Chapter II

TRIBAL HABITAT ~ ECONOMY: AK OVERVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT:

It is well known that the tribal communities in India

have settled in their present homelands through a long and

~hequered process of diffusion. Once they settled down in a

particular eco-region, the physical environment of their

habitat seems to have forced them to adjust with it. Eventu-

ally, the tribal groups have developed diverse economies in

consonance with the prevailing environment. This critical

adjustment, however, has undergone changes of varying de-

grees depending upon several factors which include their own

dynamism, contacts with other tribal or non-tribal groups

etc. Nevertheless, ecological control of food supply con-

tinues to be an important factor of tribal economy even

today. Tribes inhabiting dense rain forests still perform

economic functions of food gathering and hunting - a charac-

teristic practice of palaeolithic stage. On the other hand,

intermontane valleys have permitted settled agriculture to

be performed as the primary mode of economy. Tribes in

hills are seen to derive their sustenance from shifting

cultivation.

The extent of variation in to~ography, soil, rainfall,

74

vagetal cover etc. differentiate' habitats and distinguish

the regions of tribal ecology. In this chapter an attempt

has been nade to identify the distinctiveness of tribal

habitat and economy with special reference to the mid-Indian

tribal belt. In the absence of adequate data, the analysis

is confined only to a broad outline and at times is heavily

dependent upon anthropological literature of the British

period or researches on the economic history of the tribes.

2.2 IDENTIFICATION AND REGIONALISATION OF HID-INDIAN TRIBAL BELT:

Spatial distribution of scheduled tribes of to-day

~bows a highly uneven pattern. At the state ·level, the

scheduled tribes in the mid-India constitute a significant

proportion of the total population in Rajasthan, Gujarat,

Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa.

However, ccnsidering the tendency of the tribes to cluster

and concentrate in favored pockets render the state-level

distribution meaningless. It is, therefore, proposed to

accept a lesser aggregate unit - the district - for greater

precision in identifying the areas of tribal concentration.

A perusal of Figure II.l reveals striking variation in

the share of tribes at district level. The areas of tribal

concentration has been identified by considering, only those

districts where the tribes constitute over 20 per cent of

75

~l

) f

\

(

( ,.. t'

f .J'._' .I t._

_,. ---..., __ -.::\ i ·-- ' .· .. ~

-------,

MID- INDIA

DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED

19BI

TRIBES

~ lQO loo..IC 4QO ... ,

\ - ~

\.... ._-)

I

)

( (

I r_.., \-.; ~ ('I I

Tr.,ol Populafton 01 P•rt•ntoQe

to totol Poc»ulat.on - eo - 100 - '0 - ao - 20- '0 - 10 - 20

a - 10

D I - ' . D 01 -I

Fig II 1

'1\ _) ( " \ \

L/

'-. v

I r "l

/

the population. Applying this ''minimum percentage" 1 cr i te-

rion, almost contiguous districts of tribal concentration

emerge quite clearly (Fig. !!.2). However, there are some

areas of discontinuity as represented by a set of districts

having less than 20 per cent tribal share and another with

very high share of tribal population lying outside this

belt.2 Such discontinuities are confined to a zone transi-

tiona! to the non-tribal areas, largely resulting out of

infiltration of non-tribals into traditional tribal home-

land.

Districts which have a very high share of tribal popu-

lation but lie outside the belt~ were ignored while those

within the belt, but did not qualify the "minimum percent-.

age" criterion were included for maintaining the principle

of spatial continutiy (Table 2.1).

Thus defined, the mid-Indian tribal belt constitutes a

cluster of 52 districts bounded by the rugged territory of

Aravallis in the north-west, the lofty north Sahyadris in

1. The logic behind the cut-off point is discussed in the methodology section.

2. Districts having less than 20 per cent tribal share are; Hosangabad, Durg and Raipur of Madhya Pradesh; Bolangir and Dhenkanal of Orissa; and Palamau, Hazari­bag, Giridih and Dhanbad of Bihar. Districts having higher share of tribal population are; Sawai Madhopur and Bundi of Rajasthan; Thane of Maharashtra; and Jalpaiguri of West Bengal.

76

.--------------------- --- ---

. ., .'' I -­t' .

.... )

(_,

' > ~·- ...,.J· -.J· r-

~

I

.f.J'

r -. ..__l

J .J )

I

/ )

>

\

)

r · IU..aSTH""

/ I Sowa • lllo4•op.,r 2 ,,,0 ... l Udo•pwr 4 O~o~I'\QOtpwr ~ 801'1ewore 6 lwl'ldl

r .. ono Jilll0111l

I

J I

...... "' /

I I

Oto~\olte

Yo-.otMol Cllondra,wr IIIAOHYA IOIII&DISM

1 5frlo""OI1 2 Sodtu 3 Ratio• 4 ~bi.IO

~ Ohor 6 W N t mOI'

7 ( M11nor

8 8etul

9 CMundwore

10 s.on• It lillllondto

12 Ra 1 Mond~<Jon

13 BoloQfrlot

14 ~ d osp~o~r

I~ SurQwlo 16 ROIQOffrl

t1 8o1tor 18 Ourg 1~ Ro•pur 20 "Oicr:QOOOd

MID- INDIA

IDENTIFICATION OF

1981

TRIBAL DISTRIC TS

V" .... ..,

oOO I

. ..... ,_ '- \ -I S Pa· ~ ono ~ G or • d•ll 2 AO"Cfl •

,~ .... fPI

• ~Dod 7 Poto"'o"'

r' ' I >

)00 4 0 0 .. •1 t t

OIIIISS&

J r

- ·-. r .;'

l ·"' I 'I ,) I

kr

I SOMC.Q~r 6 ~OIOPIQ fl (l,

2 S'-"O•'QOftrrl 7 I(Q1Qp.,.t

3 lteOf\ 1 "' or 8 laton') •' 4 Mo,vrbl'lo~ 9 Ofrlel"'•a"'ol ~ P•wiiiOf't•

LEGEND

• EltmtnotW but > 20Y.

