TURKEY

Türkiye C;umhuriyeti

(Republic of Turkey)

Capital: Ankara Population: 50·67m. (1985) GNP percapita: US$I ,434 (1989)

HISTORY. The Turkish War of Independence (1919-22), following the dis­integration of the Ottoman Empire, was led and won by Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) on behalf of the Grand National Assembly which first met in Ankara on 23 April 1920. On 20 Jan. 1921 the Grand National Assembly voted a constitution wh ich de­clared that an sovereignty belonged to the people and vested an power, both execu­tive and legislative, in the Grand National Assembly. The name 'Ottoman Empire' was later replaced by 'Turkey'. On 1 Nov. 1922 the Grand National Assembly abol­ished the office of Sultan and Turkey became a republic on 29 Oct. 1923.

Religious courts were abolished in 1924, Islam ceased to be the official state re li -gion in 1928, women were given the franchise and western-style surnames were adopted in 1934.

On 27 May 1960 the Turkish Army, directed by aNational Unity Committee under the leadership of Gen. Cemal Gürsel, overthrew the government of the Democratic Party. The Grand National Assembly was dissolved and party activities were suspended. Party activities were legally resumed on 12 Jan. 1961. A new con­stitution was approved in a referendum held on 9 July 1961 and general elections were held the same year.

On 12 Sept. 1980, the Turkish armed forces overthrew the Demirel Government (Justice Party). Parliament was dissolved and an activities of political parties were suspended. The Constituent Assembly was convened in Oct. 1981, and prepared a new Constitution which was enforced after a national referendum on 7 Nov. 1982.

AREA AND POPULATION. Turkey is bounded west by the Aegean Sea and by Greece, north by Bulgaria and the B1ack Sea, east by the USSR and Iran, and south by Iraq, Syria and the Mediterranean.

The area (including lakes) is 779,452 sq. km (300,947 sq. miles). Area in Europe (Trakya), 23,764 sq. km. Area in Asia (Anadolu), 755,688 sq. km; population (census 1985), 50,664,458.

Some 12m. Kurds live in Turkey. Limited use of the Kurdish language (not in schools or publications) was sanctioned in Feb. 1991.

The census population is given as folIows:

1927 1935 1940 1945

Total 13,648,270 16,158,018 17,820,950 18,790,174

1950 1955 1960 1965

Total 20,947,188 24,064,763 27,754,820 31,391,421

1970 1975 1980 1985

Total 35,605,176 40,347,719 44,736,957 50,664,458

Vital statistics, 1988: Marriages, 448,144; divorces, 22,513; deaths, 152,236. The population of the provinces, at the census in 1985, was as folIows:

Adana 1,725,940 Bolu 504,778 Gaziantep 966,490 Adlyaman 430,728 Burdur 248,002 Giresun 502,151 Afyonkarahisar 666,978 Bursa 1,324,015 Gümüshane 283,753 Ai;ri 421,131 C;anakkale 417,121 Hakkari 182,645 Amasya 358,289 C;ankm 263,964 Hatay 1,002,252 Ankara 3,306,327 C;orum 599,204 Jsparta 382,844 Antalya 891,149 Denizli 667,478 I~el 1,034,085 Artvin 226,338 Diyarbakir 934,505 Istanbul 5,842,985 Aydin 743,419 Edirne 389,638 Izmir 2,317,829 Bahkesir 910,282 Eläzig 483,715 Kahramanmaras 840,472 Bilecik 160,909 Erzincan 299,985 Kars 722,431 Bingöl 241,548 Erzurum 856,175 Kastamonu 450,353 Billis 300,843 Eskisehir 597,397 Kayseri 864,060

1210 B. Hunter (Ed.), The Statesman’s Year-Book© Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited 1991

TURKEY 1211

Klrk1are1i 297,098 Nevsehir 278,129 Sivas 772,209 Kirsehir 260,156 Nigde 560,386 Tekirdag 402,721 Kocae1i 742,245 Ordu 763,857 Tokat 679,071 Konya 1,769,050 Rize 374,206 Trabzon 786,194 Kütahya 543,384 Sakarya 610,500 Tunceli 151,906 Malatya 665,809 Samsun 1,108,710 Usak 271,261 Manisa 1,050,130 Sanliurfa 795,034 Van 547,216 Mardin 652,069 Siirt 524,741 Yozgat 545,301 Mugla 486,290 Sinop 280,140 Zonguldak 1,044,945 Mus 339,492

