CJf}l(]X['CE~- II

TRIBAL CULTURE: ECONOMY AND POLITY

CHAPTER- II

TRIBAL CULTURE: ECONOMY AND POLITY

Defining Culture

Culture has been the core subject matter of Anthropology as it helps us in

many ways to understand a society. Culture is an all-encompassing term, which

includes in itself a wide range of meanings, symbolisms and ideas. It refers to the way

of life of individuals in any society in its totality, and not simply to those aspects,

which are regarded as higher or more desirable. Therefore, the meaning of culture

does not refer to any particular activity of life. Rather, these activities are simply

elements of the totality of culture. This totality also includes minor activities such as

washing, cleaning, eating etc. These minor activities may be regarded as important

according to the groups who perform them and the way they perform is matter of our

concern. So, it is wrong to call any society or any individual as uncultured, because

every society has some kind of culture having its own relevance and importance.

Historical evidence is available from the earlier studies on the development of culture

that "the aborigines of Andaman Island even though they have been entirely isolated

in their Island home, and have not been affected by contact with other races, but have

been free to develop their own culture in their own environment." 1 At least for a social

scientist there is no uncultured society. The social scientist can well interpret the

activities of the people of the so-called uncultured society. So, it may be said that no

matter how the culture may be, every human being is cultured.

The simplicity or complexity of a particular culture is known to the individuals

those belong to it. The outsiders can only understand the importance of that particular

culture by becoming a part of it. The concept of culture is made necessary by the

observed fact of the plasticity of human beings. If the whole group learns to do certain

things in a more or less uniform fashion, we can make some sort of a general

statement concerning the group. This kind of learned behaviour common to a group of

people transmitted from one generation to another is called culture. Culture has been

defined by many sociologists and anthropologists in various ways. According to

Kluckhohn, "culture is a way of thinking, feeling, believing. It is the knowledge

1 Radcliffe-Brown, 1922, The Andaman Islanders, New York, The Free Press, p. 6. 27

stored up for future use-pattern for doing certain things in certain ways, not the doing

of them."2 Hence, culture is that aspect which is learned by people as a result of

belonging to a particular group, and is the learned behaviour that is shared with

others. Culture is the social legacy. It is the main factor which facilitates us to live

together in a society. It gives us readymade solutions to our problems, helps us to

predict the behaviour of others and allows us what to expect from ourselves.

Therefore, "culture has many functions: it serves to adapt man to his natural

environment, the individual to his fellow man and to the world of mind and to the

supernatural world."3 Through culture man learns how to adjust with the social as well 0

as natural surroundings. He also learns the way to please the supernatural forces.

Culture regulates our lives at every tum. From the moment we are born till we

die, there is constant conscious or unconscious pressure from the group upon us to

follow certain types of behaviour, largely created by others. It is always the group,

which teaches us culture without which our learning is meaningless. Thus, culture

within the group is created, taught and expected to be passed on to the next

generation. As members of a group we follow some path willingly, others we follow

because we know no other way, and still others we deviate from or go back

unwillingly.4 "In the group by more or less adhering to a system of related designs for

carrying out all the acts of living, for thinking, believing and feeling, a group of men

and women feel themselves linked together by a powerful chain of sentiments."5 The

members of a group slowly develop the act of living by creating various means of

livelihood, institutions to regulate their behaviour and develop an understanding

among the members, so that they will follow the old path and create new set of norms

for the next generation. To Ruth Benedict, "culture is what binds men together."6

Because of this, social life among human beings never occurs without a system of

'conventional understanding' that is transmitted from generation to generation.

Redfield has defined culture "as the sum total of conventional meanings embodied in

artefacts, social structure and symbols. "7

2 Clyde Kluckhohn, 1966, Culture and Behaviour, New York, The Free Press, A Division of Macmillan Company, pp. 21-31.

3 Stephen Fuchs, 1963, The Origin of Man and his Culture, Bombay, Asia Publishing House, pp. 1-5. 4 Clyde Kluckhohn, op. cit., 1966, p. 25. 5 Ibid., p. 26. 6 Quoted in Clyde Kluckhohn, Ibid, p.26. 7 Quated in Stephen Fuchs, op. cit., 1963, p. 4.

