Introduction:

The textile industry is becoming an increasingly competitive sector. Differentiating products by quality is particularly important. Testing can be performed both to improve product quality and achieve compliance to international, regional or retailer specific standards. Fabric testing provides aComprehensive review of the tests available for fabrics.

Object:

Testing is done to assure quality in products. In testing following things are being considered.

Whither the garment has met the buyers recommendation. The construction is same as the buyer want. To measure color fastness and color depth. To measure yarn quality and strength. Selection of raw material to assure perfect production.

Elements of testing:

Various tests are included in textile testing. The names of the tests are listed below according to the purposes they are used for.

Durability/Performance Testing

 Physical Testing

Tensile Strength Tear Strength Abrasion Seam Slippage Pilling Resistance Wrinkle Recovery Shrinkage Appearance after laundry Comparative Testing for Flammability, Moisture Vapor Transmission

 Fabric Analysis

Yarn count, twist Fabric weight, Fabric Count Fiber Content Bow, Skew

 Color Fastness

Light (Carbon Arc, Xenon) Crocking Laundering Perspiration Sea Water, Chlorinated Pool Water

Color Measurement

Color difference, 555 sorting Dye strength (reflectance, transmission)

 Other tests:

Color matching, Trial finish application Dye calibration for match prediction

Some testing methods:

Nature of the Test  Test Method / Instrument

Fibre (Cotton) TestingFibre length Effective length Shirley comb Sortershort fibres Uster Stapler methodFibre fineness Wira fineness meterFibre maturity Caustic soda method IS 236Bundle strength Stelometer / Pressely IS 3675(a) either zero or 3mm gauge  (b) both zero and 3mm gauge  Trash content% Trash analyser IS 4871Seed coat analysis Trash analyserMoisture content Oven dry methodPACKAGE TESTING FOR COTTON FIBRE CHARACTERISATION

 

Man made fibre/filament Testing  Mean length Oil plate methodOver length fibre% ManualFibre denier Cut & weigh method IS 10014Single fibre strength & elongation - Dry, wet

Instron

Fibre diameter Microscopic methodDenier of filament yarn  Wrapping machineNo. of filaments ManualArcs/cm MicroscopicPACKAGE TESTING FOR MANMADE FIBRE/FILAMENT CHARACTERISATION

 

Yarn Testing   Lea count and strength Direct count balance & Lea testerLea count/strength alone "Yarn twist - Single  Twist-Tester (Untwist - Retwist method)Single thread strength & elongation Instron / StatimatEvenness tests of Uster testersliver / roving  yarn with imperfections  (normal setting) or baby cones  CV%, spectrogram & various information  

Yarn hairinessYarn Structure Tester( Zweigle with Oasys software )

Coefficient of yarn friction (against metal, yarn or other)

Shirley friction tester

Yarn appearance grade ASTM board

PACKAGE FOR YARN TESTING  Fabric Testing  Fabric WidthFabric thickness Stitch length 

IS 1954 SDL Thickness TesterScale

Fabric analysis (warp & weft wise)- weave analysis- weight per unit area- yarn count - with size matter- after desizingEPI / PPICrimpTPIweight per unit running lengthwales x Course/inch in knitted fabric

Pick CounterIS 1964 IS 3442 

IS 1963 IS 3442 

IS 1964 Pick Counter

PACKAGE FOR FABRIC ANALYSIS & TESTING

 

Crease Recovery angle Pilling test Fabric abrasion

IS 4681 (Crease Recovery Tester)IS 10971 (Martiandale / Tumble Type)IS 12673 ( Nu -Martindale Abrasion Tester(Model : SDL 235 )

Strength propertiesTensile strength Tear strength Bursting strengthSeam slippageSeam strength

IS 1969 (Instron)IS 6489 (Tear Tester)IS 1966 (Pneumatic Bursting Strength Tester)

Air permeability IS 11056 (Shirley Air Permeability Tester)Compression & Recovery SDL Thickness TesterThermal Insulation  Fabric Simulation Test• yarn characteristics• weaving/knitting pattern• pattern overview

Yarn Structure TesterZweigle with Oasys Software

CHEMICAL & ANALYTICAL TESTING

 