65% of the population was urban in 1990. (Istanbul, 8m.). The population of towns of over 100,000 inhabitants, at the census of Oct. 1985,

was as folIows:

Istanbul Ankara Izmir Adana Bursa Gaziantep Konya Kayseri Eskisehir I,el

5,494,916 2,251,533 1,489,817

776,000 614,133 466,302 438,859 378,458 367,328 314,105

Diyarbakir Samsun Antalya Erzurum Ma1atya Kocaeli K. Maras Sanliurfa Sivas Elazig

305,259 280,068 258,139 252,648 251,257 236,144 212,206 206,385 197,266 181,253

Denizli Trabzon Sakarya Balikesir Manisa Van Kütahya Zonguldak Hatay Isparta

171,360 155,960 155,041 152,402 126,319 121,306 120,354 119,125 109,233 101,784

CLIMATE. Coastal regions have a Mediterranean climate, with mild, moist winters and hot, dry summers. The interior plateau has more extreme conditions, with low and irregular rainfall, cold and snowy winters and hot, almost rainless summers. Ankara. lan. 32·5°F (0·3°C), luly 73°F (23°C). Annual rainfall 14·7" (367 mm). Istanbul. lan. 41°F (SOC), luly 73°F (23°C). Annual rainfall 28·9" (723 mm). Izmir. lan. 46°F (8°C), luly 81°F (27°C). Annual rainfall 28" (700 mm).

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Turkish Grand National Assembly was dissolved on 12 Sept. 1980. The National Security Council took over its functions and powers. On 23 Oct. 1981 a Consultative Assembly was in­augurated, to prepare a new Constitution to replace that of 1961. The Assembly began its work in Oct. 1981 under the presidency of Sadi Irrnak and on 7 Nov. 1982 a national referendum established that 98% of the electorate were in favour of the new Constitution. The Presidency is not an executive position, and the President may not be linked to a political party.

Turkish men and women are entitled to vote at the age of 21 to elect members of a single-chamber parliament.

Elections were held on 29 Nov. 1987. Of the 450 seats in the Grand National As­sembly the Motherland Party won 292; The Social Democratic Populist Party, 99; The True Path Party, 59.

President: Turgut Özal. The Cabinet in Feb. 1991 was composed as folIows: Prime Minister: Yildirim Akbulut. lustice: Oltan Sungurlu. Defence: Mehmet Yazar. InteriOl': Abdulkadir Aksu.

Foreign Affairs: Ahmet Kurtcebe Alptemocin. Customs and Finance: Adnan Kahveci. Education: Avni Akyol. Pub/ic Works and Housing: Cengiz Altinkaya. Health: Halil Sivgin. Labour: Imren Aykut. Transportation and Communications: Cengiz Tuncer. Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Affairs: Lutfullah Kayalar. Industry and Commerce: Sükrü Yürür. Energy and Natural Resources: Fahrettin Kurt. Tourism: Ilhan Akuzum. Culture: Namik Kemal Zeybek.

There are 14 Ministers of State. Nationalflag: A white crescent and star on red. National anthem: Korkma! Sönmez bu safaklarda yüzen al sancak (words by

Mehmed Akif Ersoy; tune by Zeki Güngör; adopted 12 March 1921). Local Government. The Constitution of 1921 provided for the administrative divi­sion of the country into Il, (province, now 67 in number), divided into Il~'e (dis-

1212 TURKEY

trict), subdivided in their turn into Bucak (townshipor commune). At the head of each 11 is a Vali representing the Government. Each 11 has its own elective council.

The district is regarded as a mere grouping of townships or communes for certain purposes of general administration. The township or commune is an autonomous entity and possesses an elective council charged with the administration of such malters as are not reserved to the State.

At local elections in lune 1990 the Motherland Party won 31 of the 51 districts contested, the Social Democratic Populist Party, 11, and the True Path Party, 5.