• Included C... I < 20 "4

§ W•d-lndton Tr i bal Belt

D Srote s ..... ndory

/.·· ·~:J Outrlcf B~ndory

I

/

... }

Table ~

IDENTIFICATION OF MID-INDIAN TRIBAL BELT

State/Union Territory

(1)

1. Rajasthan

2. Gujarat

3. DNH 4. Madhya

Pradesh

5. Maharashtra

6. Orissa

7. Bihar

8.W.Bengal

Districts Included*

(2)

Hoshangabad, Durg, Raipur

Bolangir, Dhenkanal

Palamau, Hazaribagh, Giridih

Districts Excluded**

(3)

Sawai Madho­pur, Bundi

Thane

Jalpaiguri

All Districts con­sidered***

( 4)

Sirohi, Udaipur, Dungarpur and Banswara. Panchmahals,Vado­dara, Bharuch, Surat, Valsad, The Dangs. DNH. Ratlam, Jhabua, Dhar, W.Nimar, E. Nimar, Mandla, Betul,Chhindwara, Seoni, Balaghat, Hoshangabad,Shah­dol. Sidhi. Sur­guja. Bilaspur. Raigarh. Rajnand­gaon,Durg,Raipur. Bastar. Dhule. Yavatmal. Chandrapur,Nasik. Sambalpur, Bolan­gir, Sundergarh, Kendujhar, Mayur­bhanj, Dhenkanal, Kalahandi, Phul­bani, Koraput. Santhal Parganas, Dhanbad,Giridih, Hazaribagh,Pala­mau,Ranchi,Singh­bhum. Puruliya.

* Having less than 20 per cent of tribal population. ** Having more than 20 per cent of tribal population

*** All districts having more than 20 per cent tribal population plus column 2, minus column 3.

77

the south-west, the densely forested and highly dissected

Bastar plateau in the south-east, and the Chotanagpur pla-

teau in the north-east. Supporting some 29,850,103 tribal

population (57.81 per cent), it represents the largest belt

of concentration of tribes in the country.

In order to regionalize the belt, the map depicting

physiographic divisions (Fig.II.3), has been superimposed

over the map of mid-Indian tribal belt. The str~cture of

regionalisation is presented in Table 2.2. By corresponding

the administrative boundaries of the districts with that of

the physiographic divisions. some 13 tribal regions have

been identified within the belt3 (Fi.g.II.4).

2.3 THH KID-INDIAH TRIBAL BELT:

Rising from the alluvial plains of Uttar Pradesh and

Bihar, the mid-Indian tribal belt extends from the Aravallis

in the west to the Rajmahal hills in the east. From south

of the Yamuna-Ganga line. ~t extends further south, up to

3. A district was considered part of a region only if more than half of its area was lying within the margins of a physiographic division. The regional boundaries were, thereafter, modified in confirmity with the administra­tive boundaries of the districts.

78

)--~·-·'·""'-,_ (. '· ·-"\._ '\. , . .r .... ,

l:; .. , •oATH "L · '. i ;'. .... •• KASHMIR .I.J

,.SOUTH \.HIMALAYA ("J \KASHIIIIA \

~HIMALAYA •• ::_ ("! ........... ,, ..... ,.... '

'- J &;:,..-:. ,.. • .. UNJAI «_ 1.·

HIMALAYA t ~~ ...... Y·"·

: ..... '"" 'ICUNAUN ·;,

HI MALAY,.

( I

INDIA

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

aoo 0

Sowrce

100 400 ••

.,·,.J .... ~ -.if ASTIAN .J ""'\

IAAI(i&Tt()tij ATLAS Of , .. OoA (1972,

!Ptote l I

)

J

Table L2. HID-INDIA: STRUCTURE OF REGIONALIZATION

Macro Meso Micro Districts ( 1) (2) (3) (4)

I. Central a) North Central 1) Aravalli Sirohi,Udaipur, Highlands Highlands Ranges Dungarpur

b) South Central 2) Halwa Banswara,Ratlam Highlands Plateau

3) Vindhyan Jhabua, Dhar Range

II. East & a) West Coast 4) Gujarat Panchmahals, West Plains Vadodara, Bha-Coasts ruch, Surat,

Valsad, DNH

III. Peninsu- a) North Deccan 5) Satpura West Nimar,East lar Pla- Range Nimar, Handla, teaus Betul, Chhind-

wara,Seoni, Balaghat,Hosha-ngabad

6) Mahar a- Dh_ule, Yavatmal, shtra Chandrapur Plateau

b) Western 7) North The Dangs,Nasik Hills Sahyadri

c) Eastern 8) Hahanadi Bilaspur,Raiga-Plateau Basin rh,Durg,Raipur,

Sambalpur,Bola-ngir

9) Baghel- Shahdol, Sid hi, khand Surguja Plateau

10) Chotanag- Santhal Parga-pur Pla- nas, Dhanbad, teau Giridih,Hazari-

bagh, Palamau, Ran chi, Singh-bhum, Puruliya

11) Garhjat Sundergarh,Ken-Hills duj har, Mayur-

bhanj ,Dhenkanal 12) Dandaka- Bastar,Koraput

ranya d) Eastern 13) E.Ghats Phulbani, Kala-

Hills (North) handi

79

MID-INDIAN TRIBAL BELT

P H Y S I 0 G R A P H I C. D I V I S I 0 N s* ('

:? j : 100 0 100 200 Kill. r- ·. ""\ .. .)

.· ~ t::=:t::=:±::::t=::l::::::C:~ ,.- . . .f . I . ·""\ ·-··'\. .. ·~ .· ./'!. ... ./ ~ ,. .. -· : ~ .......

_J ;· I . : ARAVALLI(. : / '-'"'·· J'.. RANGE \ (. •• "''' \\

~ '· BAGHELK HAN 0 ""\ '"! /'_..c._: .• -··) ,.,..~· PLATEAU r-~

CHOTANAGPUR

PL·AT E AU

(

I

) ...... " J """'; \ ....... -' ... , ) .......

• J MALWA .· .r-' ) I ,.. -, ' I ...._ .-..., P ATEAU ' " ... ...., \ J ,"'- .

( \ ~ L ,... - _,., ..,) ... ,,... ·• 'J - c - ,... ~ -

I"\

,-"' )'

. -·\_, I ../"'• /•' ,v J'-' ) \ '<..,. ' ,.... . . ' .. .I'.. ,. / - ) ) ) I ,""' r ./"' " J " ...

~ YA~..., " ,_··""" I ( r" I .._ I ~ VINOH :_ .. ,, -··' f .., ............ GARHJt.T.

,; RANGE I 1 -"' (. -"' SATPURA RANGE ,. • ) r

_(;-'t-- ~ .. "" \ MAHANAOI BASIN ,..) c··"-. ( · ·"" ·· - """' " · I .1- HILLS . \. rJ ~ r··-: 'w

PLAINS t .... , "'-..., \....,-·· . J\ - ,...\. _,J "'r- r··...,..··-... j' ( rJ' ( --:>-··-"

,./ NAHARASTRA ."...,..... · .. \ \ I ..; I''::'~ PLATEAU ,.. .. ,.... .. .1"~ ... - "' \ /"EASTERN r .. - ... -, · •• ,.,-.. · l~'l \ ~\.,..,.GHATS( \NORTH '( ,r "· ,..,· ,.... J "'""' _"'' " ,.J tsAHYAoRI .. j MAHARASTRA · ....: '-r )\_ ....... ~

''\. ,> ,..J ( -··" PLATEAU t.., \. ,,r ~ .. , r-· '\ : ''W\, .... '\J ........ "" ...... !'·'"'· 1\ I I .. .,... .. ) "' .., ,_/'. ,,.

. ' 0. ,1

r OANOAKARANYA ,,..J

. ) ) '""'\.,~ (··.f'

··""··-

* As for th~ Purpos~ of

this Study, .. \...: .r··.) \ .. -..

Flg.ll·4

l

r

the northern fringes of Maharashtra plateau and Dandakara­

nya. Drained by numerous rivers, this portion of the penin­

sular plateau, indicates varied slope characteristics. In

the noth-west Chambal suggests a northerly slope while Son

and Damodar iu the northeast suggest a slope towards the

east. South of the Satpura-Maikal line the plateau in gener­

al is inclined towards the east and southeast, excepting in

the portion immediately south of Vindya-Kaimur ranges which

drains to the west through the Narmada and Tapi troughs.

Another deviation is marked on the western edge where the

plateau abruptly descends on the narrow coastal plain facing

the Arabian Sea. The climate of the plateau is character­

ized by a significant variation in the distribution of

rainfall, influencing variety in the vegetatal cover across

the tribal habitats.

2.4 ECOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE TRIBAL HABITAT:

Broadly, the ecological setting of the tribal areas is

characterized by hilly, forested, arid or semi-arid environ­

ment;_ by and large negative from the point of view of set­

tled agriculture. However, the variations in the ecological

setting of the tribal regions are far too striking as the

they are distributed widely in the subcontinent. As the

natural landscape is not everywhere the same and as the

tribes have made specific adjustments to their habitat, the

80

chores of their cultural evolution have movec along diverse

paths. Raza and Ahmad rightly suggest that "'the genetic

relationship between the material needs of a tribe and the

resource potential of its habitat provides a useful c~ite­

rion for identification of meaningful regional units at me3o

(and micro) level".4

The mid-Indian tribal belt displays ecological diversi­

ty of a very high order. Atleast three broad divisions can

be identified such as the Central Highlands, the Peninsular

Plateaus, and the Western Coast.

2.4.1 The Central Highlands:

In the northwestern flank of the belt, the Central

Highlands are a wide belt of hilly country characterized by

mountains, hills and plateaus, interspersed with numerous

valleys and basins and covering about one-sixth of the total

area of the country. Bordered on the west by a series of

erosion surfaces dissected by rivers and interspersed with

outcrops of pre-Cambrian rocks - the Aravallis, and on the

east by a great escarpment the Central Highlands ~eparate

the Great Plains from the plateaus and coastal plains of the

Deccan. The complex physiographic conditions compel a fur­

ther sub-division of the region into the North Central

4 M. Raza & A. Ahmad, 1990; op.cit. p.38.

81

Highlands and the South Central Highlands.5 Much of it is

under forest cover and 1s the traditional homeland of a

number of tribes, notable among them are the Bhils, the

Dumarias, the Garasias, the Gonds and the Minas.

2.4.11 North Central Highlands:

These highlands are further divided into the Aravalli

Range, the East Rajasthan Upland, the Madhya Bharat Pathar,

and the Bundelkhand Plateau.s The Aravallis, an old moun-

tain range, much denuded and forming discontinuous ridges,

occupies the western and the northwestern flanks of the

Highlands. The Aravallis separate the desert from the East

Rajasthan Upland, the Madhya Bharat Pathar and the Bundelk-

hand Upland. The hill features of the Aravallis are quite

pronounced in their southern flanks and reach their culmina-

tion (3,500-4,000 ft) "in a great node of spurs and curving

ridges'', 7 in the Sirohi and Udaipur districts. The eastern

5

6.

7.

S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; ''Physiography'' in T..h.e. QL India; Indian Union, Vol.1, Publication Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, India, Faridabad, p.40.

Gazetteer Division, Govt. of

As delineated, the mid-Indian tribal belt only the Aravalli section of the North lands.

incorporates Central High-

O.H.K. Spate & Pakistan, Vol.! p.617.

A.T.A. Learmonth, 1967; India .and & II, Metheun & Co. Ltd., London,

82

slope is fairly rainy and forested and provides a suitable >

homeland for majority of Rajasthan tribes. However, the

amount of rainfall being highly variable (annual variation

ranging between 11 to 25 in.), the forest cover is an open

-xerophytic type which is already degraded by human and

animal depredation.8 Agrarian potential is generally poor

especially when cultivation is undertaken without irriga-

tion. Millet is the dominant crop while jowar and bajra are

the major food crops. Wheat, gram and pulses along with a

limited quantity of sesame, cotton and sugarcane occupy a

secondary place. Camels and goats are the !

most important

animals, of which the latter have had a very - deleterious

effect on the area's ~egetation.9

2.4.12 South Central Highlands:

The South Central Highlands consisting of the Malwa

plateau, the Vindhyan Scarplands, the Vindhyan Ranges and

the Narmada ValleylO are dominated by a line of scraps and

hill ranges described as Vindhya, Kaimur ranges, Bhander

8. lhid.' p.620

9. lhid.

10. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit. p.40; the sub-division of the Vindhyan scarplands and the Narmada valley have been omitted from the study area.

83

plattau and the Vindhyachal. Vindhyan ranges act as the

watershed between the Narmada valley in the south and the

innumerable tributaries of the Chambal in the north; notable

among them are: Kali Sindh, Parbati, Sind, Ken and Tons etc.

These rivers dissect the Malwa plateau and the Vindhyan

Scarplands in a south-north and south-north-east direction.

The South Central Highlands are mostly marked with poor

grasslands. Towards the south, the Vindhyan Hills are cov­

ered with teak forests but are broken at many places. Aver­

age rainfall in this part amounts to about 25-35 inches. But

a high level of variability in rainfall forces millets to

dominate the cropping pattern. However, moisture retaining

black soils (regur) of the lavas permit growing of cotton.ll

Varied resource base of the Central Highlands has been

an area of attraction for the non-tribal groups. The tribes,

however, continue to inhabit the relatively inhospitable and

less accessible areas, 12 specially in the west, south-west

and the southern portions.

2.4.2 The Western Coast:

The region consists of the coastal plains around Gulf

of Cambay, the adjoining flood plains of Sabarmati, Mahi,

11. l.b..i.d.. p. 623.

12. M. Raza & A.Ahmad, 1990; op.cit. p.97.

, 84

Narmada ar.d Tapi and the eastern intermontane section. The

plain lying on the western outskirts of the Central High-

lands and the Peninsular Plateau, is marked with the outlin-

ers of Malwa plateau, the Vindhya and Satpura ranges in its

intermontane section 13 where most of the tribal population

of Gujarat plains are concentrated. These intermontane

eastern fringes of the plains, emerging from the southern

tip of Aravalli at Palanpur in the north merge with the

Western Hills in the south at the Dangs district, maintain-

ing the contiguity of the mid-Indian tribal belt from the

Aravallis, through Malwa, Vindhya and Satpura ranges up to

the northern tip of the Western Hills. This long north-south

stretch of the region results in a tremendous variation in

the distribution of rainfall, decreasing gradually from .

south to north. The impact is also clearly visible in the

forest cover which too decreases accordingly. The dense

evergreen forest in the south gradually opens up and gets

stunted until the desertic scrub type dominates in the

north.14

2.4.3 The Peninsular Plateau:

To the south and east of the Central Highlands is the

13. K.R. Dikshit. 1970; Geography Qt Guiarat, NBT, New Delhi, p.16.

14. IQid. p.42.

85

largest physiographic division - the Peninsular Plateaus.

Stretching over 1600 km. between Pachmarhi on the north to

Cape Camorin on the south and 1400 km. between the Sahyadri

on the west to the Rajmahal Hills on the east, the plateaus

form a triangle.15 The plateau surface rises over 1000 m. in

the south; but hardly exceeds 500 m. in the ncrth. The

Peninsular Plateaus consist of five distinct physiographic

divisions: Western Hills, North Deccan plateau, South Deccan

plateau, Eastern plateau and Eastern Hills.16

2.4.31 Western Hills:

The Western Hills include the Sahydris and has a gener­

al altitude ranging between 900 to 1100 mts.17 All the

important rivers of the Deccan have their sources in the

Sahyadri. The natural vegetation ranges from the evergreen

to the deciduous varieties. The western Hills have been the

abode of numerous hill tribes of Central and South India.

15. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit. p.44.

16. lhid. p.45. From south of the Vindhya range, the mid­Indian tribal belt continues through the northern flanks of the Western hills and the North Deccan pla­teau; and then extends over the entire Eastern plateaus and the northern tip of the Eastern hills, specially in Kalahandi and Phulb~ni districts of Orissa.

17. ltUUi.

86

The northern section,18 built of horizontal sheets of lava,

has given rise to the typical Deccan trap landscape.

2.4.32 North Deccan:

East of the Western Hills, the North Deccan is built up

principally of plateau lava, in either of its two sections :

the Satpura range and the Maharashtra plateau.19 From the

basalt dominated Rajpipla Hills on the west, the Satpura

almost overhang the Narmada Valley between the north-flowing

tributaries of Narmada : the Devganga and Goi. It further

extends east through Mahadeo and Gowilgarh hills - a Deccan

lava horst20 - up to Maikal range which marks the site of

an ancient shore line to ~he east of which sediments were

deposited in the ancient Cuddapah sea and that it may have

prevented the flow of lava further east during the Deccan

Trap period.21 Agriculture is generally patchy in this

region except in the Mahadeo hills where the Upper Wainganga

and Pench valleys widen out. Wheat, Jowar, Kodon and a

little cotton and sugarcane are grown in this tract. On the

18. Of the northern section, only a small part covering the Dangs of Gujarat and Nasik of Maharashtra are incorpo­rated in the mid-Indian tribal belt.

19. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit., p.48.

20. O.H.K. Spate & A.T.A. Learmonth, 1967; op.cit., p.632.

21. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit., p.48.

87

hilly tracts of the region, the tribes - mostly Gond~, carry

out ~hifting cultivation. Vegetation is dominated by ~

in the east whil~ teak replaces it in the west, confined

mostly to the hills. Lower areas are open and scrubby.

There are some good grazing land. Lumbering is an important

economic activity.22

The Maharashtra plateau section, separated from the

Satpura ranges by the west flowing Tapi, is made up of flat

la~a flows, and has extraordinary physical homogeneity.23

With a general slope towards the east and the southeast, the

plateau encompasses within itself the historically well-

known region of Khandesh. The Vidharbha plain, the upper

Godavari basin, the Wardha-Wainganga basin, the Bhima basin,

and the headwaiters of Krishna are the other subdivisions of

the region which are separated from each other by lines of

low hill ranges and tabular uplands such as Ajanta, Balaghat

and Mahadeo ranges.24 The summits of the hills, are some-

times stony and barren.

Other areas of the plateau are poorly vegetated, often

by short grasses. However, the river valleys carry deeper

22. O.H.K. Spate & A.T.A. Learmonth, 1967; op.cit., p.632.

23. Lhid.' p.690.

24. However, the mid-Indian tribal belt incorporates only the northern portions of the Maharashtra plateau.

88

soils washed out from the plateau and thus carry thicker

vegetation. Lying on the rainshadow area of the Western

Hills, the rainfall is mostly from the Bay of Bengal branch

during both the monsoons and has a east to west decrease.

The black soils of northern flanks and the valley bottoms

are quite conducive to cotton cultivation.

oilseeds and wheat are also important.25

2.4.33 Eastern Plateau:

Jowar, bajra,

Maikal range marks the eastern boundary of the Deccan

lava and gives way to the Eastern Plateau which is charac­

terized by hills and basins. The notable physiographic

units are Baghelkhand, Chotanagpur plateau, Mahanadi

basin, Dandakaranya and Garhjat Hills.26

The Baghelkhand plateau is bordered by the Maikal range

on the south west, river Son on the north, Chotanagpur

plateau in the east and Mahanadi basin in the south. The

region is drained by the river Son and its tributaries in a

trellis pattern. The important rivers are the Gopad, the

Banas and the Rihand, all of which cut across the strike of

the Sonpar hills in .the north. Sonpar hills, overlooking

25. O.H.K. Spate & A.T.A. Learmonth, 1967; op.cit., p.690.

26. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit., p.50.

89

the Son valley on its north, comprises of anticlinal hills

and synclinal valleys, carved out of sandstones and lime-

stones of the Semri series. These hills are perhaps rem-

nants of an ancient mountain of the Aravalli type which

existed in the earlier part of the Vindhyan times and had an

east-west trend parallel to the Son.2 7 The topography is

further diversified ~Y flat granitic plateaus to the east of

the Gopad, with broad undulations and basins of the Gondwana

age in the south. The Singrauli basin, formed of lower

Gondwana rocks is considerably dissected.

East of the Son, the Chotanagpur plateau consists of

several erosion surfaces which have a general altitude of

less than 600 m. On the southwest is the Jashpur Pot (high

level laterite plateau), from where "the land descends in

all directions in a series of steps particularly towards the

east until it merges gradually with the lower Ganga

plain." 28 Ranchi plateau in the south, developed on gran-

ite-gneiss, emerges as rounded hills and slightly elevated

terraces of older flood plains; and the Hazaribagh and

27. I.b.id..

28. R.L.Singh National p.652.

(ed. ), 1971; India ~A Regional Geographical Society of India,

90

Geography, Varanasi,

Kodarma plateau in the north, also developed on granite­

gneiss, represent peneplains at various stages of uplift and

dissection29 and are separated from each other by the

Damodar trough_30 On the south of Ranchi plateau two lava

hills the Porahat and the Dalma range are most conspicu-

ous. The synclinal Dalma range is antedated by the Subarna­

rekha river, exposing mica schists in its bed and lava on

upper slopes.31 In the northeast, the Rajamahal hills,

capped by lava-flows of the Jurassic age,32 extends north­

south, ris.ing up to 300-450 m. above the general plateau

surface overlooking the Ganga in the north with steep scraps

to the west. In the entire plateau sharp breaks in the slope

are marked by steep scraps where the river courses are

interrupted by waterfalls.33 Numerous rivers and streams,

namely the South Koel, the North Koel, the Subarnarekha, the

Damodar and the Barakar, with their extensive basins drain

the plateau in different directions.34 The plateau is well

cultivated and densely populated despite physiographic

29. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit, pp.51-5a.

30. R.L. Singh (ed.), 1971; op.cit., p.652.

31. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit., p.51.

32. IQid.' p.52.

33. R.L. Singh (ed.), 1971; op.cit., pp.652-53.

34. IQid., p.653.

91

limitations. Crop cultivation is, however, restricted by

organic material deficiency in the soil and a long dry

season. About a third of the region is cultivated, mostly

confined to the fringes of the plateau. Only 15 per cent of

the cultivated land is irrigated. Rice, maize and oilseeds

are the most important crops. About one thirds of the

region is covered with forests rich in hard timber, bamboo,

babai grass, besides minor forest produce such as, lac,

tusser silk etc.35

South of the Baghelkhand plateau lie the Hahanadi basin

or the Chhattisgarh plain consisting of alluvial clays and

residual soils which conceal under it the horizontally

bedded or very low-dipping limestones and shales of the

Cuddapah age. 36 Except fur some occasional rugged areas of

rock out-crops littered with weathered rock pieces, the

interfluvial sectors of Mahanadi and its tributaries, naDely

Seonath, Hasdo and Hand etc., present minor surface undula­

tions and the fertile plains encourage cultivation of

kharif and ~linseed and wheat.3 7 In comparison to the

35. O.H.K. Spate & A.T.A. Learmonth, 1967; op.cit., p.634.

36. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit., pp.52-53.

37. O.H.K. Spate & A.T.A. Learmonth, 1967; op.cit., p.711.

92

Wainganga Valley which receives generally lower than 135

mm. of rainfall, the Upper Mahanadi basin receives higher

rainfall. The sal forest of the Wainganga valley is thus

replaced by the rich teak forest of the Mahanadi basin.38

South of Chhattisgarh plains, the Dandakaranya displays

a highly rugged topography with densely forested tracts.

The Indravati river which flows from east to west, forms

three distinct terraces. At the highest point, the Koraput

plateau~ is situated about 1~200 m. above the mean sea

level. The second terrace is well developed around Jagdal-

pur town~ extending westwards to Chitrakot, "where the river

leaps over pre~ipitous cliff forming one of the most famous

"

waterfalls in Peninsular India ... 39 The third terrace is

highly dissected. In this western section, the region is

characterized by deep valleys and short spurs without any

definite orientation. The region has lower elevations in

its northern flanks and the southern portion is drained by

the south-flowing Sabari river.40 This deeply forested

region has traditionally been a tribal territory. The

terraces of the river valleys offer suitable sites for

38. M. Raza & A. Ahmad, 1990; op.cit., p.97.

39. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit. ,p.53.

40. LQid., p.53.

93

cultivation of paddy besides gram, r~pe and sesame cultivat­

ed during rahi season. Shifting cultivation supplemented by

collection of forest produce and distillation of mahua flow­

ers are the common practices of the tribes.41

The Garhjat Hills is a relic of the oldest land-mass of

Dharwar age and is an intensely dissected plateau at 550-

610m.42 Local relief is much more pronounced specially, in

the Bonai hills, the Kendujhar plateau and the Similipal

massif. "They were repeatedly uplifted into mountains and

eroded into peneplains, the evidence of which is found in

the flat summits at elevations ranging from 400 to 1000 m.

The entrenched meanders of the Baitarani suggest rejuvena­

tion of the valley in recent times."43 Formed of the con­

fluence· of Sankh and Koel at the faulted basin at Gangapur

in the north near Rourkela, the river flows in south­

easterly direction. Another river, Brahmani flows parallel

to it. Most of the region was covered with dense or open

deciduous forests but is gradually being devoid of it

through industrialization, specially in connection with

Rourkela. 44

41. O.H.K. Spate & A.T.A. Learmonth, 1967; op.cit., p.722.

42. lhid .• p.722.

43. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit., p.53.

44. O.H.K. Spate & A.T.A. Learmo11th, 1967; op.cit., p.723.

94

2.4.34 Eastern Hills:

The Eastern Ghats, on the south-east of Garhjat Hills

are a discontinuous line of hills, running parallel to the

coast up to Tamilnadu upland£ in the south_45 The Ghats

exhibit their true mountainous character only between the

Mahanadi and the Godavari rivers. The general trend of the

ranges is from northeast to southwest. This northern sec-

tion46 stands as an watershed between west-flowing Machh-

kund and Sileru and east flowing Languliya and

Vamsadhara.47 These are much more forested than their

southern counterparts.

2.5 ECONOMIC RESPONSES OF THE TRIBES:

In conformity with the ecological differences within

the belt, the economic responses of the tribes living in all

these regions display remarkable diversity. The influence

of the habitats on tribal economies is far too striking as

the tribes once settled in a region, have made attempts to

adjust with the natural environment of their habitat. This

45. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit., p.54.

46. Of which only Phulbani and Kalahandi district portions are included in the mid-Indian tribal belt.

47. S.P. Chatterjee, 1973; op.cit., p.54.

95

adjustment has, however, undergone substantial modifications

in recent times as a result of diverse degree of exogenous

influences and interventions.

The objective of this section is to get an insight into

the nature of tribal economy as it existed at the beginning

of the colonial phase in order to facilitate an understand­

ing of the impact of more recent changes in the tribal

region. economy and society. The analysis relies on histor­

ical records of various types, particularly those of the

early colonial anthropological writings.

The tribal economies can be broadly classified into

four types depending upon the differences in the ecological

setting. The dense rainforests permitted the tribes to

perform palaeolithic economic functions of foraging and

hunting. In intermontane valleys, enjoying relative isola­

tion. settled agriculture was the normal mode of economy.

Tribes living in hills with manageable slopes, derived their

sustenance from shifting cultivation. The semi-arid condi-

tions permitted pastoral and nomadic activities. However,

there were many variations to these types depending upon the

stage of social evolution, the tribes' own internal dynamism

and degree of exposure to external influences. It may be

pertinent to examine the empirical situation as it existed

at the time of early colonial period in each of the tribal

96

regions.

2.5.1 The Central Highlands:

The Central Highland traots of mid-:ndia broadly corre-

sponds with the Bhil territory of the country. While the

Bhils dominate the region in strength as well as in their

spatial extent, other tribes such as the Gonds, the Gara-

sias. the Minas and the Mairs etc., also inhabit in select

pockets in this highland zone.

The Minas and Mairs inhabit the rampart hills of the /

semi-arid region of the Aravallis. Predictably they adopted

an economy largely linked to animal herding. Prior to the

British intervent~on, these two tribes ''used to live gener-

ally in concealment among these rugged hills. hardly cloth­

ing and practicing no useful occupation besides herding."48

The relatively less drier tracts of almost the entire

South Central Highlands and specially the Malwa Plateau

offered the tribes a greater range of economic opportuni-

ties. Wherever possible, the tribes were able to subsist on

settled cultivation besides depending on food available

freely in the neighboring forests.

~ I

48. H.B. Rowney, 1882; ~~Tribes QL India, B.R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, (1974 Reprint) p.52.

97

High average rainfall in the south and numerous river

valleys provided more fertile tracts for cultivation of a

large variety of crops including wheat, rice, iowar, urhar,

chana, maize, ianera, oilseeds and tobacco etc. 49

The Narmada valley section of South Central Highlands

was inhabited largely by the Goods. The valley certainly

promoted settled agriculture and the productivity was good.

Crooke50 cites an anonymous English writer, who indicates

the relative prosperity of the tribes living in this re-

gion;

"Without the benefit of navigation - for the Ner budda is here not navigable - and fostering hand of a race of Gond princes, a numerous people filled a fertile coun­try, and still preserve in the neatness of their houses, in the number and magnificence of their tem­ples. in the size of their towns. and the frequency of their plantations. the un-doubted signs of enviable prosperity."

Bhils. embracing the rocky ranges of the Vindhya,

Satpura and Satmalli mountains, of which the passes were

long held by them,51 were mostly agriculturists. Only a few

49. Ibid .• p.16.

50. W. Crooke, 1973, Races Q..[ Northern India, · Cosmo Publishers, Delhi (Reprint), p.71.

51. R.E. Enthoven, 1920; ~Tribes and Castes Q..[ Bombay, Cosmo Publishers, Delhi, (1975 Reprint) p.152.

98

of this tribe led a wandering life in the forests and . lived

by wood-ash tillage.52 Besides, the surrounding forests

provided ample opportunity to all Bhils to involve in sub­

sidiary occupations such as, hunting,5 3 basketry, collection

of gums, wax and honey.54

2.5.2 The Western Coast:

On the west of the Bhils, was the territory of the

Kolis, whose special seat was the land north of river Mahi -

the Saurastra plateau. Residing in similar habitat the

economic arid cultural responses of the Bhils and Kalis were

by and large identical.55 Generally speaking the variable

nature of economy of the Koli tribe was a response to the

diverse ecological attributes of the Western Coast.

The relatively open and flat Saurastra plateau permit­

ted settled cultivation; the narrow coastal strip provided

the marine resource base to be exploited; and the south had

dense forests as a means of livelihood for the tribes inhab­

iting these areas. The Garasias of Panchmahals and its

52. lhid., pp.170-171.

53. lhid. ,p.171.

54. H.B. Rowney; op.cit., p.33.

55. lhid., pp.41-43.

89

vicinity, were making and selling bedsteads called Kethrots

and Chotras with frames of wood and mattresses of coarse

tape. 56

2.5.3 The Peri'insular Plateau:

The diversity in ecological conditions within this

region had fostered varieties of economic opportunities to

the tribes living in different sub-divisions of the platea~.

The tribes of the interior sections, notably in Dandakaranya

and Baghelkhand, subsisted on considerably rudimentary form

of economic life depending upon the difficult physical

environment. Their neighbors on either east or west, had

availed of the avenues of the relatively less harsh environ­

mental conditions.

In this Gond heartland, the Assul or the unmixed Gond

lived in small hamlets of a maximum of thirty to thirtyfive

households. The dense forest cover of Dandakaranya were

perhaps rich enough in its reserves of animal food, roots,

berries, wild honey etc. for the sustenance .of these reason­

ably thin population. Besides, they also practiced dhaiya

(a form of shifting cultivation) with their only instrument

- the hatchet - to grow kootkee and kodon which grew almost

56. R.E. Enthoven, 1920; QQ.~., Vol.III, p.363.

100

spontaneously on very productive·hill slopes. With these

natural supplies the Assul Gond lived independent of extra-

neous assistance in his small huts made up of mud,

and dried grasses.57

leaves

Certain minor tribes, notably the Karwars of Baghelk-

hand and the Puttooas of Garhjat Hills, encircled by the

major tribes of the Peninsular plateau, also lived in the

most primitive stage of subsistence. The Karwars of Ba­

ghelkhand, particularly around the Surguja district depended

primarily on the forest produce for their survival. They,

however, had learnt the art of cultivation which of course

was of a primitive shifting cultivation variety. The yields

were quite poor.58

On the margins of Gond heartland, both on the west

towards Khandesh (North Deccan) and on the east towards the

tributary mahals of Cuttack (Garhjat Hills) the Gonds,

unlike the Assul or unmixed Gonds, or the Karwars and Put­

tooas largely depended on food freely available in the

forest. They led a "hunting and gathering·· economy taking

advantage of the abund~nt supply of deer, hogs and snakes

etc., and the roots and seeds of the jungle grass which were

the main component of their food. Besides, they produced

57. H.B. Rowney, 1882; oo.cit., p.16

58. IQid.' p.83.

101

Kooktee and Kodon at a very rudimentary level of jhoom

(shifting) cultivation and bartered produces for other

necessities. 59

The hilly terrain of Chotanagpur and the adjacent

tracts of Vindhya, Kaimur and Maikal ranges, were chosen as

the last resort by the Kolarian races,60 who "fleeing before

their conquerors, seem to have taken their final stand" in

these tracts.61 Of the separate names by which these races

were distinguished, the best known were the Koles and the

Santhals. Liv~ng along with them were the Oraons, who are

59. Ibid., pp.18 & 84-85.

60. S.C. Roy, 1912; ~ Mundas and their Country, Asia Publishing House, New Delhi, (1970 Reprint), pp.1-19.

61. H.W. Rowney, 1882; op.cit., p.57. Even other colonial anthropologists such as, W.Crooke, 1973; op.cit.; E.T. Dalton 1872; Descriptive Ethnology Qf Bengal, Council of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta (1960 Re­print); F.B. Bradley Birt, 1903; Story Qf an Upland Chotanagpur: A little Known Province Qf ~ Empire, Smith Elder & Co., London; and H.H. Risley, 1892; Tribes and Castes Qf Bengal, 2 Vols. (1981 Reprint), Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta; subscribed to the idea that the tribes of Eastern Plateau immigrated into the area after a lot of wandering, of course, within the limits of the Peninsular plateau. For example, the Santhals migrated from the western part of the penin­sula and "continued with their eastward movement till the early nineteenth century and finally appeared in the neighbourhood of the Daman-i-Koh in 1832" (W. Crooke, 1973; op.cit., p.82). However, the Oraons and the Pahariyas, are described to have been the residents of Konkan Coast.

102

believed to be of a distinct race.62

The Kales with their numerous subtypes such as the

Mundas, the Larkas, the Has, the Chooars and the Bhumij,

occupied all the country "from the jungles of Ramgurd near

Hazaribagh, to the south and southward down to the confines

of Gangapore and Sirgooja, but those dwelling in Singhbhoom,

a portion of which is called Kalehan are the best known"_63

But the original inhabitants of Kalehan were the Bhuiyans,

who were excellent cultivators and cattle rearers and had

invited the "immigrant" Kales from the Deccan to settle at

their side.64 The Koles and their various subtypes adopted

settled agriculture in the territory which was extremely

fertile and well watered.65 Rice was cultivated thrice in a

year apart from maize, millet, wheat, pulses, mustard,

tobacco and cotton. They, however, continued with the

traditional forms of economy, ~ hunting and cattle herd-

ing,66 for which the plateau offered ample scope.

62. H.B. Rowney, 1882; op.cit., p.57.

63. Lhid., p.58.

64. Lhid.

65. S.C. Roy, 1912; op.cit., p.66. Also see P.Gisbert, 1978; Tribal India: A Synthetic ~ uL Primitive ~. Rawat, Jaipur, pp.24-28.

66. H.B. Rowney, 1882; op.cit., p.61.

103

The Santhals preferred relatively more forested tracts

of Chotanagpur, especially the area around Rajmahal Hills.

Although they were divided into numerous subtypes such as

Saran, Murmu, Marli, Kisku, Besara, Hansola, Tudi, Baski,

Hemroo and Chorai, the differences in their economy were

only marginal.67 Hunting and herding was the primary means

of livelihood in this region which offered less scope for

agriculture, and could be undertaken only by reclaiming land

from the forests which they learnt quickly through their

contact with the non-tribals in the neighbourhood.68

The Santhal cleared the rich red soil of the land, dug /

irrigation channels and covered their territory with rice

fields while the Paharias in the slopes overhanging the

valley continued with their ancient system of jungle till-

age.69

The Oraons' migration to the area of their present

concentration is later than the migration of the Kales and

the Mundas with whom they settled in harmony. 70 Interest-

ingly however, the community was widely known as the chief

67. LQid.' p.71.

68. Charulal Mukherjee, 1962; ~ Santhals, A. Mukherjee & Co. Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta, (2nd Edition), p.379.

69. W. Crooke, 1973; op.cit., pp.80 & 82.

70. H.B. Rowney, 1882; op.cit., p.72.

104

laboring class, which went out as emigrant coolies to var­

ious parts of the world and returned with money enough to

maintain them in independence.71 Besides, they were very

successful hunters.

agriculture. 72

Very little is known if Oraons knew

On the summits of the Rajmahal Hills, the Malers, the

Mals and the Kumars, all belonging to the Pahariya

were primarily agriculturists and they successfully

vated the tablelands and slopes of their hills.73 The

group

culti­

wild

tract_of hills and forest also offered them sufficient scope

to supplement agricultural production with hunting as well

as collection of forest produce74 to barter for some of the

necessities not available in their locality. 7 5

The Sours who lived in the jungles of Khurda (from

Banpur to Cuttack - Eastern margins of Eastern Ghats on the

Orissa coast) led a simple life and practiced shifting

cultivation on the cleared slopes of the forested hills.

But collection from nature constituted a significant aspect

7"1. l.b.id.. , p. 76.

72. l.b.id..

73. l.b.id..' p.79.

74. W.Crooke, 1973; OP.cit., p.79.

75. H.B. Rowney, 1882; op.cit., p.79.

105

of their economic life. Some, however, could manage to

work for the zamindars as in clearing jungles and bringing

fuel besides selling the jungle produce in the neighboring

market. 76

Further south, the Khands in the Eastern Hills lived

between the Mahanadi and the Godavari. Within these exces-

sively hilly tract some portions were perfectly bare of wood

but others were covered with impenetrable bamboo forests.

Despite the difficult environment the Khand cultivated rice

of several variety, millets, pulses, oilseed, tobacco,

turmeric and mustard on these hills after clearing the

forests.77 The fertile soil and sufficient rainfall of the

territory enabled the Khands to produce a little surplus

which could be used for barter. Animal husbandry - particu-

larly breeding of buffaloes and cattles, goats, pigs and

poultry - was common among the Khands though the practice of

drawing milk from their domestic animals was absent.78

2.6 TRIBAL ECONOMY - INTERDEPENDENCE WITH THE NON-TRIBAL PEASANT ECONOMIES:

The analysis of tribal habitat and their economies

showed their adjustments with t~e natural environment de-

76. ~- 1 pp.85-86.

77. ~- 1 pp.87-97.

78. LQid.

106

pending upon the constraints imposed by regional ecological

setting. However, it would be wrong to assume that their

economy was completely insulated. In fact, there are suffi-

cient evidences to indicate that the tribes in many regions

had developed economic contacts with their neighboring

peasant societies though the intensity of these interdepend-

ence were far more signific~nt in the borders of the tribal

heartlands and in areas where the ecological conditions were

too fragile to demand such dependence.

Perhaps, _the territory extending from the Son river in

the north and Wainganga in the south and bound by the Vind-

hya-Satpura mountain systems on the west and the ChotanagpuT

plateau, Gahrjat Hills and the Eastern Ghats on the east

remained much more secluded than their neighboring tribal

areas. For example, the Bastar region where probably the

Assul Gond had its habitation extending from the tract

between Wainganga and Upper Mahanadi basins on the west,

remained a "loosely-held group of feudal dependencies of

Warangal" till Annam Deo, the Kakatiya king established

himself in Bastar in the middle of the fifteenth century. 7 9

The densely forested tribal tracts of Baghelkhand, Chhattis-

garh, Wainganga basin and Dandakaranya, encircled by other

79. W.V. Grigson, 1838; ~Maria Gonds Q[ Bastar, Oxford University Press, London, p.4.

107

tribal lands on both east and west perhaps remained protect-

ed from any "cultural invasion" and "even today the true

Karwars neither sows nor reaps". He lives a wild life and

"with his sharp spud ~ig up edible roots which with the

fruits of the jungle tree constitute his food".80 Living in

small hamlets81 they were also quite unaffected by the

Hindu social customs. There was vagueness among these people

regarding marriage and they were in a transitional stage

between burial and cremation.82 Traits of such foraging and

hunting tribes are still traceable to this day.83

Such tribes procured food directly from the .nature with

their most primitive technology. However, as is observed in

the colonial anthropological literature, the number of such

80. D.N. Majumdar, 1944; Fortunes QL Primitive Tribes, The Universal Publishers, Lucknow, p.4; Also see E.T. Dalton, 1872; op.cit.

81. E.A.de Brett, 1909; Chhattisgarh Feudatorv .States Gazetteer: Surguia State, Times Press, Bombay, p.233.

82. W.Crooke, 1896; Lha Tribes and Castes -Western Provinces and Qudh, Vol.III, tions, Delhi, (1974 Reprint),pp 322-33.

QL t.M North COSMO Publica-

83. Bageshwar Singh & Ajit K. Danda, 1986; ~ Koblakar QL Surguia, ASI, Calcutta, p.1.

108

communities and their strength was relatively insig-

nificant,84 probably because their economies supported a

very minimal number of people.

For example, most tribes other than the Assul Gonds and

the Karwars which had very little contact with the outside

world were by and large exposed to the neighbouring seden-

tary agricultural communities. Although technologically

primitive, such tribes were to a great extent, dependent on

their neighboring cultivators and artisans, directly or

through the traders. The interaction process was not always

one sided rather was based on a reciprocal relationship

operating through barter system. Products of th~ir natural

surrounding were the basis of exchange for other necessities

and sometimes even luxuries.

The Bhils inhabiting the open tracts of Malwa plateau

and the Vindhya, Satpura and Satmali mountains had developed

characteristics "not easily distinguishable from the other

84. The better known tribes of this type were the Kadar, the Mal Pantaram, the Soligas etc., of the Nilgiri Hills and the adjacent tracts. This tropical land, specially which lies between the Krishna and the Kavery rivers, bounded on the east by the best parts of Eastern Ghats and on the west by the loftier Western Ghats, with its nucleaus at the Nilgiri Hils, has been the abode of the most isolated tribes of India, who until recently have carried the traits of stone-age. Had the topography of their habitat been simpler, with less abundance of flora and fauna, probably the situation would have been different since long as was elsewhere.

109

cultivating classes around them" . 8 5 Besides, the tribes

generally bartered forest produce of their habitat for the

produce of their neighboring plainsmen.86 By the late

nineteenth century the traditionally animal herding Minas

and Heirs of the Aravallis had shifted over to cultivation

and some had joined service in the British army_87

In the adjoining Western coastal tracts, the favourable

agro-climatic conditions for settled cultivation permitted

the Kolis to sell fine quality rice to merchants. Elsewhere,

depending upon the agricultural potential, the tribe either

lived as cultivators and laborers and substituted their

requirements by selling bamboos and fish. Where agriculture

was not· possible and forest cover was limited, they extended

services like supplying water and other conveniences and

worked as palki -bearers and poters.88 The Garasias of

Panchmahals district and the tribes of the surrounding areas

used to sell or barter plaited reed baskets for grain.

Besides, they used to carry salt and sometimes made a living

85. H.B. Rowney, 1882; op. cit., p.32.

86. l.bid.. p.33.

87. l.bid.. p.52.

88. l.bid.. p.43.

110

out of singing and playing flute_89

On the Western and Eastern margins of Gond heartland,

the Gonds and the Puttooas bartered forest produce in ex­

change of sugar. salt, rice and also minor luxuries brought

to them by the traders. specially belonging to the Brinjari

tribe and distilled liquor by the Soondis. 90 In the rela­

tively open and better watered tracts the Gonds had learnt

the art of ploughing from their neighboring settled cultiva­

tors and grew variety of crops.91 In the north-east, the

Santhals through "centuries of culture-contact with the rest

of the population, mostly gindus .. : . . (and) mostly lived not

in watertight compartments, but check by jowl with the rest

of the more civilized people of India. So slowly and imper­

ceptively acculturation has been going on."92 The Pahariyas

of these tracts exploited the scope of their habitat to

supplement agricultural production by hunting as well as

collection of forest produce such as bamboos, grass, timber,

wild yams, gums, etc. They bartered these items with their

89. R.E. Enthoven, 1920; op.cit., p.363.

90. H.B. Rowney, 1882; op.cit., p.18.

91. IQid., p.16.

92. Charulal Mukherjee, 1962; op.cit., p.379.

111

non-tribal neighbours for some of their necessities. 93

Further south, 1n the Eastern Hills section, the Khands

produced a variety of crops. The fertile soil and suffi­

cient rainfall of these tracts enabled the tribe to produce

a little surplus which could be used or bartered for salt,

cloth and brass utensils and ornaments with the Brinjaris at

fairs. 94

2.7 CONCLUDING STATEMENT:

The understanding reached from the above description

are summerised below:

Firstly, though the tribes of the mid-India, live in

areas by and large negative to sedentary cultivation, their

habitats differ substantially depending upon striking dif­

ferences in topography, climatic conditions, vegetal cover

and agro-climatic considerations. These diversities in the

ecological conditions seem to have exercised powerful influ­

ences in differentiating the economic and cultural responses

of the tribes.

Consequently, the tribal economy cannot be viewed as

hamogeneous as it varies from palaeolithic practices of

93. H.B. Rowney, 1882; op.cit., p.79.

94. lhid. pp.87-97.

112

hunting and gathering to settled agriculture in favoured

pockets and sometimes tertiary activities even at the begin-

ning of the colonial rule.

Secondly, the economic pursuits of the tribes living in

an ecologically homogeneous region were rarely singular,

~there were multiple dependence on nature.

Thirdly, even within the same ecological unit different

tribes displayed diverse economic adjustments with nature

signifying their internal dynamism and efforts to overcome

env-ironmental constraints. I

Lastly, the tribal economy was interdepender.t with the

peasant economy, most discernible in the pe~ipherries of the

tribal habitats. However, this relationship was based on an

exchange of produce in which the two ecosystems specialized

or had relative advantage.

113