28

"Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, and for behaviour acquired

and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human

groups, including their embodiment in artefacts. The essential core of culture consists

of traditional ideas and especially their attached values. Culture system may on the

one hand be considered as products of action, on the other hand as conditioning

influence on future action."8 Thus, it can be said that culture is the symbolic

representation of the distinctive behaviour and understanding of the members of the

group. For Clifford Geertz, "it denotes historically meanings embodied in symbols, a

system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men

communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about attitudes towards life. "9

The old traditional ideas are considered important as they have shown the way for

group survival. Therefore, the members of the group develop common understanding

of preserving those old customs. N. K. Bose has interpreted culture in the following

manner, "Culture covers everything from the traditional manner in which people

produce, cook, eat their food, the way in which they plan and build their houses and

arrange them in a surface land, the manner in which men are organised into the

communities, the moral and religious values which are found acceptable, on to the

habitual methods by means of which satisfaction is gained in respect of the higher

qualities of mind."10 For Malinowski "culture is obviously the integral whole

consisting of implements and consumers' good, of constitutional characters for the

various social groupings of human ideas and crafts, beliefs and customs."~ 1 He says

that cultural continuity has been possible because of man's trial of preservation of

such culture. We consider whether a simple or primitive culture or even an extremely

complex and developed one, are confronted by a vast apparatus, partly material, and

partly human and partly spiritual, by which man is able to cope with the concrete,

specific problems that we face. The problems arise out of the fact that man has a body

which needs various requirements for survival. Here, we mean man as a biological

organism is in need of certain requirements of life which have to be fulfilled, so that

an individual may survive. Hence, the process continues and organisms are

8 Clyde Kluckhohn, op. cit., 1996. p. 73. 9 Clifford Geertz. 1973, Interpretation of Culture, New York, Basic Book, Inc Publishers, p. 92. 10 N.K. Bose, 1977, Culture and Society in India, Bombay, Asia Publishing House, p. 15. 11 Bronislaw Malinowski, 1994, The Scientific Theory of Culture, The University of North Corolina

Press, pp. 36-43. 29

maintained in working order. Again in his whole outfit of artefacts and his ability to

produce them and to appreciate them, man creates a secondary environment. Three

things are highlighted here regarding man's requirement and the means through which

these are fulfilled. In the first place, for the satisfaction of the basic needs of man a

minimum set of conditions are imposed on each culture. The problems set by man's

nutritive reproductive, and hygienic needs must be solved. There are various types of

needs man requires for his survival. These problems of man are solved by the

construction of a new, secondary or artificial environment. The environment is culture

itself. So, it has to be permanently reproduced, maintained and managed. This creates

a new standard of living which depends on the cultural level ofthe community, on the

environment, and on the efficiency of the group. The importance of activities and the

understanding of the members of the group in continuation of culture have been

initially mentioned in different ways.

From the essence of continuity of culture for the fulfilment of individual

needs when analysed in detail, two things are derived. The fulfilment of basic needs

for individual's survival, a set of conditions are imposed on each culture. For

individuals' needs of higher order, imposing new imperatives or determinants on

human behaviour fulfills the new needs. Cultural tradition (for individuals needs) has

to be transmitted from one generation to the next. Order and law have to be

maintained since co-operation is the essence of every cultural achievement. Thus,

man in order to satisfy all his needs has to create arrangements and carry out activities

for feeding, heating, housing, clothing, etc. in a definite manner. All these primary

problems are solved through organisation of co-operative groups and also by

development of knowledge, a sense of value and ethics. Group co-operation is

essential in this regard. It is possible to satisfy all needs required in an organised way.

Idea, principle, device, religious revelation, or moral principles have no social or

cultural relevance without being organised. Again we shall find everywhere that every

effective performance of the individual can satisfy his interest or need when carried

out in an organised way, and subsequently through the organisation of activities.

Thus, an individual's involvement with group enables effective performance.

Other anthropological writings are also available which may provide an

understanding of the meaning of culture. Tylor's definition seems to be the most

inclusive regarding the aspect of life. "Culture is that complex whole which includes 30

knowledge, belief, morals law, custom and many other capabilities and habits

acquired by man as a member of society." 12 This definition of culture signifies the

importance of each and every activity of man. Therefore, the term culture encloses a

very broad meaning. From the above mentioned description, two views can be given

primary importance. Some opine that culture is all about what life is as a whole, i.e.,

all activities of human life. On the other hand, scholars like Malinowski opine that a

man creates culture in order to fulfil his basic needs, where as others argue that the

way human beings fulfil their desires is their culture. One way to comprehend the

meaning of this concept is to analyse the behaviour of a particular individual in a

particular social set-up. A good example is a simple matter of eating a meal. In a

society a person may eat his meal sitting on the ground by putting his hand inside the

cooking vessel. Wh~;n finished he may wash his mouth with water at the place nearby.