DEFENCE. There is a Supreme Council of National Security, under the chair­manship of the Prime Minister, wh ich co-ordinates the resources in case of war. Besides the Minister of National Defence and the Chief of the General Staff, the heads of economic Ministries are members of this council.

Conscription in the Army, Air Force and Navy is 18 months at the age of 20. Army. The Army consists of 13 infantry, and 1 mechanized divisions, 10 infantry, 7 armoured, 6 mechanized, 1 parachute and 2 commando brigades; 5 coastal defence battalions. Equipment includes 1,130 M-48A5, 523 M-47, 1,980 M48A5 Tl(f2 and 81 Leopard main battle tanks. Army Aviation has 163 aircraft and 273 helicopters. Strength (1991) 525,000 (475,000 conscripts), and reserves number 950,000. There is also a paramilitary gendarmerie cum national guard of 70,000. Navy. Current strength includes 15 diesel submarines (6 of German design built 1975-89 and 9 ex-US built 1944-45, 12 ex-US destroyers (1943-46), 10 frigates of wh ich 4 are modem German MEKO-type, 4 ex-German Type 120 Köln class, and 2 locally built in the 1970s. Light forces comprise 16 fast missile craft, 2 fast torpedo craft, 7 coastal and 21 inshore patrol craft. Mine warfare forces include 6 mine­layers and 22 coastal and 11 inshore minesweepers. Amphibious lift is provided by 7 tank landing ships and over 70 smaller craft. Major auxiliaries in service are I re­plenishment and 6 support tankers, 5 depot ships, 3 salvage/rescue ships, I survey ship and 1 training ship. Minor auxiliaries, coastal freighters and service craft num­ber about 120.

The main naval bases are at Gö!cük in the Gulf of Izmit, at Iskenderun, at Tas­kizak (istanbul) and at izmir.

The naval air component operates 22 S-2 mixed Air Force and Naval-manned Tracker anti-submarine aircraft and 15 helicopters for anti-submarine and patrol duties. There is a Marine Brigade some 4,000 strong.

Personnel in 1990 totalled 55,000 (42,000 conscripts) including marines. The separate Coast Guard numbers about 1,000 and performs coastal police duties

with a force of 28 inshore patrol vessels, 4 transports and numerous boats.

Air Force. The Air Force is under the control of the General Staff and, operation­ally, under 6 ATAF. It is organized as 2 tactical air forces, with headquarters at Eskisehir and Diyarbakir, each having a flight of C-47s, UH-1H helicopters, T-33s. Combat aircraft comprise F-I04G and F-104S Starfighters in 7 squadrons; F-5As in 3 squadrons; F-16A/Bs in 2 squadrons; RF-5As in 1 squadron; F-4E and RF-4E Phantoms in 6 squadrons; plus Nike-Hercules surface-to-air missile batteries. The 4 transport squadrons are equipped with Transall C-160, C-130 Hercules, Citation, Viscount and C-47 aircraft, and UH-IH helicopters. Training types include T-33A, T-37 and T-38 advanced trainers, T-34 basic and T-41 primary trainers. Delivery of 160 F-16 Fighting Falcons began late in 1987. Personnel strength (1991), 67,400, with 455 combat aircraft.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Turkey is a member of the UN, OECD, NATO and Council of Europe and an Associate of the EEC.

ECONOMY Policy. The development plan for 1985-90 envisaged an investment of TL14,412,9OOm. Privatization of state enterprises is in train and 13 co-ordinated by the Public Participation Fund.

TURKEY 1213

Budget. The budget for 1988-89 envisaged expenditure of TL20,800,000m. and revenue of TLl8,400,000m.

Currency. The unit of currency is the Turkish /ira (TRL) of 100 kurus. There are coins of TL5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 500 and notes of TLl ,000, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000 and 50,000. In March 199 I, US$ I = TL3,369; fI = TL6,39I. The lira is fully con­vertible. Annualized inflation was 55% in Dec. 1990.

Banking and Finance. The Turkish banking system is composed of the Central Bank (Merkez Bankasl; Governor, Rüsdu Saracoglu) and 64 other banks. The Cen­tral Bank's assets were TL28,327,000m. at the end of 1989. The assets and liabilities of deposit money banks in 1988 were TL6 1,40 I ,Ooom.