Fabric Testing  Water repellency test Wettability of fabrics Water penetration Flammability (before & after washing / dry cleaning)Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI)

IS 390IS 391

IS 11871 IS 13501

Fastness tests Color fastness to light Color fastness to perspiration 

IS 2454 IS 971 IS 687, 764,765 

Color fastness to washingColor fastness to scrubbing Color fastness to Hot pressing Color fastness to bleaching Color fastness to rubbing (dry & wet) Color fastness to dry cleaning

IS 11098, IS 689 IS 762, 763, 987 IS 766 IS 4802

PACKAGE TESTING FOR COLOUR FASTNESS

 

Computer Color Matching CCM Color difference Whiteness/Yellowness/Brightness Recipe formulation (Data base/matching)

 

Dimensional stability tests Dimensional stability of fabric toWashing - one washEach addition washAppearance after actual launderingDimensional stability of fabric to Dry cleaning - One cycleEach additional cycleAppearance after dry-cleaningShrinkage on heating Hot Air OvenDyes Testing

(a) Identification of dyes(b) Strength evaluation 

UV-VIS Spectrophotometer 

Testing of textile auxiliaries and specialty chemicals (characterization & purity)

 

Eco-Testing of Textiles

Carcinogenic aromatic amines released frombanned azo dyes

Heavy metals

Residual pesticides 

Halogen Carriers 

Extraction & Cleavage of Dye as per German Method ( Section 35- LMBG, B-82.02)Analysis on GC-MS 

Extraction with perspiration as per DIN 54020 (Solution 2) For baby wear extraction with saliva as per DIN 53160 Analysis on ICP 

Extraction as per OKO Tex Standard 100, GC-ECD / NPD Analysis

Extraction, Analysis by GC/ECD 

Acetyl acetone method 

Free formaldehyde

Detection of Pentachlorophenol (PCP) 

pH of aqueous extract 

Residual Chlorine 

THERMAL CHARACTERISATION OF POLYMERS

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

(i) Normal (Dynamic)(ii )Programmed (Isothermal)

Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA)

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)

(i) Tensile Elongation Mode(ii) 3-Point Bending Mode

1S0 14184-1 

Extraction, GC-ECD or GC-MS Analysis

DIN54274, DIN54276, ISO 03071

IS 971 

Perkin Elmer DSC ( Pyris 1) 

TGA 7 

DMA 7e

Test for yarn identifications:

There are so many tests for yarn identification. Among them burn test is the mostly used and easy method. Here the yarns are burned to identify the yarn.

Burning properties of some manmade and natural fibers are described as below.

Natural FibersCotton is a plant fiber. When ignited it burns with a steady flame and smells like burning leaves. The ash left is easily crumbled. Small samples of burning cotton can be blown out as you would a candle.

Linen is also a plant fiber but different from cotton in that the individual plant fibers which make up the yarn are long where cotton fibers are short. Linen takes longer to ignite. The fabric closest to the ash is very brittle. Linen is easily extinguished by blowing on it as you would a candle.

Silk is a protein fiber and usually burns readily, not necessarily with a steady flame, and smells like burning hair. The ash is easily crumbled. Silk samples are not as easily extinguished as cotton or linen.

Wool is also a protein fiber but is harder to ignite than silk as the individual "hair" fibers are shorter than silk and the weave of the fabrics is generally looser than with silk. The flame is steady but more difficult to keep burning. The smell of burning wool is like burning hair.

Man Made FibersAcetate is made from cellulose (wood fibers), technically cellulose acetate. Acetate burns readily with a flickering flame that cannot be easily extinguished. The burning cellulose drips and leaves a hard ash. The smell is similar to burning wood chips.

Acrylic technically acrylonitrile is made from natural gas and petroleum. Acrylics burn readily due to the fiber content and the lofty, air filled pockets. A match or cigarette dropped on an acrylic blanket can ignite the fabric which will burn rapidly unless extinguished. The ash is hard. The smell is acrid or harsh.

Nylon is a polyamide made from petroleum. Nylon melts and then burns rapidly if the flame remains on the melted fiber. If you can keep the flame on the melting nylon, it smells like burning plastic.