But in some other societies, people eat at tables using knife and fork. They feel

ashamed of washing in public. The difference is found in the manner of eating of the

members who belong to two different societies. Here, it is understood that two

persons eat their food for satisfaction of hunger, but the difference may be found in

the manner of eating. Every society has their own way of eating food, and the

particular way they follow is their culture. Therefore, no society can be called as

uncultured as activities go on according to the particular way as the group expects.

Tribes and Culture: The Indian Context

Most people are interested in the curious behaviour of others and like to hear about it.

Stories of alien customs are the gossip of our species. Sometimes, through gossip,

men discover the content of culture and realise its importance. The importance of

culture is more realised when the scientific study of tribal communities are conducted.

The study of tribal society is mainly the study of their culture. Why do we study tribal

society? The study is needed because the tribes are an integral part of Indian

civilisation. Various elements in the ancient civilisation are related to the tribes. It is

believed that they are the earliest among the present inhabitants of our country. The

historical study of human civilisation can be possible through the study of tribal

12 Quoted in Makhan Jha, 1995, An Introduction to social Anthropology, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., p. 32.

31

culture. The study of the tribal life will obviously show the way in which human

civilisation originated, and may further reveal that how the simple way of life of

people living in Indian soil became so complex.

There has been a continuous interaction between the tribals and non- tribals.

As a result, the tribal way of life has been much influenced by their Hindu caste

neighbours. In spite of this, the tribals have retained some of the customs and

traditions which are the original part of their culture. At this point, we see two things

which seem to be in contrast to each other. On the one hand, the tribals are still guided

by the principles of their own community and lead a distinct way of life in

comparison to their Hindu caste neighbours. On the other hand, there is a little

difference between the tribals and the non-tribals in the economic way of life,

clothing, food habits etc. " The tribal situation is complex in the sense that the tribals

depend upon forest-based sources of livelihood, they are engaged in settled

agriculture, and are working in factories and industries, some of them are educated

and are employed as professionals, civil servants and white collars and some are

active politicians and social workers." 13

So, studies on tribal society have been an important field of research.

However, the purposes of tribal research are many faceted. At the initial stage of tribal

studies, the British administrators, missionaries, scholars, and travellers engaged in

this research for their respective purposes. These purposes include, (i) colonial

administration, (ii) expansion of Christianity in order to give a new touch to the

personality of the people, (iii) historical study of culture and society, etc. Apart from

that anthropologists like S.C. Roy, N.K. Bose, Surjit Sinha and many others have

been dealing with the life of the tribes for the development of tribal research in view

of bringing the tribes to the forefront of the general mass who do not know about

modem culture and civilisation. When the necessity of the study of tribal societies are

recognised, the study of tribal culture emerged as a core subject matter of tribal

research. In pre-Independent era, the intention of tribal research was to govern the

tribals which changed in the post-independent period. At present, these studies are

problem oriented in nature and aim at the accelerated development of the tribals and

for their orientation of becoming a component of the modem civilisation.

13 K.L. Shrama, 2001, Reconceptualising Caste, Class and Tribe, Jaipur, Rawat Publications, p. 172. 32

Culture as the widest context of human behaviour is important as it reflects the

life of the study of men as a whole. Without knowing their culture such studies are

considered fruitless. "The ethnologist again who uses the evidence of the present day

primitive and more advanced cultures in order to reconstruct or diffusion, can base his

argument on social scientific data only if he understands what culture really is." 14The

study of primitive culture is important because primitive man's survival was nature­

oriented from which he drew all the requirements of life. The life was different in the

beginning for which the primitive life is regarded as a model for civilised man.

We have got an old image that tribes are isolated, segregated and are an

economically backward group who live in a world of their own where maximum

interaction takes place between the people of their own community both at home and

work domain. Such an image gives a curious orientation to the study of tribal life.

"The British liked to know about the 'tribal' identity in order to differentiate them

from the major Indian population under the broad policy of divide and rule." 15 The

purpose of tribal research has shifted now. In Independent India, the purpose is to

study tribals in order to motivate them to integrate themselves into the mainstream

culture. That may enable them to know the existence of another world rather than the

one in which they live.