There is a stock exchange in Istanbul.

Weights and Measures. The metric system is in' use. The Gregorian calendar has been in excIusive use since 26 Dec. 1925.

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Electricity. The potential hydro-electric power in Turkey is estimated at 56,000m. kwh. In 1986 the electrical power plants (hydro-electric or thermal) produced 38,490m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz.

Oil. Oil is being produced in Garzan and Raman by the Turkish Petroleum Co. Under the oillaw of 14 Ocl. 1954 private companies can explore and produce oil. Crude oil production (1990) was 3·4m. tonnes. The 3 refineries refined 12m. tons of crude oil in 1975. With a fourth refinery, introduced in 1973, total refining capacity now reaches 24m. tons a year. The oil pipeline Batman-Iskenderun (494 km) was opened on 4 Jan. 1967. Imports (refined locally) in 1983 were 14·3m. tonnes.

Minerals. Turkey is rich in minerals, and is a major producer of chrome. Production of principal minerals (in 1,000 tonnes) was:

Caal Lignite Chrome Capper cancentrate Refined su1phur Iron Baron

/985 1986 7,260 7,015

39,437 45,470 877 1,040 161 119 43 40

3,995 5,249 1,543 1,636

1987 7,084

46,481 1,049

137 39

5,366 1,629

1988 6,688

39,025 1,225

168 30

5,481 2,044

Of the Govemment organizations producing these ores, Zonguldak coal mines operate under the Turkish State Coal Exploitation; while the copper mines at Murgul and Ergani, the Eastem chromite mines, Ke~ibor1u sulphur, Emet cole­manite, Küre pyrite and cupriferous pyrite, Keban argentiferous lead mines operate under the Etibank.

AgricuIture. The number of people aged 12 and over engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry (including hunting) in 1985 was 12,037,883,

In 1990 there were some 28m, ha of agricultural land and 3m. smallholdings. In 1987, 24,318,000 ha were crop land, 18,744,000 ha of it sown and 5,574,000 ha fal­low; vineyards, fruit orchards and olive groves occupied 2,963,000 ha; forest oc­cupied 20,199,000 ha.

The soil for the most part is very fertile; the principal products are cotton, tobacco, cereals (especially wheat), figs, silk, dried fruits, liquorice root, nuts, al monds, mohair, skins and hides, furs, wool, gums, canary seed, linseed and sesame. The South-Eastem Anatolian Irrigation Project (CAP) is expected to pro­duce 1·6m. ha of fertile land. The production of olives for olive oil was estimated at 0,6m. tonnes in 1990 (I·lm. tonnes in 1988). Sugar production (refined) in 1985 was 1,429,586 tonnes. Agricultural production (in tonnes) in 1988 incIuded 3·35m. grapes, 740,000 oranges and 360,000 lemons, 353,000 hazelnuts, 1·95m. apples, 5,25m. tomatoes, tea (fresh leaves, 1988) 752,662.

Turkey produced 600 tonnes of flax fibre, 4,950 tonnes of hemp fibre and 536,786 tonnes of cotton lint in 1988. Agricultural tractors numbered 654,636 in 1988.

1214 TURKEY

Production (in 1,000 tonnes) ofprincipal crops:

Wheal Barley Maize Rye Tobacco Oals Rice

1985 1986 17,000 19,000 6,500 7,000 1,900 2,300

360 350 170 158 314 300 162 165

/987 18,900 6,900 2,400

380 185 325 165

1988 20,500 7,500 2,000

280 212 276 158

/989 11,500 4,900

252

Estimated production in 1990 (in tonnes): Sultanas, O,J3m.; sunflower seeds, 0·85m.; soya beans, 0·2m.; pistachios, 8,000; hazelnut, 0·34m.; cotton, 0·62m.; wheat, 14m.; barley, 6m.; tobacco, 0·2Im.

Livestock (\988): 40m. sheep, J3·lm. goats, 12m. cattle, 1·2m. asses, 620,000 horses, 540,000 buffaloes.

In 1988 Turkey produced 62,000 tonnes of wool, 245,000 tonnes of cattle meat and 305,000 tonnes of sheep meat and 290,000 tonnes of poultry.