Polyester is a polymer produced from coal, air, water, and petroleum products. Polyester melts and burns at the same time, the melting, burning ash can bond quickly to any surface it drips on

including skin. The smoke from polyester is black with a sweetish smell. The extinguished ash is hard.

Rayon is a regenerated cellulose fiber which is almost pure cellulose. Rayon burns rapidly and leaves only a slight ash. The burning smell is close to burning leaves.

Blends consist of two or more fibers and, ideally, are supposed to take on the characteristics of each fiber in the blend. The burning test can be used but the fabric content will be an assumption.

The ignition temperature of some fibres is as below:

FiberHeat of Combustion(Kcal/g)

Ignition Temperature (°C)

Cotton 3.9 255

Rayon 3.9 420Nylon 7.9 575

Polyester 5.7 560

Wool 4.9 600

Zipro Wool (Treated with Zirconium, a heavy metal)

 -  -

Fiber Burn Test

Fiber Fiber Type Flame Reaction

Bead After-Flame Odor

Cotton Cellulose Fiber

May flair when lit, burns

None Continues to glow

Burning paper

Linen Cellulose Fiber

May flair when lit, burns

None Continues to glow

Burning paper

Rayon Manufactured cellulose fiber

Burns without flame or melting

None unless there is a fabric finish

May glow longer than cotton

Burning paper

Silk Protein Fiber Burns slowly, curls away from flame

Dark bead easily crushed

Self-extinguishing

Burned hair or charred meat

Wool Protein Fiber Burns slowly, curls away from flame

Brittle dark, easily crushed

Self-extinguishing

Strong odor of hair or feathers

Acetate Manufactured Fiber

Burns quickly, can flare even after flame is removed

Hard, brittle, uncrushable

Melts into a very hot bead, Drip Danger

Hot vinegar or burning pepper

Nylon Manufactured Fiber

Quick burning due to fabric finish,shrinks to flame

Hard, grayish, uncrushable

Burns slowly and melts, self-extinguishing, Drip Danger

Celery

Polyester Manufactured Fiber

Quick burning, shrinks away from flame, may flare

Hard dark round bead

Burns slowly, not always self-extinguishing

Slightly sweet, chemical

Acrylic Manufactured Fiber

Flares atmatch-touch, shrinks away from flame, burnsrapidly, hotsputtering flame, Drip Danger

Hard dark irregular shape

Continues to melt after flame is removed

Strong acrid fishy odor

Some testing machineries:

Single End Yarn Strength Tester:

It is used to determine the breaking load and extension of single yarns up to 5000 centi-grams force. Electronically operated with mechanical action, provided with scales 0-500cg force and 0-5000cg force, extension scale graduated in mm and percentage of standard test length (500mm) .

 

SPECIFICITION (1) Load Range: 0-50000cN (2) Load Resolution: 1 / 50000 (3) Load Accuracy: (<=) (+ -) 0. 05% F-S (4) Accuracy: 1% -100% Capacity of Load Cell (+ -) 0. 5% 0. 5% -1% Capacity of Load Cell (+ -) 1. 0% (5) Frequency of data sampling: (>=) 800Hz (6) Speed Range: 10-1200mm / min (7) Return Speed: 10-1200mm / min (8) Elongation Resolution: 0. 01mm (9) Max Vertical test space: 900mm (10) Available Length of sample: 0-500mm (11) Presetting Force: 0-150cN

Fabric Strength Testing Machine:

It is designed for a wide range of applications including: Bending, Compression, Tensile Testing, Peeling, Lamination etc. The Fabric Strength Testing Machine offers excellent accuracy and ease of use. It is strong and durable enough to withstand many years of use, yet it has a compact load frame that provides greater flexibility of placement. Whether you choose the base unit or add the optional advanced software package, the Fabric Strength Testing Machine, the standard in Universal Tensile Testing. The load cells used offer one-touch zero adjustment and load cell capacity discrimination guarantees accuracy, and speeds the setup process. This is particularly important when multiple tests are being performed. We can tailor make machines and programs to our customer's requirements. Suit following tests: (1) Tensile tests (2) Tearing tests (3) Compression test (4) Adhesion tests

(5) Bending tests (6) Pull-out tests (7) Burst tests (8) Stress-relaxation tests (9) Peeling tests (10) Shearing tests

SPECIFICITION (1) Load Range: 500N-50000N (Optional) (2) Load Resolution: 1/50000 (Full capacity)(3) Load Accuracy: (>=) (+ -) 0. 05% F-S 2% -120% applied load (+ -) 0. 5% 0. 5% -1% applied load (+ -) 1. 0% (4) Maximum crosshead travel 900mm (5) Elongation Resolution: 0. 01mm (6) Effective width 420mm (7) Frequency of data sampling (>=) 800Hz (8) Storage capacity (>=) 4000 sets of test report

Figure 1:fabric strength testing machines

AIR-COOLED WEATHER CONDITIONS METER:

It reproduces the effects of sunlight, rain and dew. Tests materials by exposing them to alternating cycles of light and moisture and controlled, elevated temperatures. Simulates the effect of sunlight with fluorescent ultra violet lamps, simulating rain and dew with condensing humidity. 8 UV lamp positions and 11 specimen holders 75 x 300mm (3 x 12in) and 46 alum panels 75 x 150mm (3 x 6in). Touch screen display and control panel, irradiance control, calibration devices and lamps extra.

SPECIFICITION(1) Air-cooled Xenon Lamp Power 220V 50HZ 15A 3000W (2) Turntable speed 5r/min(3) Diameter of sample rack 350mm(4) Max exposure area of specimen 100 x 45mm(5) Number of specimen holders fastness to light: 10 pcsfastness to light and perspiration: 2pcs(5) BST 30 degree-110degree (+ -) 1degree(6) BPT 30degree-100degree (+ -) 2degree(7) Chamber temperature 25degree-85degree (+ -) 2degree(8) Humidity range 15%RH - 85%RH (+ -)5%(9) Irradiance range (25 ~ 55) (+ -) 1W/m2 @300 ~ 400nm (Wide bandwidth measurement)(0.550 ~ 1.500) (+ -) 0.02W/m2 @420nm (Narrow bandwidth measurement)(10) Xenon lamp power adjustment Automatic compensating system (patent)(11) Humidity control use close loop control

Pilling and Snagging Tester:

Orbiter Pilling and Snagging Tester can be used to test both woven and knitted materials. It complies in full with the requirements of EN ISO Textiles- testing. It is done for determination of fabric propensity to surface fussing and to pilling.

SPECIFICITION( 1) Number of pilling drums 3pcs( 2) Volume of drum 235 x 235 x 235mm (L x W x H) ( 3) Rotational speed 60 (-) 2r / min( 4) Number of rotation 2-99999 (user defined interval) ( 5) Weight and size of specimen tubeDiameter 30 x 140 mm 50g

SDL Atlas Moisture Management Tester (MMT):

A new test method for measuring the moisture handling properties of performance fabrics for active wear and other apparel has earned approval from the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) after a lengthy review. The SDL Atlas Moisture Management Tester (MMT) plays a key role in the new protocol. Recent studies have revealed that for most active wear purchasers, the comfort of their apparel’s fabric is closely linked to its ability to handle moisture such as perspiration. Researchers have been seeking to develop a means for objectively measuring and documenting comfort levels and moisture handling.  The unit dynamically measures liquid transfer behavior in knitted, woven and non-woven textile fabrics using upper and lower concentric moisture sensors. It generates six key indexes and a quantifiable one-way moisture movement index value. This new dynamic unit can demonstrate the ability of a fabric to improve apparel comfort

Burst tester:

Burst Testers are used as a multi-directional tensile test to identify failure in the direction of least resistance for evaluating physical strength and fiber bond. Models are available to test a variety of materials. These models can also be fitted with a device to measure the deflection of the sample prior to burst.

The Burst tester is designed to meet international standards for tests on paper, foils, paper boards, corrugated board, textiles etc.

OPERATION

The Burst Tester is designed for measuring the bursting strength of fabric materials subjected to an increasing hydrostatic pressure. This pressure is applied to a circular region of the specimen via an elastic diaphragm. The specimen is firmly held round the edge of this circular region by a pneumatic clamping device. When the pressure is applied, the specimen deforms together with the diaphragm. The bursting strength corresponds to the maximum pressure supported by the specimen before failure. Identical, in the principle to the multi-directional tensile test, Ball Burst Method for Fabrics, this measurement is independent from the cutting direction of the sample (machine or cross) since the failure naturally occurs in the least resistance direction.The rubber diaphragms with specific thickness and shore hardness must have a bulge versus pressure pattern within the tolerance of the standards related to the type of material tested.

APPLICATIONS

Textiles, Fibers, Non-woven’s, Polyester, Fabrics, Felts etc. Strength, stiffness, dye ability, resilience, fatigue elasticity, orientation and crystallinity.

Pressure System

The hydrostatic pressure is transmitted to the diaphragm by a hydraulic jack associated with a frictionless ball-screw driven by a precision DC motor. The rotational speed and the position of the motor are servo-controlled by means of an optical encoder ensuring a perfect control of the fluid flow rate together with the determination of the displaced volume of fluid.

Sample tightening system:

A large pneumatic jack enables an accurate and reproducible tightening. The tightening surfaces have an adequate profile to minimize the slippage even for

difficult materials like textiles for high volume bags. The tightening pressure is measured with a precision manometer and may be displayed in

metric or imperial units. The gripping strength is recalculated according to the geometry of the tightening

surfaces, and displayed in newtons.

Bursting pressure measurement:

The pressure is measure by a metallic gages pressure transducer (0 to 100 bars) Accuracy: +/-1% of read value +/-1 digit between 5% and 100% of the FSD. Resolution: 2 mbars (50,000 points)

Programmable Test Stand:

The Programmable Force Tester is a highly configurable motorized test stand for tension and compression testing applications up to 1.5kN (300 lb). The stand can be controlled from the front panel or via a computer and is fully compatible with Nexygen™ TCD software. The Programmable Force Tester is engineered on a unique modular platform, allowing for “build-your-own” configurability. Integrated travel indication, overload protection, and a host of programmable parameters makes the tester quite sophisticated, while its intuitive menu structure allows for quick, simple setup and operation. A password can be programmed to prevent unauthorized changes. With a rugged and modular design, the Programmable Force Tester is a compelling solution for applications in laboratory and production environments.Simple Automated Testeing

When used in production, the Model 84-76 Tensile Tester automatically displays Peak Force and Peak % Elongation after each measurement. Additional results displayed are Tensile Strength, TEA, Tensile Index and Breaking Length.

APPLICATIONS

Paper, Board, Tissue Paper, Adhesives, Peel Testing, Seal Strength, 180° Peel Strength, Bond Strength

Tensile Tester:

The instrument has a small footprint just over 0.20 square meters (2.3 square feet). It provides a large 5.7 inch color display, intuitive operator interface, software control, integrated printer & serial port for data collection.

This unit is designed to test strength of sheet materials including Paper, Board, Tissue Paper, Film Packaging Seals,

Adhesives, Pressure Sensitive Tapes and a variety of low force tensile applications up to 1330 N (136 Kg, 300 lbs).

The Model 84-76 Tensile Tester is a robust, precision, tensile strength instrument suitable for rugged production environments yet designed to provide highly accurate measurements for research applications.

Total fibre tester:

It is the most advanced instrument for testing of fibre properties. It measures 2.5% and 50% span length, strength, elongation, micronaire, maturity ratio, percentage of maturity, Fineness, UV-Status and colour Rd;+b.It also provides uniformity ratio, Short fibre percentage, mean

length, upper half mean length, uniformity index and fibrogram.

Statex - HVI consists of automatic brushing unit, auto comb transport mechanism, Fibre length and strength measuring module and micronaire module.

The fibre length and strength is measured with the same fibre sample prepared by the comb. A self diagnosis software for immediate identification of mechanical and electronic faults.

Test Modules Principles

Length Optic

Strength Constant rate of extension

Micronaire & Maturity Double compression air flow

Colour Rd;+b Halogen Light Reflection

UV - Status UV - Light Reflection

Some other mschines for testing:

M/c name M/c M/c name M/c

Circular cutters Light fastness Tester 

Swatch cutter Seam Slippage tester

Crockmeter: used for testing the transference of color from the surface of one material to another by either wet or dry rubbing.

Button Snap Tester:

It is used for testing the snap strength of buttons/rivets/joints

Arc Tester :It is used to determine the colorfastness of textiles against sunlight.

Beasley balance: It is used for determining count by an accurate determination of sample length and an accurate determination of its width as per cotton/metric/woolen & worsted systems

Crease Recovery Tester: determines the property of textiles to recover from creases by measurement of the recovery angle.

The perspiration test unit: It is used to determine color fastness to water and perspiration in textiles

Flammability Tester: The test is done to determine the flammability and Flame resistance of Textiles.

Tearing Tester:used for testing tearing strength of woven fabric, light-weight non woven fabric and coated fabric.

Yarn Durometers for testing the winding density of textile cones, bobines, quills and package dyeing tubes.

Washing Fastness TesterTester is used to determine the colour fastness to washing of dry cleaning as per ISO / BS / European as well as AATCC standards

Yarn Twist Tester measurement of TPM/TPI of twisted yarn

Lea Strength Tester

Lea Strength TesterBursting strength tester is used to test bursting strength of any material such as fabric, leather, etc

Finemat - Maturity Tester :Its test contains maturity ratio, percentage of maturity, Fineness.

Application of Textile testing:

The application of testing in textile sector is huge. In every stage of garments preparation testing is essential. Quality assurance is the most important necessity of testing. As garments preparation is a continuous process, so it requires proper testing at every step. If there remain any faults, all the consecutive processes will be faulty. That will lead to faulty garments, which is not expected. So that testing should done carefully. Applications of testing are as below;

a) Fibre preparation:- It is the primary stage of yarn preparation. Fiber should tested properly to check its characteristics. The effect of fiber characteristics on yarn is as below;

Quality Evaluation Characteristics Co-Relation to Yarn 1. Staple Length Spinning Potential

2. Fiber Strength Yarn strength, less Breakages 3. Fineness Finer Spinning Potential 4. Maturity Yarn Strength and evenness, better dyeing 5. Non-Lint. content (Trash) Reduced Waste 6, Uniformity Ratio Better productivity and Evenness 7. Elongation Less end Breakages 8. Friction Cohesiveness 9. Class Yarn Appearance 10.Stickiness Spinning problem by lapping & Dyeing quality 11. Grey Value Yarn luster 12. Yellowness Yarn Appearance 13.Neppiness Yarn Neppiness

14. Moisture Content 8.5% moisture content optimum for spinning at 65%

b) Yarn preparation:-

As it is the most initial stage of garments preparation, it requires so many tests. Strength test, tensile test, twist test, count determination etc. testing is done on yarn to have a perfect yarn.

c) Fabric preparation:-

After having a perfect yarn, then it is time for making fabric. Fabric also required some tests. On all types of fabric strength test is done. The TPI and PPI are also being counted for woven fabric. For knitted fabric GSM is counted. This counting are done for quality assurance.

d) Dying and printing:

Before dying or printing is done, the dyes are checked if they are suitable for doing the job. After doing the job, tests are done to determine if the process is successful.

e) Garments preparation:-

Garments generally need no tests, as all are tested before. All is done on is the quality checking. The joining of various parts, seam classes, faults, accessories attachment etc. are checked on garments.

Conclusion:

With the increase of time textile field is becoming more challenging. To keep oneself in the race every industry should assure quality. Testing is the only way to assure quality. Testing should do sincerely to assure highest quality to the garments.

In this assignment we have tried to Discuss about some testing machineries and testing methods. Our task will be successful if this assignment helps anyone to know about testing.

References:

1. http://www.statexengg.com/high_volume_products.html2. http://www.sewanee.edu/Chem/Chem&Art/Main/chem8.htm3. http://paniit.iitd.ac.in/textile/public/images/blank.gif4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_flame_temperature5. "http://quilting.about.com/bio/Janet-Wickell-18651.htm" _Janet Wickell_,

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