Tsunami Impact on the West Coast of Penang Island, Malaysia

Tsunami Impact on the West Coast of Penang Island, Malaysia

Frederick W. Colbourne

Research Project Report M.S. in Physical Sciences Earth Science Emphasis

Earth Science Department Emporia State University

Emporia, Kansas

May, 2005

Acknowledgements

Thanks to

Dr James Aber for his suggestion to explore this topic and for his support and advice.

Drs Firooza Pavri and Marcia Schulmeister for their encouragement and advice. C. L. Foong for accompanying me in the field, interpreting during interviews, and

finding water to wash after I fell into the mangrove swamp. USGS and NASA for providing free ASTER data. Clark Labs for the reduced-price student license to use IDRISI.

Credits to

Director of National Mapping, Malaysia for the map Semenanjung Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Balik Pulau sheet.

Geological Survey of Malaysia for the map Quaternary Geology Peninsular Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Seberang Prai, and Kuala Kurau.

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Frederick W. Colbourne. Project for the Master of Science Degree, Earth Science Department, Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas (May, 2005)

Abstract The Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of December 2004 (magnitude 9.0) generated a tsunami that affected all coasts of the Indian Ocean, killed over 300,000 people, and caused loss of property and livelihood. In Malaysia, 68 people died and property losses amounted to about $25 million This study investigates physical, environmental and institutional factors that may explain why the tsunami had limited impact on the Malaysian coasts using the west coast of Penang Island as the study area. The study uses bathymetry, topography, satellite imagery and fieldwork to address this question, concluding that the configuration of the Indian Ocean coastline and its bathymetry are the primary factors that limited the impact of the tsunami. Secondary factors are the low density of settlement near the coast resulting from the presence of a broad intertidal zone, a belt of mangrove on state-owned land, and institutional influences that limit settlement along the coast. Though most of the deceased were ethnic Malays, it was not possible to relate mortality to socio-economic status. The greatest property losses were among fishermen and aquaculturalists. Losses were uninsured. Financial compensation for loss of life and injury was nominal. After mitigation by government grants, losses were still substantial. The main government role in mitigating loss was not in the provision of grants, but in planning and implementing long-term economic and local development, resulting in fewer people exposed to risk from tsunami because they have found employment and housing away from the west coast of Penang Island.

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Table of Contents 1. Introduction 7

The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake Regional Impact of the Tsunami The role of mangrove forests Response to the disaster Past Research Risk: International and Malaysia Risk Reduction and Mitigation The present study

2. Study Area 12 3. Approach and Methodology 14

Factors affecting the impact of the tsunami on the west coast of Penang Island

Data sources Software used Data processing

4. Analysis 16

The configuration of land and water bodies Topography, hydrology, and geology of Penang Island The nature of the coast and tidal regime Mangroves Population and Settlements Housing development Losses, compensation and uninsured risk

5. Field visits 30

Sites Visited Site 1: Pantai Aceh 31

Site 1a: Pantai Aceh - highway and small stream Site 1a: Pantai Aceh house inundated with mud and debris Site 1b: Pantai Aceh - Fishing boat preparing to go to sea Site 1b: Pantai Aceh: Fishing jetty repaired and fishing boat leaving estuary

Site 2: Kuala Sungai Pinang 36

Site 2a: Kuala Sungai Pinang. Fishing boats moored below the tidal gate. Site 2b: Kuala Sungai Pinang. Malay market

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Site 3: Kuala Jalan Baru Site 3a: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary) Houses affected 39Site 3a: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary) Ayer Itam River Site 3b: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary) aquaculture prawn beds Site 3c: Kuala Jalan Baru. Mangrove forest/swamp Site 3d: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary) Young mangrove

Sites 4 and 5: Kuala Betong Island and Pasir Panjang 45

Site 4: Kuala Betong Island (Betong Island Estuary) Site 5: Pasir Panjang (Long Sands/Long Beach)

6. Discussion and Conclusion 48

Why were the Malaysian coasts less affected by the tsunami than those elsewhere in the region? What environmental and institutional factors might continue to protect the coast or alter the risk? Were people in some socio-economic groups more vulnerable than others to the impact of the tsunami and to what extent were losses compensated?

References 51 Tables Table 1: Losses 27 Table 2: Statistics by District in Penang 28

Figures

Figure 1: Earthquake of 2004. 8Figure 2: Profile of the Mentawai Fault. 8Figure 3: Study area and sites visited. 12Figure 4: Model of tsunami based on satellite images. 16Figure 5: Profile across Penang Island compared with a profile across Sri

Lanka. 17Figure 6: Geology of Penang Island. 18Figure 7: Topography of the study area. 20Figure 8: ASTER false-color composite. 21Figure 9: Land-use land-cover map. 23Figure 10: View from lookout A. 24Figure 11: View from lookout B. 25

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Figure 12: Site 1. Pantai Aceh. Land-use land-cover map and ASTER false-color composite. 31

Figure 13: Site 1a. Stream passing under main road and path leading to jetty 32Figure 14: Site 1a: House flooded with mud and debris. 33Figure 15: Site 1b. Fishing boat preparing to go to sea 34Figure 16: Site 1b. Fishing jetty repaired and fishing boat leaving estuary. 35Figure 17: Site 2: Kuala Sungai Pinang. Land-use land-cover map and ASTER

false-color composite. 36Figure 18: Site 2a: Kuala Sungai Pinang. 37Figure 19: Site 2b: Kuala Sungai Pinang. Malay market. 38Figure 20: Site3: Kuala JalanBaru. Land-use land-cover map and ASTER false-

color composite. 39Figure 21: Site 3a: Kuala JalanBaru. 40Figure 21: Site 3a: Kuala Jalan Baru. Ayer Itam River 41Figure 23: Site3b: Kuala Jalan Baru. Prawn beds. 42Figure 24: Site 3c: KualaJalanBaru. Mangrove forest/swamp. 43Figure 25: Site 3d: Kuala Jalan Baru. Young mangrove. 44Figure 26: Kuala Betong Island and Pasir Panjang. Land-use land-cover map

and ASTER false-color composite. 45Figure 27: Overlooking site 4. 46Figure 28: Pasir Panjang. 47

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1. Introduction The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake On 26 December 2004, a fault ruptured along a 1200 km line parallel to the Sunda Trench from Sumatra to the Andaman Islands (Park et al., 2005). The epicenter of the earthquake was northeast of Simuelue Island (Figure 1), implicating the Mentawai Fault (Figures 1 and 2), thought to have been inactive since the end of the Pliocene 1.6 mya (Malod and Badrul, 1996). Monitors indicated a moment magnitude of 9.0, with total energy greater than all earthquakes combined worldwide between 1976 and 1990. Displacement across a shallow dipping thrust fault may have exceeded 20 m in some places. Seafloor movement generated a tsunami with wave amplitude of 10 m on the west coast of Sumatra. By contrast, on March 28, an 8.7 magnitude earthquake occurred along the southern part of the same fault, but did not cause a tsunami. The March earthquake was not as strong as the December quake, did not breach the sea floor, and occurred in shallower water (Kerr, 2005).

The tsunami generated by the December earthquake first struck Sumatra in Indonesia and then spread across the Indian Ocean to reach the Andaman Islands, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand (Park et al., 2005). Though Malaysia lies in the "shadow" of Sumatra, tsunami waves diffracted around the north end of Sumatra and then traveled southeasterly across the Strait of Malacca to reach the Malaysian coast and offshore islands, including Penang Island selected as the study area (Figure 1, small rectangle).

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Figure 1: Earthquake of 2004. Mentawai Fault (M) and other tectonic features after Malod and Kemal (1996), except line of subduction trench, after Hamilton (1978). Study area is within the small rectangle bounding Penang Island.

Figure 2: Profile of the Mentawai Fault. After Malod and Kemal (1996).

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Regional Impact of the Tsunami

aves struck coastlines on all sides of the Indian Ocean. Some 300,000 people lost

e

t

The role of mangrove forests

Malaysia and other countries mangrove forests were singled out as the most sts

Desk study and field visits indicate that there is an association between mangrove

nt

esponse to the disaster

mediate humanitarian response was remarkably, perhaps singularly, effective, irs

A major theme of the current study follows from these observations: Malaysian and

Wtheir lives; millions were left without food, homes or livelihoods (The Economist, 2005). Indonesia reported 90,000 dead, more than 130,000 missing and more than 650,000 displaced. In Sumatra, more than 350,000 houses and public buildings werdamaged or destroyed. In the affected areas, over 80% of the roads were damaged. About 70% of electrical power facilities and 80,000 km of telecommunications lineswere destroyed. The Indonesian Government has estimated the human toll to be threetimes greater than from the eruption of Kratatoa in 1883 (Indonesian Delegation, 2005). In India and Sri Lanka, coastal villages were devastated. Refugees who lostheir homes found temporary shelter in sturdy public buildings such as schools. Thetsunami contaminated wells and destroyed water-treatment plants threatening diseaseepidemics (Frist, 2005). In Malaysia, there were 68 dead, 6 missing, and 300 injured. Property damage was reported as 1535 homes and 1332 boats damaged. No infrastructure was reported destroyed or damaged (POHD, 2005).

Inimportant natural barrier to the tsunami. "For thousands of years, mangrove forehave provided a natural buffer against cyclones and other storms that often hit the shores of southern India," said V. Selvum, project director of the MS SwaminathanResearch Foundation in Madras (Chennai), (Kremmer, 2005). Similar claims were made in Malaysia , Many fishermen in Penang and parts of Kedah were saved fromdeath and serious damage to their homes when the tsunami hit several Asian countrieson Dec 26 last year. This was because of mangrove swamps, especially along the Pulau Betong, Balik Pulau, Batu Kawan and Kuala Sungai Pinang coastlines in Penang, which shielded them from the killer waves, (NST, 2005).

forests and reduction of risk from tsunamis: mangroves dampen and absorb wave energy, minimizing erosion and sedimentation effects. The low density of settlemerelated to mangrove forests also reduces risk to both human life and property simply because fewer people are in harms way. R Imswift and muscular (Jan Egeland, Under-Secretary General for Humanitarian AffaUnited Nations, cited in The Economist, 2005). At the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, Egeland warned, Disaster reduction and mitigation efforts cannot stand aloneto be successful, they must be woven into the fabric of a communitys overall development. We need to radically revise our development models so that reducing and managing risk becomes central to sustainable development policy (Egeland, 2005).

Penang State development policy may have been a major factor in risk reduction on the west coast of Penang Island, so that the existing level of community development

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was adequate to cope with the disaster. Some exceptions were noted, specifically long-term loss of household income resulting from death and inadequate insurancecover.

ast Research

ast research has examined the role of public policy for reducing risk (land use

of

isk: International and Malaysia

cross-country survey documented the threat to the environment from human olia,

In

In Malaysia, Ngai and Parker (1966) carried out a more focused study and found the

the

isk Reduction and Mitigation

Governments and research institutions are stressing the primary need for developing

A study carried out in South Carolina concluded that the most biophysically s and,

l

Palm and Hodgson (1992) examined the operation of the voluntary hazard insurance

f

,

P Pcontrols and building regulations, reduction of environmental hazards), disaster preparedness, and mitigation of the effects of disasters through insurance. Reviewthese studies provided insights that guided the present study. R Aactivity using case studies drawn from Amazonia, Borneo, Kenya, Nepal, MongAral Basin, Texas-Mexico border, Mexico City and the North Sea. No single set of regularities emerges from comparison of the regional trajectories of change and associated case-study interpretations (Kasperson, Kasperson and Turner, 1995).effect, the study is a collection of anecdotal reports from which few generalizations emerged. The study illustrates the need for careful selection of sites for investigationof environmental hazards.

risks in flood-plains in Peninsular Malaysia to be related to environmental change resulting from rapid urbanization and development and further concluded that it is poor who are most vulnerable to flood hazards (Ngai and Parker, 1996). The study illustrates the importance of land-use and land-cover change in assessing environmental risk. R

comprehensive community-based disaster preparedness; and secondarily, expensive early-warning systems, (Stockholm Environmental Institute, cited in the Economist, 2005; Malaysian Delegation, 2005).

vulnerable areas did not always coincide with the most vulnerable populationeven though economic losses might be greater in areas of high biophysical risk, residents might have better protection in the form of insurance and other financiaresources to recover quickly from loss (Cutter, 2000).

in California. The conclusion from this work was that insurance purchase was not related spatially to objective geophysical risk, or to socioeconomic characteristics ohouseholds, but to subjective assessment of risk. Jaffee and Russell analyzed the insurability of catastrophes, showing that the under-participation by the insurancemarkets results from institutional behaviors that affect the capital markets: taxationregulation, and takeover risk (Jaffee and Russell, 1997). Others have argued that

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government has a role in supporting the reinsurance market (Lewis and Murdock, 1996).

While it is beyond the scope of the present study to evaluate the future role of disaster insurance in Malaysia, field visits and published data on compensation awarded to tsunami victims indicate there were uninsured losses only partly compensated by government grants and private gifts. The present study Past research guided the design of the present study, in particular the need to:

limit the geographic scope ((Kasperson, Kasperson and Turner, 1995) review land-use/land-cover changes (Ngai and Parker, 1996) assess community preparedness and vulnerability of population at risk

(Malaysian Delegation, 2005; Cutter, 2000) review the role of government policy in mitigating risk and

compensating losses

Goal of the Report As previous research has shown, natural hazards and vulnerabilities tend to be site and event specific (Kasperson, Kasperson and Turner, 1995). As found in other studies, there were few regularities in the pattern of tsunami impact (Kasperson, Kasperson and Turner, 1995). For example, in Langkawi Island (Kedah), tourists were moved off the beaches minutes before the tsunami struck at around 1:40 PM, the result of a warning received by telephone from a hotel in Thailand where the tsunami struck first (Malaysian Delegation, 2005). Hotels in Penang cleared the beaches before the tsunami struck either because of a telephone warning from Langkawi or beause the sea surface was disturbed; thus few foreigners perished (GOM, 2005). Not all holidaymakers received warning: there was loss of life among youths camping on a beach and among local families picnicking on beaches. Because hazards are site and event specific, it is difficult to design a study capable of going beyond the anecdotal. The present study was therefore framed as a series of questions the answers to which might explain what happened in Malaysia and why. More to the point, the study seeks to explain what did not happen and why it did not happen.

Why were the Malaysian coasts less affected by the tsunami than those elsewhere in the region? Why were so few people killed and injured? Why was property loss so limited?

What environmental and institutional factors might continue to protect the coast or bring increased risk?

Were people in some socio-economic groups more vulnerable to the impact of the tsunami than others? To what extent were their losses compensated?

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2. Study Area Penang was selected for study because the state, especially Penang Island, was most affected by the tsunami, with 52 of a total of 68 deaths in Malaysia (POHD, 2005). Within Penang Island, the west coast was most affected (Figure 3). Within this study area, five sites in the southwest of the island were selected for field visits.

Figure 3: Study area and sites visited. (Map source: Ministry of Tourism.)

The study area, located in the southwest district (Figure 3), was selected because it has few foreign tourist attractions, such as the beaches and hotels of Batu Feringghi, or sites for local holidaymakers, such as at Tanjong Tokong, both in the northeast district. Although Telok Bahang is included in the southwest administrative district, it was not included in the study because it is located on the north coast of the island adjacent to the forest reserve, which is a tourist attraction for both locals and foreigners. Pulau Betong, a small island offshore from (site 4) was also excluded because it is used only by fishermen and is accessible only by boast. However, the onshore village of Pulau Beton was included in the study. Located at site 4, the village is a small settlement with a jetty and mooring for local fishermen. In the far south, at

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site 5, many deaths occurred among families and youths picnicking and camping on the beach, a subject to be addressed later in this study.

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3. Approach and Methodology The approach included desk studies and field visits. Desk studies made use of maps and satellite images to analyze land use and land cover characteristics of the coastal zone. On January 18, three weeks after the tsunami, an initial field visit served to identify the five sites for further study, define factors affecting the impact of the tsunami, and guide desk studies. On March 10, a second visit followed up the desk studies to confirm insights obtained from remote sensing data and maps. Section 5 presents details of the field visits. Factors affecting the impact of the tsunami on the west coast of Penang Island Several characteristics of the west coast of Penang Island may have combined to modify the impact of the tsunami:

The configuration of land and water bodies Bathymetry, topography, hydrology, and geology of the coast Land cover (mangrove forests, wetlands, and coral reefs) Land use patterns and the operation of land use and building regulations Human habitation and infrastructure (buildings, drainage, and roads)

Data sources Data sources included the US Government, the Government of Malaysia, and Penang State.

Data used for the digital elevation model (DEM) was ETOPO 5-minute data (NGDC, 2005) processed using the IDRISI software package.

Satellite data was from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) instrument aboard NASAs Terra satellite. The ASTER dataset was the Expedited L1A Reconstructed Unprocessed Instrument Data (AST_L1AE#003012520050340400010000 dated January 25, 2005) provided free of charge by USGS and NASA (EDC-DAAC, 2005).

The Quaternary geology map was provided by the Geological Survey of Malaysia (Kamaludin bin Hassan, 1992). The map was scanned and processed using graphics software and the IDRISI software package from Clark Labs.

The topographic map is based on a 1969 survey. The scale is 1:25,000 with 50-foot (15-meter) contour intervals. All topographic maps in Malaysia are restricted, but historical maps such as this series, may be released to students on application without a visit from the police (National Mapping, 1978). The map was scanned and processed using the IDRISI software package.

The websites of the Ministry of Tourism and the Penang State Government provided statistics and other information regarding the impact of the tsunami.

Maps and other graphics were assembled to analyze factors related to the tsunami and its impact. Photographs illustrate insights obtained from field visits. Much of the work depended on trial and error because, apart from geology, the area has not been well described in the literature.

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Software used The IDRISI package from Clark Labs was used to produce all of the maps. The topographic map for Penang Island is provided as two sheets, one for the north and one for the south of the island. The sheets were scanned, georeferenced separately, and joined using the IDRISI software package. Georeferencing the sheets separately avoided the misalignment that would have resulted had the sheets been joined before georeferencing. This was confirmed after assembly when a small gap was found to exist at the join between the sheets. PanaVue Image Assembler was used to stitch together three photographs to produce a panoramic view at site 4. Data processing The main data processing task involved georeferencing the satellite images and the maps. The Silva Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver was used to obtain UTM coordinates for road junctions. The coordinates of road junctions were then used to georeference the ASTER satellite images. The road junctions shown on the maps were used to co-register the maps with the satellite images. Site locations were plotted confirming that georeferencing was adequate for presentation. Slight discrepancies remain, believed not to exceed more than 30 meters on average. ASTER imagery has horizontal striping. The striping was removed using principal components analysis on bands 1 to 4. Then the original bands were reconstructed using the first three components, dropping the fourth component which contained most of the noise using a method described in the IDRISI manual (Eastman, 1999).

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4. Analysis The configuration of land and water bodies The configuration of land and water bodies may have been the dominant factor in the impact of the tsunami upon the coasts of the Indian Ocean. Staff of the U. S. National Oceanic an Atmospheric Administration prepared animated images of the tsunami based on radar measurements of wave height. The NOAA image in Figure 4 was extracted from an animated GIF file provided by the Malaysian Ministry of Tourism (MOT, 2005). The image shows the tsunami reaching both Sri Lanka and the entrance to the Strait of Malacca about two hours after the earthquake. The two events nearly coincided because the speed of the wave in the Indian Ocean was 800 km/h, while the speed of the wave refracted around the northernmost point of Sumatra was 160 km/h (MOT, 2005). A speed of 800 km/h across the ocean is consistent with a depth of 4000 m, while a speed of 160 km is consistent with much shallower depths (NOAA FAQ, 2005).

Figure 4: Model of tsunami based on satellite images. Tsunami shown reaching Sri Lanka and the Strait of Malacca. (Source: MOT, based on an NOAA image.)

Tsunamis are known to have long wavelengths, perhaps hundreds of kilometers (NOAA FAQ, 2005). However, the speed of waves is much reduced in water with depth that is less than half the wavelength of the wave. Such waves have reduced period and length. Loss of energy may reduce wave amplitude to the extent that waves do not reach the shore (Bird, 2000). Thus, the shallow depth of water north and east of Sumatra may partly explain the lower speed of the tsunami that crossed eastwards across the Strait of Malacca. Refraction and interference of waves may also have affected the speed (Kerr, 2005).

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At the time shown in Figure 4, the tsunami was 30 km past the 120 m isobath that marks the edge of the shallow Sunda Platform. Moving southeast on the Sunda Platform, depths fell to a small fraction of half the wavelength of the tsunami, further reducing the speed of the wave (Figure 5). By contrast, the coast of Sri Lanka drops abruptly to a depth of 4000 m, thus the tsunami hit the coast at nearly full speed.

Figure 5: Profile across Penang Island showing depth of the sea, compared with a profile across Sri Lanka. (Source: ETOPO2).

The wave that struck the Malaysian coast, called a secondary wave (MOT, 2005) was much reduced in speed by the configuration of the land masses and varying depth of the sea. Birds comments apply to the west coast of Penang Island where the intertidal zone is broad and shallow. The tsunami did reach the shores of Penang Island but the period, length, and amplitude of the waves were much reduced compared to the waves reaching coasts with deep and narrow nearshore zones.

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Topography, hydrology, and geology of Penang Island The topography, hydrology and geology of Penang Island modified the impact of the tsunami both directly and indirectly. The island is 300 km2 in area and is composed entirely of granite locally covered with unconsolidated clay, sand, and silt of Pleistocene and Holocene ages (Figure 6). Granite hills rise from the sea to the highest point at 830 m, except where Pleistocene and Holocene deposits are found.

The Pleistocene deposits, found on the slopes and at the foot of granite hills, consist of the products of weathering from granite. Sand, gravel, clay, silt and peat of Pleistocene age were laid down by fluvial processes as channel fill, over-bank and flood-basin deposits.

igure 6: Geology of Penang Island, after Kamaludin bin Hassan.

The Holocene deposits are mainly marine resulting from transgression of the sea

f s

Today, the transition between granite hills and the flat coastal plains is marked by the

ted

F

during a warm period about 6,500 years ago when sea level was about 2 m higherthan at present, as dated from peat found at a depth of 3 m below the present crest obeach ridges (Kamaludin bin Hassan, undated). The pattern of ancient marine depositis complex, determined by the formation of lagoons, swamps, back mangrove assemblages, and a series of beach ridges parallel to the coast marked today byelevations up to 5 m (Figure 7).

12 m contour. Balik Pulau town straddles the 15 m contour (Figure 7). Until the advent of modern earthmoving machinery few roads and buildings were construc

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above 12 m. Most houses and roads were located on the ancient beach ridges and on higher land adjacent to the rice fields.

On the coastal margin, embankments were constructed as part of an irrigation system

in-

that relied on impounded flood water rather than upstream reservoirs. Gates at or near the coast regulated the upstream reach of the tide as well as the depth of water impounded for irrigation. Between the ancient beach ridges and the embankment and between the beach ridges, large tracts lying below 2 to 3 meters were irrigated for rice. Most streams were straightened to become irrigation channels. While some rafed rice is still planted, the irrigation system is no longer in operation. The control gates are still in use for tide and flood regulation.

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Figure 7: Topography of the study area, roads, and sites visited Based on topographic map.

The maps available show a stable shoreline based on a 1969 survey. The topographic map and the Quaternary map of 1992 agree on the alignment of the shoreline between sites 2 and 4 (Figure 7).

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Figure 8: ASTER false-color composite based on bands 1, 2, and 3, comparable to Landsat TM bands 2, 3 and 4.

Where rocky coasts drop precipitously to the sea, the ASTER image and the maps correspond (Figure 8). However, the ASTER image and the maps show different alignments between sites 2 and 4, an anomaly that could not be resolved by repeated attempts to improve georeferencing. GPS readings of site locations are consistent with both the ASTER images and the maps. A possible explanation for the anomaly might be that the coastline is unstable, but the tidal regime may provide a better explanation.

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The nature of the coast and tidal regime The nature of the shoreline is revealed by bathymetry and topography. The one-meter isobath lies one kilometer or less offshore. Onshore, about one kilometer inland in the south and about 2.5 km inland in the north, the two-meter contour lies at the base of the ancient beach ridges (Figure 7). From the one-meter isobath to the two-meter contour, the average gradient is about one meter per kilometer (1:1000). Since the tidal range is 2 m, the width of the intertidal area must average about 2 km. Satellite images taken at different dates and times of day would therefore display a shoreline different from the shoreline at mean sea level, as shown on a map.

Historically, mangrove trees, an embankment, and tide gates have tended to stabilize the shoreline. However, given the energetic effect of the southwest and northeast monsoons on currents and wave action, this shoreline has probably shifted in some places since the last survey in 1969. In particular, the shoreline appears to have shifted seaward between sites 2 and 3. A one-kilometer strip of dry land now exists outside the embankment where a mangrove swamp existed in 1969 (Figure 7). The belt of mangroves appears also to have shifted seaward. Thus, the small communities near sites 2 and 3 may have been protected from the tsunami by this westward extension of land and the mangrove belt.

Mangroves The land-use land-cover map, based on a standard false-color composite ASTER image, shows the arrangement of the coast in relation to natural and man-made features (Figure 9). The intertidal zone extends up to 2 km seaward of the embankment near site 2. The tsunami struck near the high of a spring tide. Even so, the sea would have been no nearer than 500 m from the sites visited. While the wave did carry a substantial load of silt and sand from the intertidal zone, its energy was dissipated by friction through contact with the broad band of shallow seafloor. The damage observed and discussed with residents confirmed that most of the damage to houses and boats occurred at the mouths of rivers where the wave surged over the channel banks, reaching about 50 meters inland.

A strip of mangrove extends from site 1 to site 4: wider from site 1 to site 3 and narrow from site 3 to site 4. Observations from hill lookouts suggest that this strip of mangrove is continuous from north to south (Figures 9, 10, and 11). Between sites 2 and 3, exploration on foot indicated that the seaward mangrove is second growth, while the landward mangrove has been planted during the last 10 years. Federal and state governments and community groups, including members of the fishermens association and students have cooperated in the new planting. There are now 3 to 5 million trees in the study area where the State Forestry Department plants 20,000 mangrove seedlings per year (Daud, 2005). Measurement of the area shown in the land-use land-cover map gave 256 ha as mangrove dominant, a figure 1.5% less than the 260 ha cited by Siow (Siow, 2005).

Field observations suggest that mangrove may occupy more than 300 ha. In addition to the areas where mangrove is sufficiently dominant for classification by satellite imagery, there are areas where mangrove is not dominant. Bare soil and surface water

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are dominant in areas with newer plantings and in the intertidal area where mangrove is extending its range seaward.

Figure 9: Land-use land-cover map based on classification of a standard vegetation index (NDVI) modified by information gathered from maps and field visits. Arrows A and B indicate view directions from lookouts. See photographs in Figures 10 and 11.

The mangrove strip appears on the map in Figure 9 as mangrove, bush, secondary forest, and surface water. Because the strip is irrigated with seawater at least twice per year, parts of the strip may be dry while others are wet. Some mangrove planted during the last ten years is about 4 m high with open space between the saplings. Thus, with recent plantings, the ASTER image registers bare soil and surface water more than the leaves of saplings. The presence of bare soil and surface water was confirmed on foot about 2 km north of site 3. Just south of the water bodies shown in the map, from the outer embankment to about 1,000 m west, the mangrove trees were saplings. While the canopy was open, cover was sufficient to interrupt GPS reception preventing precise geolocation.

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By contrast, the satellite image registers the leaves of mangrove further west of the saplings. This suggests secondary growth of the mangrove forest that existed 35 years ago. The density of the canopy much farther than 1,000 m west of the embankment could not be confirmed on the ground because the soil near the outer irrigation channel was too soft to permit safe crossing. An irrigation/drainage channel 2 m wide was found to have a swampy bottom of unknown depth. Mangrove cover was sufficient to interrupt GPS reception, to limit the use of the laser rangefinder, and obscure sight of the sea. This suggests that the canopy becomes denser seawards. The evidence suggests that the area of mangrove is being underestimated, perhaps by as much as 20% to 30%.

North of site 3, the embankment bounds the east side of the surface water bodies shown in the map. The southern portion appears to be mangrove swamp with surface water visible; the north portion appears to be prawn beds. Not present in the ASTER image, and not shown in the map, are new prawn beds near site 3 extending northwards about one kilometer.

Figure 10: View from lookout A looking we (Figure 9). Site 1 is to the north

stout of the scene (right) and behind hills. Site 2 is just right of center of the scene, inland and south of the river mouth. Shelters for crops and aquaculture facilities make this small settlement appear larger than it is. The mangrove belt can be seen along the coast. Patches of similar treesare plantations of coconuts and oil palm.

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Population and Settlements

ea in 2000 was about 50,000 in an area of 41 km2, 12.2 ersons per hectare, while comparable figures for the whole island were 1.26 million

7). Balik ly settlement larger than a village, is located 8 km inland, astride the 15

ed

e

Figure 11: View from lookout B, looking west (Figure 9). Balik Pulau lies just below this hill. The mangrove belt can be seen along the coast. Site 3 is

The population of the study arpand 300 km2, 41.5 persons per hectare. Population of the study area increased 26 percent since 1991, compared to 20 percent for the whole island. The rate of natural increase rather than migration probably accounts for the higher rate of population growth, since the area is rural and mostly ethnic Malay (GOM, 2002). Few buildings and roads in the study area approach the seashore (FigurePulau, the onm contour (Figures 7 to 9). The main roads are mostly well inland (Figure 9). The westernmost of these roads runs almost north-south along an ancient beach ridge nowelevated about three to five meters above mean sea level. Rice farmers lived along these main roads and in small groups of houses elevated above the rice fields. Many rice farmers moved to towns outside the area, attracted by job opportunities generatby rapid national economic development during the last 35 years, though some descendants of the rice farmers still live in the area and commute to work via new roads through the hills leading to the east coast of the island. With the decline ininterest in rice farming, operation of the irrigation system was terminated and, whilsome rain-fed rice is still grown on both sides of the road, settlement seaward fromthe road seems sparser now than shown in the 1969 map.

near the center of the scene. The Betong Islands are visible at the south (left) edge of the scene. Sites 4 and 5 are out of scene on the left.

25

f site 2, the main north-south road makes a fork. One branch ofSouth o the road runs

Some of

r the lack of settlement along the coast.

privately owned

ble.

In Malaysi

at

ment is comprehensively regulated in Malaysia. Planning

ses

two meters lower than the roads. Development requires

southeast through Balik Pulau and over the hills to the east coast. Between the fork in the road and Balik Pulau town, there are many short side-roads leading inland from the old rice fields. These roads lead to small groups of houses scattered among the trees, possibly settlements of former rice farmers or their descendents.

Near the mouths of rivers, groups of houses are reached by secondary roads. these se tlements may be related to fishing and aquaculture. However, the number of cars and motorcycles suggests that many occupants commute to work elsewhere. During interviews, occupants stated that their houses did not sustain structural damagefrom the tsunami but that the wave overflowed the river banks depositing mud inside and around the houses and damaged vehicles parked outside. An occupant stated that the cost of damage to motor vehicles was greater than the cost of damage to houses.

At all sites visited, fishermen sustained damage to their boats and jetties. By the end

t

of February all boats and damaged jetties appeared to have been repaired and fishing activity seems to have returned to normal. Housing development

Three factors account fo

Much of the land is state land that has never been Land development and building construction are highly regulated i Raising low-lying land above the flood level is not financially feas

a, the constitution assigns responsibility for land affairs to state governments. In many states, a substantial portion of land unsuitable for agriculture, tree crops or mining is still public land. In Penang Island, the land seaward of the embankment is still state land. Field visits indicated that near site 2 there is a new housing development in a location seaward from the embankment and potentially risk from a tsunami. The layout of this development suggests that it is a low-income housing development implemented by the state government on state land. The tsunami reached, but did not cross the culvert running along the road bounding the housing estate. Housing developpermission, building permits and occupancy certification ensure compliance with environmental, structural, and health standards. During field visits, most of the hounear the coast appeared to have been built under regulations that were less strict than those in force now. For example, at site 3 an occupant stated that none of the houses required occupancy certificates. Probably, such houses could not be built today because of stricter enforcement of regulations and because no financial institution would provide a mortgage.

Paddy land is generally one or that the surface be raised at least to the level of the road. The cost of fill and the risk of unstable foundations deter development on such land. Northwest of Balik Pulau town remnants of the irrigation system are visible including coded markers. On the

26

seaward side of the road, there are few buildings along the road and empty low-lyinfields behind them. Inland from the road, where the land rises gently above the rice fields, many side roads lead through the trees to groups of houses arranged with low density. The availability of land above the flood level may have deterred building nethe sea. Losses, c

g

ar

ompensation and uninsured risk

other countries. Of the 68 deaths in alaysia, 52 (76%) were in Penang (Table 1).

Losses

The loss of life was lower in Malaysia than inM

Table 1:

Damaged State Dead Missing Injured

Homes Boats

P enang 52 5 205 615 1332

Kedah 12 - 92 900 n/a

Perak 3 1 3 20 n/a

Selangor 1 - - - -

Total 68 6 300 15 1332 35So HD. Data vided by Co l Centre, R alaysian HQ, Jan, 2005.

A

uthwest district (Table 2), most among campers and picnickers at site 5.

($5,300), quivalent to about one year income for a middle-level worker. For families that lost a

treatment. Compensation for injury was been set at 200 ringgit ($77), an amount

rity estimated losses suffered by Malaysian shermen at 20.8 m ringgit ($5.4 m). Another estimate is 29.3 million ringgit for

include

ss

urce: PO pro ntro oyal M Police

bout half the deaths in Penang occurred on the west coast of Penang Island in the so Compensation paid by the federal government for death was 20,000 ringgit ewage-earner there remains a substantial uncompensated loss, representing uninsured risk. (Exchange rate: $1 = 3.85 ringgit.)

In the study area, fewer than 100 injuries were serious enough to require outpatient

sufficient only for slight injuries. The Fisheries Development Authofi5,200 fishermen, 5,635 ringgit ($1,480) per fisherman. These estimates cannot loss of income, since the figure per fisherman is low. Moreover, the average figureper fisherman masks the catastrophic loss to some fishermen of boat, motor and nets. Compensation per fisherman was 1,000 to 5,000 ringgit ($260-$1,300) for boats. Loof income was uncovered and uncompensated. For some fishermen, total loss of boatsand equipment was uncovered and uncompensated.

27

Table 2: Statistics by District in Penang

InjuredDeathsDistricts

Mala ers OutpIncident

y Oth atient Ward

Northeast

(Penang Island)

Ba hi

19 4 90 2

tu Feringg

Tanjong

Tokong

Southwest

(Penang Island)

Tel g16 11 90 -

ok Bahan

Pulau Betong

S.Prai

(Mainland) 2 - 24 - Various

Total 15 37 204 2

Overall Total 52 6 20Source: PO d by Control Centre, R Malaysian Police H n, 2005.

Fim). Fish farmers received 500 ringgit ($130), a trivial amount of compensation. Most

tty was

e were 615 homes damaged. No breakdown is available, but most f the homes damaged were probably wooden houses along the northern coast of

0-d

alf

were in general stoic and laconic. Nevertheless, some statements and body language indicated derision of the level of

rnment

t getting to those affected fast enough. What has been

HD. Data provide oyal Q, Ja

sh farmers, including prawn farmers, lost an estimated 23.9 million ringgit (S6.2

fish farmers had substantial losses that were uncovered and uncompensated. Fishermens groups were awarded compensation for jetties damaged. During field visits, jetty repairs were observed some fishermen stated that the loss of the jefully compensated. In Penang State, theroPenang Island. In the study area, some wooden houses near the coast were reported destroyed or damaged. However, the houses seen during field visits were masonrybuildings that sustained little or no structural damage. Instead, they were swamped with mud up to one meter deep. Compensation for damage to houses was set at 2,005,000 ringgit ($520-$1,300). During field visits one householder said he had receive1,200 ringgit and did not believe he would receive more. Based on the amount of work required to clean up after the tsunami, the cost per house without structural damage would have been about 2,000-3,000 ringgit ($520-$780) leaving at least hthe loss uncovered and uncompensated.

The people interviewed during field visits

compensation and raised the question of transparency in the use of both goveand private funds for mitigating losses caused by the tsunami.

The difficulties post tsunami includes aid and compensationnopromised has in some instances not been delivered. What has been given in some cases is not enough in the long term. (Source: POHD, 2005.)

28

Private pared with an nggit ($26 million) in domestic losses (POHD,

ting loss of life and loss of income, private funds alone should

tims of the tsunami indicated resentment

to

organizations in Malaysia raised about 70 m ringgit ($18 m), com estimated 100 million ri

2005). Not counhave been sufficient to cover 70% of domestic losses. However, it may be that most government and almost all private funds were sent abroad to assist countries harder hit by the tsunami.

While it is beyond the scope of this study to evaluate the effectiveness of Malaysian gifts to other counties within the context of the billions of dollars raised for the global effort, some victhat so much aid was sent abroad and so little spent to mitigate local losses.

There may a cultural factor: Malaysians who administered aid funds may desire international recognition, and while the world might not see aid given to local people, the world would see aid sent abroad. Administrators sent aid abroadgain international recognition, neglecting their own people. This behavior may have been contrary to the wishes of the thousands of private donors who probably intended the charity to begin at home.

29

5. Field visits Fieldwork was carried out over two days, January 18 and March 10. The work consisted in driving along the secondary roads and rough trails in the study area to:

Interview residents, fishermen, and others Confirm the extent and intensity of the tsunami impact Confirm present land-use/land-cover Verify the extent of the mangrove swamp/forest

To support the fieldwork the following equipment/supplies were taken to the field:

Roadmaps Topographic map based on the 1969 survey dated 1978 Composite ASTER image (123 equivalent to Landsat 234) GPS (Silva Multi-Navigator, claimed precision 5 meters) Laser rangefinder, (Leica, claimed precision one meter) Digital camera (Sony DSC-F505)

Study area sites visited The study area is the west coast of Penang Island (Figure 3). Within this study area, five sites in the southwest of the island were selected for field visits.

Five sites were selected:

Site 1: Pantai Aceh (Aceh Beach) at the north end of the mangrove strip

Site 2: Kuala Sungai Pinang (Penang River Estuary)

Site 3: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary)

Site 4: Kuala Betong Island (Betong Island Estuary)

Site 5: Pasir Panjang (Long Sands/Long Beach)

The site markers shown in Figure 3 identify general locations for fieldwork: interviews, geo-location, observations of vegetation and settlement. At each site, several locations were investigated. This section discusses the observations at each site and presents the photographs taken. A more detailed location map precedes the discussion of each site.

30

Site 1: Pantai Aceh (Aceh Beach) At site 1, the coastal lowland narrows to a few hundred meters (Figure 12). Thus, Malays probably never settled the area because the land is not suited to rice cultivation. Today, a village occupied by Chinese lines both sides of the paved road north of the marker 1a. Most development is on the landward side of the road, while young mangrove trees occupy the narrow coastal strip behind a narrow row of buildings.

igure 12: Site 1. Pantai Aceh (Aceh Beach). Land-use Land-cover map and

FASTER false-color composite. No beach remains, but there may have been a beach during historical time.

31

Site 1a: Pantai Aceh - highway and small stream Before the highway reaches the village it passes over a small stream that flows through a large diameter culvert just visible in the photograph (Figure 13). The paved path leading from the foreground to the main road provides access to the fishing jetty 500 m into the mangrove strip. The stream lies about 2 m below the road. Nevertheless, when the tsunami swept upstream the culvert blocked movement upstream, forcing water and mud to flow over the road inundating the low-lying area to the right of the photograph. Except for the culvert, there might have been no damage caused to the house to the right of the photograph.

Figure 13: Site 1a. Stream passing under main road and path to the

fishing jetty, looking east.

32

Site 1a: Pantai Aceh house inundated with mud and debris This house was flooded with mud and debris up to the level indicated by the mans fingers, about 90 cm (Figure 14). Restoring the house might have taken 30-man days labor (authors estimate). The partly-filled bag indicates recent liming of the walls of the building. Non-masonry components suffered some structural damage, but not the masonry, something noted generally in the study area.

igure 14: Site 1a: House flooded with mud and debris, looking east. F

33

Site 1b: Pantai Aceh - Fishing boat preparing to go to sea At this location there are about 50 fishing boats most of which were damaged by the tsunami. One man was killed when the old jetty was destroyed. One fish net was still hanging in a mangrove tree. The author assumed that the crew of the boat in the photograph was a man and wife team, something observed also at site 4. The trees along the stream are mangrove. The muddy bottom of the stream is exposed at near low tide.

Figure 15: Site 1b. Fishing boat preparing to go to sea, looking north.

34

Site 1b: Pantai Aceh: Fishing jetty repaired and fishing boat leaving estuary This part of the jetty was completely rebuilt, while most footbridges leading from the jetty to shore needed only minor repair, indicating that the tsunami affected a limited area to the sides of the stream, the main thrust being upstream. Mangrove lines both banks of the stream.

igure 16: Site 1b. Fishing jetty repaired and fishing boat leaving estuary at

Fnear low tide, looking west.

35

Site 2: Kuala Sungai Pinang (Penang River Estuary) The Penang River and its estuary are the largest in the study area. Nevertheless, up to the end of the road shown near site 2a, the river is confined within an irrigation-drainage channel (figure 17). A village lines both sides of the main road at its end near site 2a, and side roads lead off the main road. Both north and south of the estuary there are areas of aquaculture, but only the southern area is shown as surface water on the land-use land-cover map. The areas north of the estuary may reflect a different part of the light spectrum because they are covered or partly covered (Figure 10). These areas of aquaculture are located outside the north-south line of the embankment in areas shown as mangrove by the 1969 survey. Seaward from the aquaculture areas, there is now a strip of mangrove in a belt shown as sea in the 1969 survey, indicating migration seaward of the coastline and the mangrove strip.

Figure 17: Site 2: Kuala Sungai Pinang (Penang River Estuary). Land-use land-cover map and ASTER false-color composite.

36

Site 2a oored below t The stream shown in Figure 18 is not a natural channel, but an unlined drain clearly visible in the ASTER composite (Figure 17). Behind the camera stands the tide gate that formerly served also to impound water for irrigation. The water forced upstream by the tsunami washed up past the camera position over the road, around the tide gate and down the drain behind the tide gate. The water in this stream may have caused less damage because, unconfined by banks or an embankment, its flow was broad and shallow.

Figure 18: Site 2a: Kuala Sungai Pinang (Penang River Estuary). Fishing boats moored below the tidal gate, looking north.

: Kuala Sungai Pinang (Penang River Estuary) Fishing boats mhe tidal gate.

37

Site 2b: Kuala Sungai Pinang (Penang River Estuary) Malay market

of the trees.

Figure 19: Site 2b: Kuala Sungai Pinang (Penang River Estuary). Malay market, looking east.

The market shown is part of a housing development outside the embankment that includes a school to the south outside the scene (right). The rectangular shape of the development is visible in the ASTER composite south and east of the site marker (Figure 17). To the west, about 500 meters distant behind the camera, the mangrove area can be seen, the trees much taller than those seen at site 1. This might suggest that the extension seaward of the coast has proceeded longer here, accounting for the greater age

Some water from the tsunami flowed down the drain at the feet of the woman and child in the photograph but did not overflow the drain. (This drain is local, not part of the old irrigation system, which lies to the east behind this development, the embankment forming its eastern boundary.)

38

Site 3: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary) The new road runs along a main irrigation-drainage canal that confines the river upits estuary. Paved paths wide enough for one vehicle lead south to the estuary and north to the embankment and beyond.

to

Figure 20: Site3: Kuala JalanBaru. Land-use land-cover map and ASTER false-color composite.

39

Site 3a: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary) Houses affected

narrow winding paved road leads to the estuary and to this house at the end of the

nd tam.

Figure 21: Site 3a: Kuala JalanBaru. Houses affected, looking northwest.

Aroad about 50 m from the river bank. The site is located on a small area of land outside the embankment bounded on the south by the outlet of the drainage canal aon the north by the outlet of the river Ayer I

At this location, the flood level reached about one meter above ground level dumping mud inside the house and damaging several vehicles. None of the loss was covered by insurance. The homeowner reported receiving 1,200 ringgit ($315) as compensation from the government. Possibly, the damage was limited by the fact that this location is outside the embankment where the river is not confined. This is more easily seen in the next photograph.

40

Site 3a: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary) Ayer Itam River

ay

This is Ayer Itam River, about 50 m north from the house shown in the previous photograph. The river is unconstrained at this point and this lack of constraint mhave allowed broad shallow overbank flow and low intensity damage.

Figure 22: Site 3a: Kuala Jalan Baru. Ayer Itam River, looking north.

41

Site 3b: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary) aquaculture prawn beds

t dated

January 25, 2005, possibly because the beds were drained for cleaning the mud and

Figure 23: Site3b: Kuala Jalan Baru. Prawn beds, looking west.

The prawn beds in this photograph are located north of the estuary of Ayer Itam, jusoutside the embankment. These beds do not appear in the ASTER image

debris from the tsunami. Second growth mangrove trees are visible in the distance. The telephone/power pole in the photograph stands on the near side of the embankment.

42

Site 3c: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary). Mangrove forest/swamp On the left of the scene a prawn bed is visible and in the distance second-growth mangrove. The mangrove in the middle ground is younger, planted about ten yeago by the Forestry Department. In the foreground, the land appears disturbed as if affected by the tsunami possibly flowing from the area north, shown in the next photograph or directly from the sea. (This could not be determined.)

ars

Figure 24: Site 3c: KualaJalanBaru. Mangrove forest/swamp, looking west.

43

Site 3d: Kuala Jalan Baru (New Road Estuary) Young mangrove

he mangrove in this image has been recently planted. The soil is wet, probably

orth revious

photograph and to the prawn beds.

Tbecause the land is intertidal and has not dried out since high tide. Further north (right) the soil appears swampier than here, even at low tide. A possible scenario might be that the tsunami inundated the swampy area to the nand flowed south through this tract causing the disruption seen in the p

Figure 25: Site 3d: Kuala Jalan Baru. Young mangrove, looking west.

44

Sites 4 and 5: Kuala Betong Island (Betong Island Estuary) and Pasir Panjang ong Sands)

nd s well as the former

rigation scheme.

ent r government officer training. The beach remains

accessible to the public and is popular for weekend youth camps.

Figure 26: Kuala Betong Island (Betong Island Estuary) and Pasir Panjand (Long Sands). Land-use land-cover map and ASTER false-color composite.

(L Site 4: Kuala Betong Island is the estuary of the river named from the Betong Islaoffshore. This is the southern terminus of the mangrove strip air Site 5:Pasir Panjang is a beach site of a former village, now a Federal Governmcompound that serves as a retreat fo

45

Site 4: Kuala Betong Island (Betong Island Estuary) The estuary of Betong Island River contains the largest fishing fleet in the study area.

e for materials to repair the jetty.

Fishermen stated that damage to their boats and loss of income was not covered by insurance and mostly uncompensated by government grants, but that the grant for thjetty was sufficient

46

Site 5: Pasir Panjang (Long Sands/Long Beach) On the right of the scene is the boundary wall of the government compound, partly destroyed by the tsunami. During previous visits in 2003 and 2004, the author notedthat a small gulley had formed under the boundary wall undermining it. Thus, failure of the wall did not necessitate a wave of great force.

people

ic status at

Many young people who had camped overnight on the beach were swept into the sea unable to climb the wall on the right or the rocky slope to the road just visible above the center of the photograph. Other people were on the rocks in the distance taking advantage of the shade from the trees. Many were swept away. Statistics are not detailed enough to be certain of the figures, but verbal accounts say that 20perished, mostly children, but including some older picnickers. This figure represents one-third of all lives lost in Penang with no known correlation with economor residential location. Most of the deceased were Malays, inferred from the fact th16 Malays were included among the 27 fatalities for the district listed in Table 2.

Figure 28: Pasir Panjang (Long Sands/Long Beach), looking north.

47

6. Discussion and Conclusion Based on guidelines derived from review of previous studies the present study:

limited the geographic scope of the area investigated (Kasperson, Kasperson and Turner, 1995)

reviewed land-use/land-cover changes (Ngai and Parker, 1996) assessed community preparedness and the vulnerability of population at risk

(Malaysian Delegation, 2005; Cutter, 2000), and reviewed the role of government policy in mitigating risk and compensating

losses. The evidence assembled from deskwork and from field visits leads to the following provisional replies to the questions posed at the beginning of the study. Why were the Malaysian coasts less affected by the tsunami than those elsewhere in the region? The analysis of maps and images as well as the fieldwork indicated that the configuration of the Indian Ocean coastline and the shallow depth of the Strait of Malacca muted the impact of the tsunami on the west coast of Penang Island. The tsunami struck Sri Lanka at full speed because the continental shelf is narrow off the Sri Lankan coast, the sea bottom dropping to 4000 m. By contrast, the wave that struck Malaysia moved more slowly because the continental shelf off Malaysia has a depth of only 120m at a distance of over 100 km north of Penang Island. At site 1, there is no embankment. A single house was inundated by water and mud that surged upstream to the main road. The culvert under the road confined the water causing it to flow overbank. Near the mouth of the Penang River (site 2), a housing development is sited outside the embankment. The coastline at this point and the mangrove appear to have migrated at least 500 m seaward, protecting the development from the wave. A variety of coastal processes may account for this migration, including: increased erosion onshore and increased sedimentation at the mouth of rivers, sediment transport by offshore currents, and reduced erosion of this part of the coast. The second-growth forest is now protected, but there are plantations in the hills and signs of clearing. Continued disturbance of the soil and the lack of a closed canopy in the second-growth forest may contribute to man-made erosion that increases the

diment burden of the streams reaching the coast. The prevailing winds are seasonal, lated to the northeast and southwest monsoons. The west coast is partly sheltered

from the northeast monsoon by the bulge at the northwest corner of the island. Thus north-south current has less effect on this coast than the south-north current. A possible scenario would have the southeast monsoon moving sediment from the rivers northward alongshore. This scenario would have the coast migrating seaward from the Ayer Itam River (site 4) to the bight north of Pantai Aceh (site 1) and this is what has happened. Somewhere along the west coast, the sheltering effect of the northwest corner of the island diminishes, reducing the differential effect of the two monsoons.

sere

48

Balance between the effects of the monsoons, and the proximity to rivers, may xplain why the coast has migrated farther west between points 2 and 3 than between

hat environmental and institutional factors might continue to protect the coast

s

y

rove

occupies an area of 250 to 350 ha outside an embankment that formerly marked the

conomic status. Generally, in the study area the greatest property losses were among shermen and aquaculturalists.

osses wer as nominal. Losses to p illion) not including loss of income, were substantial. Government grants were set as maximum allowances for loss of life, injury, and property loss. However, local government officials assessed losses to each claimant based on estimated actual loss. Thus, the aggregate of grants received in the study

epoints 1 and 2. Reduced erosion between points 2 and 3 may be explained by the protective effects of the mangrove forest/swamp which is densest between these two points.

Wor alter the risk? Additional motion along the Mentawai Fault was anticipated. For example, there waa magnitude 8.7 earthquake along the fault on March 28 (Kerr, 2005). The same environment and institutional factors that protected Malaysia in December 2004 macontinue to offer protection against future tsunamis from this other faults. The low density of settlement near the coast results from a broad intertidal zone, a belt of mangrove on state-owned land, and institutional factors that limit settlement along thecoast. The intertidal zone is state land extending about 2 km from the coast. Mang

outer boundary of the irrigation system, now disused. Apart from fishing jetties, prawn farms and small settlements nearby, there are few buildings outside the embankment. With continued economic development more property development may be expected on the western side of Penang Island. However, planning and building regulations are more strictly enforced now than in the past, so that few new buildings may be expected near the coast. Low-lying land near the coast is subject to flooding and must therefore be raised by one to two meters at great cost. Moreover, there is land suitable for building nearer to the main roads with access to the east coast of the island, the international airport and the bridge to the mainland. The risk to fishermen and prawn farmers will continue unchanged because these activities are located outside the embankment.

Were people in some socio-economic groups more vulnerable than others to the impact of the tsunami and to what extent were losses compensated? At least 20 campers and picnickers lost their lives at site 5 when the wave hit the shore. Risk is higher at this site, with a long sandy beach that attracts visitors, no protective embankment, and the 2 m isobath approaches the shore. Though most of the deceased were ethnic Malays, it is not possible to relate mortality to socio-efi L e uninsured. Financial compensation for loss of life and injury w

roperty, estimated at about 100 million ringgit ($25 m

49

area were less than the amount calculated from the published maximum allowances, nd by an unknown factor.

Malaysia, disaster reduction and mitigation efforts do not stand alone: they are wov recomm 05). Thus, the main government role in mitigating loss was g-term eco m Famcontinue to have access to

eatment provided at nominal charge. Government policies that promote economic

st of enang Island. Those who remain have raised their economic standard sufficiently so

a In

en into the fabric of the communitys overall development, as Egeland ended (Egeland, 20

not in the provision of grants, but in planning and implementing lonno ic and local development.

ilies losing the main income earner will suffer most, but these families will free primary and secondary education and hospital

trand local development have resulted in fewer people exposed to risk from tsunami because they have found employment and housing away from the west coaPthat most victims of the tsunami will soon recover from property losses.

50

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4


Frederick W. Colbourne

Research Project Report

M.S. in Physical Sciences

Earth Science Emphasis

Earth Science Department

Emporia State University

Emporia, Kansas

May, 2005

Acknowledgements

Thanks to

Dr James Aber for his suggestion to explore this topic and for his support and advice.

Drs Firooza Pavri and Marcia Schulmeister for their encouragement and advice.

C. L. Foong for accompanying me in the field, interpreting during interviews, and finding water to wash after I fell into the mangrove swamp.

USGS and NASA for providing free ASTER data.

Clark Labs for the reduced-price student license to use IDRISI.

Credits to

Director of National Mapping, Malaysia for the map Semenanjung Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Balik Pulau sheet.

Geological Survey of Malaysia for the map Quaternary Geology Peninsular Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Seberang Prai, and Kuala Kurau.


Frederick W. Colbourne. Project for the Master of Science Degree, Earth Science Department, Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas (May, 2005)

Abstract

The Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of December 2004 (magnitude 9.0) generated a tsunami that affected all coasts of the Indian Ocean, killed over 300,000 people, and caused loss of property and livelihood. In Malaysia, 68 people died and property losses amounted to about $25 million This study investigates physical, environmental and institutional factors that may explain why the tsunami had limited impact on the Malaysian coasts using the west coast of Penang Island as the study area. The study uses bathymetry, topography, satellite imagery and fieldwork to address this question, concluding that the configuration of the Indian Ocean coastline and its bathymetry are the primary factors that limited the impact of the tsunami. Secondary factors are the low density of settlement near the coast resulting from the presence of a broad intertidal zone, a belt of mangrove on state-owned land, and institutional influences that limit settlement along the coast. Though most of the deceased were ethnic Malays, it was not possible to relate mortality to socio-economic status. The greatest property losses were among fishermen and aquaculturalists. Losses were uninsured. Financial compensation for loss of life and injury was nominal. After mitigation by government grants, losses were still substantial. The main government role in mitigating loss was not in the provision of grants, but in planning and implementing long-term economic and local development, resulting in fewer people exposed to risk from tsunami because they have found employment and housing away from the west coast of Penang Island.

Table of Contents

Introduction

7

Documents

Tsunami Impact on the West Coast of Penang Island, Malaysia