Forestry. The most wooded I1s are Kastamonu, Aydm, Bursa, Bolu, Trabzon, Konya and Balikesir. In 1987 total forest land was 20,199,000 ha, 26% ofthe land area. Produce (\ ,000 cu. metres ) in 1988: Logs, 3,571; pit props, 529; industrial wood, 373; poles, 123. Also 5,176,699 tonnes of firewood.

Fisheries. Catch (1987): Sea fish, 562,697 tonnes; crustaceans and molIuscs, 20,156 tonnes; fresh water fish, 41,760 tonnes. Aquaculture production, 1987,3,300 tonnes (mainly carp and trout). There were (1987) 8,594 fishing boats.

INDUSTRY. In 199055 state enterprises accounted for about 30% ofproduction. Production in 1988 (in tonnes): 8,993,023 of fuel oil; 6,558,826 of motor oil; 4,461,959 of crude iron; 453,596 of pig iron; 8,009,073 of crude steel; 3,822,497 of super phosphate; 3,143,902 of coke; 22,674,724 of cement and 367,201 of paper. In 1988, 120,796 passenger cars were produced and 31,327 tractors. There are steel works at Karabük, Eregli and Iskenderun.

Labour. Economically active population aged 12 and over, 1985, 20,556,786, of whom 12,118,533 were engaged in agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing, 2,185,369 in manufacturing, 1,382,636 in trade, restaurants and hotels and 2,847,289 in services.

Trade Unions. The trade-union movement began in 1947. There are 4 national con­federations (including Türk-Is and Disk) and 6 federations. There are 35 unions af­filiated to Türk-Is and 17 employers' federations affiliated to Disk, whose activities were banned on 12 Sept. 1980. In 1988, labour unions totalled 80 and employers' unions, 49. Some 2·2m. workers belonged to unions in 1990. Membership is forbid­den to civil servants (inc\uding schoolteachers).

FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS. Foreign debt in 1990 was US$41,OOOm. Direct foreign investment in 1989 was US$663m.

Commerce. Imports and exports (in US$lm.) for calendar years: 1985 1986 /987 1988

Imports 11,343 11,105 14,158 14,335 Exports 7,958 7,457 10,190 11,662

1989 15,762 11,627

Exports (1989) in US$lm.: Textiles, 3,605; iron and steeI products, 1,349; chemi­cal products, 779; leather c\othing, 604; plastic material and rubber, 351; hazelnuts, 266; machinery, 191; petroleum products, 243; processed agricultural products, 1,349; mining and quarrying products, 413; tobacco (1988),266.

Imports (1989) in US$lm.: Machinery, 2,188; chemical products, 2,101; iron and steel products, 2,217; e1ectrical equipment, 1,028; transport equipment, 796; plastic material and rubber, 484; mining and quarrying products, 2,902; processed agricul­tural products, 707; crude oil (1988), 2,434.

In 1988 imports (in US$lm.) were: From Federal Republic of Gennany, 2,054·4;

TURKEY 1215

USA, 1,519·7; Iraq, 1,436·5; Italy, 1,005·7; France, 828·8; UK, 739·1; Iran, 659·8; Japan, 554·8; Belgium, 477·8; USSR, 442·6. Exports: Federal Republic of Germany, 2,149; Iraq, 986·1; Italy, 954·7; USA, 760·6; UK, 576·1; Iran, 545·7; France, 498·5; Saudi Arabia, 355·2; Netherlands, 351·1; USSR, 291·4.

Total trade between Turkey and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in fl ,000 sterling): /986 1987 /988 1989 1990

Imports to UK 406,605 579,366 509,636 533,769 550,803 Exports and re-exports from UK 433,753 513,479 477,539 434,562 606,829

Tourism. The number offoreign visitors was 4,511,193m. in 1989, including 2·3m. on organized tours; earnings from tourism in 1988, US$I,997m. There were 150,159 tourist beds in 1990.

COMMUNICATIONS

Roads. In 1988 there were 30,999 km of state highways (including 125 km of motorway in 1989) and 27 ,852 km of provincial roads; 55,887 km were surfaced. In 1988 there were 1,309,557 cars, 474,886 trucks and pick-ups, 169,055 buses and minibuses and 420,891 motorcycies.