For the socio-economic development of tribals, it is essential to study their

culture, because there are many obstacles in the way to tribal development. Unless

these problems are sorted out one cannot proceed towards the development of the

tribals. Through the study of culture, the intricacies of tribal life can be understood,

and a suitable means can be adopted to convince them about their problems and the

problems of the country of which they are an integral part. As they are living in a

secluded environment, speedy progress cannot be expected from them. Due to the

differential ideology of the planners on the one side and the tribals on the other side,

the tribal society is not responding toward the changes in an expected way. So far as

this solution is concerned, the understanding of tribal sentiment is highly essential, so

that the positive policies and programmes can be adoptable by tribals. It will be

worthwhile only when researches can be conducted from the perspective of tribals

14 Bronislaw Malinowski, op.cit., 1965, p.36. 15 L.P. Vidyarthi and B.K. Rai, 1985, The Tribal Culture of India, New Delhi, Concept Publishing

House, p. 37.

33

rather than from the researchers' perspective. Frequently we say that tribal

development has not been possible in our country because tribals are not responding

to the tribal development programmes. This has been happening because of our

unawareness about their wishes, ideology and psychology. So, an in-depth study of

the cultural contours of the tribes can be conducted which may help the social

planners and policy makers to implement developmental programmes according to the

suitability of the condition and adaptability of the group. Another thing should not be

ignored is that the programmes should be implemented in such a way that it will be

easily accessible to the people. So that economic development can be made possible

through better understanding of the sentiments of the tribals. Though we know

something about the typical way of behaviour of the tribes, but sometimes our

assumptions regarding a particular behavioural pattern may go wrong, or we may not

know it in detail. Say for example, excess consumption of liquor is a common

characteristic in tribal communities. The causes and consequences of liquor

consumption can be reported after observing the concerned tribal life. A reliable

conclusion can be drawn from the first hand information gathered on any particular

problem, so that policies and programmes can be made according to the availability of

such facilities and adaptability of the concerned group. Therefore, the study of culture

is important to give a new shape to the tribal life.

Economic activities constitute important part of tribal life. Most of their other

activities including socio-economic practices are in some way or the other related

with economic activities. Hence it can be truly said that culture and economy are

inseparable elements of tribal life which can be discussed under the following heads.

Culture and Economy

The type of economic activities is to be undertaken by a particular tribe at a

particular place is determined by their cultural practices and religious beliefs. The

mode of production, distribution and consumption are also determined by the

religious practices and culture. Further, who will do what and who will get what are

also determined by the culture of a particular group.

Culture as has been mentioned before includes every activity of man even the

minor activities. Man acquires every manner of such activities from the group into

34

which he belongs to and transmits it to the next generation. Economic activities are

not excluded from it. Man's interpretation towards economy in a particular group

develops slowly and retained in his memory from the old generation in his group.

Every community has its own way to meet the necessities of life, which is again

characterised by various factors. The absence or presence of one such factor in the

economy of any particular society makes the difference between the societies. These

are some basic features of economy such as the system of production, distribution,

consumption and saving, etc. It is true that every society is not characterised with the

above mentioned features of economy on the basis of which society is categorised as

developed or backward, etc. The members of a society whether developed or

backward follow a common economic way of life, from which originates the concept

of work culture of the group. People in some societies work hard, in other societies

are found to be lazy. This is the outcome of their cultural traits towards work, earning

and survival. It can be said that the general understanding of one's society is the

understanding of their culture. From the way of life, the economic position of the

group can be assessed in terms of food, clothing life style etc. In the civilised society,

the people are more calculative, try to make the optimum use of their resources, know

the actual path for accumulation of wealth, and maintain a balance between

production, distribution and consumption. A strong notion of saving exists among

them. Hence, the economic way of life is considered complex and the economic

activities are regulated and calculated in terms of loss and profit.

In this regard, a contrasting situation is found in tribal communities in

comparison to developed societies. The economic system is very simple among tribes

where price system is mostly absent. The economic system among them is guided by

social traditions. Tribal culture is related to tribal economics and the economic system

of tribes thus can be understood in terms of cultural factors. So tribal culture and

economy are interrelated and one cannot be separated from the other.

Economy and Culture

Economic activities shape the culture traits and religious practices. Most of the

tribal cultures are based on the simple logic of offering small quantities before and

after abstracting from the nature. Hence most of their socio-religious and ritual

35

practices are cantered round their economic activities. Even though most of the tribal

cultural practices exhibit certain homogenous features, but these practices are shaped

by the kind of economic practices, i.e., hunting, food gathering, settled agriculturr,

shifting cultivation, fishing or some other type. In one way we say tribal economy is

the product of their culture. On the other way we say culture of a society can be

understood through the economic activities and so also the economic way of life of

people. Tribal economy thus represents some important factors of tribal culture. (.

