily and of course not

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    forgetting the wonderful examples from outside Italy such as the numerous mosaics at Antioch(3rd Century AD).

    The level of detail and finesse achieved was extraordinary and the amount of work required toachieve high quality could make their cost quite prohibitive. At the bottom end of the scale, butalso requiring great time and patience we have mosaics employed for covering floor spaces in adurable yet elegant way. Between these extremes we have the multitude of mosaics used in everyday situations, in public places, shops, houses, gladiator training schools and so on.

    When dealing with ancient Roman mosaics it is tempting to simply run through the chronology,type and level of achievement but a second look will show that we can go a step further: Romanmosaics are a significant facet and indicator of the evolution ofancient Roman art and as suchdisplay many of the evolutionary twists and turns ofRoman society itself.

    Ironically, understanding this statement about Roman mosaics in a little more detail requires usto approach the subject as a mosaic with many components rather than linearly like achronological piece of story telling though clearly we can't do without looking at timing anddevelopment as well as construction methods also.

    Before we delve into an overview of Roman mosaics and their development through time it isworth running through the table below to get a preview of some of the elements which went intocreating the many different examples of mosaics which have survived from ancient Rome and

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    therefore how Roman mosaics reflect use and society of the time. Appreciating these aspectshelps us understand the evolution and significance of mosaics in ancient Rome.

    Fresco

    Fresco by Dionisius representing Saint Nicholas in a Ferapontov Monastery.

    Dante Domenico di Michelino's Divine Comedy in Duomo ofFlorence.

    Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related mural painting

    types, executed on plaster on walls or ceilings. The word fresco comes from the

    Italian word affresca [affresko] which derives from the Latin word for "fresh".

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    Frescoes first developed in the ancient world and continued to be popular through

    the Renaissance. Declining in popularity, they enjoyed something of a revival in the

    20th century.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance