SAMPLING & BIASCHAPTER 9 ACTION RESEARCH: DATA COLLECTION CONSIDERATIONS

What is a Sample? Is the group of elements, or a single element, from which data are obtained. Sampling in AR is purposive sampling, which means that researcher selects particular elements from the population that will be representative / informative abt the topic. Based on the researchers knowledge of the population, judgment is made about which cases should be selected to provide the best information to address the purpose of the research. E.g:In research on effective teaching, it may be most informative to observe expert or master teachers rather than all teachers. Sample SizeSample size selection is an important consideration because it determines the extent to which the researcher can generalize. (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005).Generally, the sample size should not be too large that it is difficult to analyze and extract the thick and rich data. On the same time, it also should not be too small until it is difficult to reach its theoretical saturation or therell be informational redundancy (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).Sample motivation also contributes to the consistency of the data / result.

Main issue in a non random sample selection is the existence of SAMPLING BIAS. (sampling error caused by the researcher)The sample is bias (berat sebelah) when not all have chance being chosen / not being chosen secara adil. (Azizi Yahaya et al, 2007) result in misleading findings.Occasionally researchers will deliberately skew the sampling. The most obvious deliberate bias is selecting only those subjects that will respond in a particular way to support a point or result. For instance, If a researcher is measuring the values of college students and wants to show that the students are concerned about helping others and being involved in community service, bias would result if the researcher deliberately selected students in education or social work and ignored majors that might not be so altruistically oriented.Sampling bias also occurs non deliberately, often because of inadequate knowledge of what is required to obtain an unbiased sample and the motivation to prove a desired result or point of view. In qualitative studies, the researcher needs to be particularly careful about possible unintended bias if sampling changes during the study.Bias is more likely when a researcher is proving something to be true, with convenience samples, and when volunteers are used as subjects.

VALIDITY

Meaning? Does the research do the things it claims to do, and can the reader believe the results? Measure what it should measure. The validity of the research is the degree of a review that is honest and true in terms of intent, context, and report. It is the result of your integrity as a teacher & a researcher. It raises questions "Does your data say what you say it says? (MacLean & Mohr, 1999, p. 117)High validity = information obtained is based on fact / evidence that could be justified secara tepat. You can ensure validity of what is being studied thru the use of several data sources. Using 3 diff data sources (triangulation) helps to validate the research findings. + makes the research study rigorous. External Validity / Critics (originality of data)Reflects whether findings could be extended beyond the immediate case. The more variations in places, people & procedure a study can withstand & still yield the same findings, the more external validity. (sama ada dapatan kajian ini boleh digeneralisasikan/ diaplikasikan kepada sampel, lokasi & masa yg lain)Factors affecting external validity:1. Individual2. Place3. Time

Ways to ensure research validity: Use correct measures for the concepts being studied to ensure construct validity. Use multiple sources of evidence

Internal Validity / Critics (accuracy of data)Menangani ketepatan maklumat dan sama ada ia sesuai/selari dengan realiti (Merriam, 1988).Sejauh mana dapatan sesuatu kajian dapat diinterpretasikan dgn tepat. (penyelidik mempunyai bukti bahawa apa yg dilaksanakan mempengaruhi apa yg diperhatikan)Factors affecting internal validity: Ways to overcome threats in internal validity.1. Seragamkan keadaan dlm penyelidikan e.g: cara rawatan dilaksanakn, lokasi, cara data dikumpul2. Kumpul maklumat ttg subjek penylidikan3. Dapatkan butiran tambahan ttg penyelidikan.

TRIANGULATIONUsed to increase the validity of the findings & results of the research made secara QUALITATIVE.It is a combination of few kaedah penyelidikan, observation & methods of collecting data to study the same phenomena. this will kurangkan BIAS as well as problems regarding VALIDITY & RELIABILITY.Denzin (1978) identified 4 categories of triangulation i.e:DATA TRIANGULATIONData diperoleh drpd byk sumber. (temubual, sola selidik, pemerhatian)

RESEARCH TRIANGULATIONLebih dr seorg penyelidik terlibat

THEORY TRIANGULATIONLebih dari 1 theory utk menyelidik fenomena yg sama.

METHOD (kaedah)TRIANGULATIONInvolve various methods utk meyelidik fenomena yg same.

RELIABILITY(DATA GENERALISATION)

Trustworthiness of the data being gathered.Stringer (2008) = ukuran sejauh maman keputusan dr sample populasi kajian yg dikaji boleh digeneralisasikan kpd konteks & masa yg lain. Walaupun AR beri kefahaman yg bernilai & boleh kembangkan amalan, tapi ia hanya spesifi bg konteks tertentu & kurg stsbil ikut masa. E.g:Apabila dtg guru besar baru, persekitaran sekoolah turut berubah! 3 categories of RELIABILTY:KESTABILANUkuran ketekalan mengikut peredaran masa bg sampel yg sama iaitu alat kajian berkenaan boleh digunkan sepanjang masa.

KESETARAANUkuran kesetaraan antara skor bg dua uianyg setara iaitu ujian yg berbeza tapi mengukur kandungan yg sama.

KETEKALAN DALAMANapabila semua item mengukur konsep / konstruk yg sama.

Ways to increase RELIABILITY:. Melalui penggunaan inter-rater (data temu bual) : beberapa org penyelidik mengenal pasti tema-tema dalam transkripsi yang sama 2. Pemerhatian secara berulang-ulang sehingga tepu (tingkah-laku diperhatikan tidak berubah lagi)3. Menggunakan nilai cronbach alfa (untuk soal selidik) (nilai > 0.60 digunakan) (Mohd Majid, 1990)

ETHICS

Safeguard the information provided by the sample. - use code or nama samaran.Explain the purpose of the study to the sample. to get cooperation & support.It is prohibited to cheat on the sample involves / making observation secara rahsia / tersembunyi. It is forbidden to disclose confidential information.Do not share own experiences during the interview.Masa kajian tidak menggangu individu kajian di lokasi kajian cth: temumual terlalu lama.Menyebabkan kemudaratan atau kecederaan fizikal mahupun mental e.g Responden diminta bekerja di tengah panas/hujan tanpa perlindungan / penyelidik mengkaji keberkesanan pengetua di sekolah-sekolah pengetua rasa tertekan & tidak selesa dinilai.

Continuation: Plagiarism Memalsu / mengubahsuai data bagi mendapatkan hasil sebagaiman dikehendaki. kena jujoq!