Railways. Total length of railway lines in 1989 was 8,430 km (1,435 mm gauge) of which 567 km were electrified; 146m. passengers and 13·6m. tonnes offreight were carried.

Aviation. In 1988 the Turkish Airlines fleet of 31 planes flew 3,806,196 passengers (1,663,777 on international flights) and carried 341,791 tonnes (152,187) offreight.

Shipping. In 1985 the gross tonnage of cargo ships totaIIed 690,784; passenger ships 131,325 and tankers 186,267. The main ports are: Istanbul, Izmir, Samsun, Mersin, Iskenderun and Trabzon.

Coastal shipping, 1988: 24,996 vessels handled; 934,432 passen gers entered, 933,044 cieared; 25·6m. tons of goods entered, 20·2m. cieared. International ship­ping: 14,058 vessels handled; 640,078 passengers entered, 618,988 c1eared; 43·5m. tons of goods entered, 87·1 m. c1eared.

Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones in 1986 was 2·28m.; Istanbul, 566,745; Ankara, 248,824.

In 1984 there were 6,023,000 licensed radio sets. There were 6,933,285 television receivers.

Newspapers. In 1988, 13 dailies were published in Ankara, 29 dailies in istanbul, 5 dailies in Izmir, 4 dailies in Bursa and 3 dailies in Konya.

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE

Justice. The unified legal system consists of: (I) justices of the peace (single judges with limited but summary penal and civil jurisdiction); (2) courts of first instance (single judges, dealing with cases outside the jurisdiction of (3) and (4)); (3) central criminal courts (a president and 2 judges, dealing with cases where the crime is punishable by imprisonment over 5 years); (4) commercial courts (3 judges); (5) state security courts, to prosecute offences against the integrity of the state (a pre­sident and 4 judges, 2 of the latter being military).

The civil and military Courts of Cassation sit at Ankara. The Council of State is the highest administration tribunal; it consists of 5 cham­

bers. Its 31 judges are nominated from among high-ranking personalities in politics, economy, law, the army, etc.

The Military Court of Cassation in Ankara is the highest military tribunal. The Military Administrative Court deals with the judicial control of administrative acts and deeds concerning military personnel.

The Constitutional Court, set up under the Constitution, can review and annul legislation and try the President of the Republic, Ministers and senior judges. It con­sists of 15 regular and 5 alternate members.

The Civil Code and the Code of Obligations have been adapted from the corre-

1216 TURKEY

sponding Swiss codes. The Penal Code is largely based upon the Italian Penal Code, and the Code of Civil Procedure closely resembles that of the Canton of Neuchätel. The Commercial Code is based on the German. Religion. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Constitution. Although Islam is not the official state religion, Moslems (mainly Sunni) form 98·2% of the popula­tion. There are some 17m. Shi'ites (Alevis). The administration of the Moslem reli­gious organizations is in charge of the Presidency of Religious Affairs, attached to the Prime Minister's office. The Turkish Republic is a secular state.

Istanbul is the seat of the (Ecumenical Patriarch, who is the head of the Orthodox Church in Turkey. The Armenian Church (Gregorian) is ruled by a Patriarch in Istanbul who is subordinate to the Katholikos of Etchmiadzin, the spiritual head of all Armenians. The Armenian Apostolic Church is ruled by the Patriarch of Cilicia. The Chaldeans (Nestorian Uniats) have aBishop at Mardin. The Syrian Uniats have a See of Mardin and Amida, but it is united with their Patriarchate of Antioch (residence, Damascus). Greek Uniats (Byzantine Rite) have as their Ordinary in Istanbul, the Titular Bishop of Gratianopolis. The Latins have an. Apostolic De\egate in Istanbul and an Archbishop in Izmir, but their Patriarch of Istanbul is titular and non-resident. There is a Grand Rabbi (Hahambasi) in Istanbul for the Jews, who are nearly all Sephardim.

A law passed in Dec. 1934 forbids the wearing of clerical garb for those other than religious leaders except in places of worship and during divine service. The constitution forbids the political exploitation of religion or any impairment of the secular character of the republic. Education. Elementary education is compulsory and co-educational and, in state schools, free. All children from 7 to 12 are to receive primary instruction, which may be given in state schools, schools maintained by communities, or private schools, or, subject to certain tests, at horne. The state schools are under the direct control of the Ministry of Education. They include primary schools, secondary or middle schools, and lycees or secondary schools of a superior kind. There are also training schools for male and female teachers, and technical schools. The important non-Moslem communities in Istanbul maintain their own schools, wh ich, like all 'private' schools, are subject to the supervision of the Ministry of Education.

Literacy of the population of 6 years and over was 77·3% in 1985. Religious instruction in schools, hitherto prohibited, was made optional in e\e­

mentary and middle schools in May 1948. There are many training schools for Moslem clergy as weil as a Faculty of Theology in Ankara.

Statisticsfor 1987-88 Number Teachers Students Primary schools (state and private) 50,455 220,943 6,880,304 Secondary schools (state and private) 5,001 42,551 1,870,515 High schools (state and private) 1,436 57,834 697,227 Vocational and technical schools 2,236 47,157 720,567 Faculties (university and highereducation) 343 27,196 503,623

In 1989 there were 29 universities with 5,600 teaching staff and 550,000 students. In 1987-88 there were 152 other institutes of higher education. Health. Public health is the responsibility of the Ministry of Health and Social Wel­fare, established in 1920; social insurance for workers comes under the Workers' Insurance Institution attached to the Ministry of Labour. A law promulgated in 1961 and implemented from 1963 provided for the nationalization of the health services within 15 years. In 1986, 2·8m. workers and employees were covered by social in­surance, including free medical care.

In 1989 there were 42,502 doctors, 9,639 dentists and 37,694 nurses, and 113,010 beds in 777 hospitals and 11I health centres.

DIPLOMA TIC REPRESENT A TIVES OfTurkey in Great Britain (43 Belgrave Sq., London, SWIX 8PA) Ambassador: Nurver Nures (accredited 16 Feb. 1989). Of Great Britain in Turkey (Sehit Ersan Caddesi 46/A, Cankaya, Ankara) Ambassador: Sir Timothy Daunt, KCMG.

TURKEY

Of Turkey in the USA (1606 23rd SI., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Amhassador: Nüzhet Kandemir.

Of the USA in Turkey (110 Ataturk Blvd., Ankara) Amhassador: Morton Abramowitz.

Of Turkey to the Uni ted Nations Amhassador: Mustafa Aksin.

Further Reading

1217

StatistiL'al Information: The State Institute of Statistics in Ankara consists of a research bureau and \0 seetions dealing with agriculture, edueation, foreign trade, ete. It published an Annuaire StatistiquelIstatistik Yiligl (1928-53) and Aybk Istatistik Bülteni, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

The Turkish Constitution, 1971. Ankara, 1972 ResmfGazete, Offieial Gazette. Ankara Konjonktür. Ministry of Commerce (three times a year, from 1940) Turkish Daily News. Ankara Banque Centrale de la Republique de Turquie. Bulletin Mensuel (from Jan. 1953) Barehard, D., Turkey and Ihe West. London, 1985 Dodd, C. H., The Crisis ofTurkish Democracy. Beverley, 1983 Goodwin, G., A History ofOt/oman Archileclure. London, 1971 Güclü, M., Turkey. [Bibliography 1 Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 HaIe, W., The Political and Economic Del'elopment of Modern Turkey. London, 1981 Hesper, M., The State Tradition in Turkey. Beverley, 1985 Kazaneigil, A. and Ozbudun, E., (eds.) Atalürk: Founder of a Modern Stall'. London, 1981 Kinross, Lord, Atalürk. London, 1964 Lewis, B., The Emer/?ence ofModern Turkey. OUP, 1965 Mackenzie, K., Turkey in Transition: The West' s Neglected Ally. London, 1984 Rustow, D. A., Turkey: America' s Forgolten Al/y. New York, 1987 Se zer, D. B., Turkey'sSecurityPolicies. London, 1981 Taehau, F., Turkey: The Politics 0/ Authority, Democraey and Development. New York. 1984 Weiker W., The Modernization ofTurkey. New York, 1981

State Lihrary: MilliKütüphane Müdürlügü, Ankara.