Tribal economy being so simple, the general economic theories cannot be applied for

understanding their economy. For the assessment of tribal economy, special

analytical concepts and meanings are necessary as social organisation, kinship, • 0

political organization and religion etc. affect the economic organisation and

performance oftribals. Radcliffe-Brown has found that among the Andaman Islanders

the older men and women take the major share and the best part of the pig is

distributed among them while the younger people are satisfied with the inferior parts

and minor share. 16 Here Radcliffe-Brown's study shows that the young people do not

look at the profit side, they want their tradition and social value to be preserved. He

has observed that "generosity is esteemed by the Andaman Islanders which is one of

the highest virtues and unremittingly practised by majority ofthem." 17

Tribal economy is characterised by small size, simple technology, absence of

price system and saving. Family as the unit of production and consumption and gift

and ceremonial exchange, periodical markets, interdependence and involvement of

community in economic activities are other characteristics of tribal economy.

Moreover, tribal economy is subsistence type, and tribals are involved in various

economic activities just for survival. The understanding of tribal economy is clear

from the interpretation of D.P. Sinha. To him, "traditional economic transactions are

carried on through barters, commodities are measured by volume rather then by

weight, production is small scale, the transaction is concerned with consumer goods

rather than trade goods, where competition is absent and price is fixed by traditionally

determined relative values rather than by the interplay of demand and supply of

commodities."18 These people just earn to live and do not save as they believe that

16 Radcliffe-Brown, op. cit.,l922, p.43. 17 Ibid., p. 43. 18 D.P. Sinha, 1968, Culture Change in Inter-tribal Market, Calcutta, Asia Publishing House, p. 59.

36

there is no certainty of life. Since there is no certainty of tomorrow, the earning

should be finished today itself.

Tribal economy is forest based. The exploitation of nature is carried on in the

absence of technological aids. Their main activities include hunting, food-gathering,

fishing, agriculture of different types, collection of forest products, basket making and

wage labour etc. depending upon the physical environment where they live. During

field work among the Andaman Islanders Radcliffe-Brown saw that the Andaman

Islanders entirely depend on nature: sea and forest. The coast dwellers mainly obtain

turtle, various types of fish, crabs, crayfish and prawns, etc., whereas the forest

dwellers depend on forest products: hunting and food gathering. 19 The same is also

found among the Maiers and the Birhors. The forest is not only a source of food, drink

and medicine for the Maiers and their cattle, but also it provides raw materials for the

preparation of their huts and many of their household belongings. 20 The Birhors solejy

depend on forest and its exploitation through hunting, and food gathering constitute

the main source of their livelihood.21

Tribal economy is called small scale because mostly the transaction of goods

and services take place within a small group and is based on barter exchange. "The

Maler barters forest products with the plain dwelling tribes. The Santhal who has rice

but usually does not have building materials exchange it with the Maler for timber."22

Transactions take place through the medium of money only when it is done with the

non-tribals. Tribals everywhere in India obtain their numerous requirements from the

area they inhabit with the help of most simple implements and without any

technological aid from outside. Nothing seems to escape from them, edible roots,

fruits, vegetables, birds, monkeys, hares, pigs, etc. 23 There are some tribes like the

Birhors, the Chenchus, the Juangs, the Kadars, etc. who depend on the forest. "In

addition to the Khallu (shifting) cultivation the forest helps the Maler economy in

many ways and provides further economic security in case of failure of Khallu

crops."24 Even the settled agriculturists like the Mundas, the Oraons, the Hos, the

19 Radcliffe-Brown, op. cit., 1922, p. 26. 20 L P. Vidyarthi, 1963, The Maler: A Study ofNature-Man-Sprit Complex of a hill Tribe in Bihar,

Calcutta, Bookland Private Limited, p.59. 21 L.P. Vidyarthi, 1976, The Dynamics of Tribal Leadership in Bihar, Allahabad, Kitab Mahal, p.144. 22 L.P. Vidyarthi, op.cit., 1963,p. 24. 23 L.P. Vidyanthi and B.K. Rai, op.cit., 1985, p. 99. 24 L.P. Vidyarthi, op.cit., 1963,p. 15.

37

Santhals supplement their earning by hunting and food gathering. "Hunting originally

a necessary occupation, seems to have always remained a favourite pastime with the

Mundas."25 "Although the Oraons have long taken to agriculture, they still

supplement the products of their fields by edible flowers, leaves and berries, roots and

tubers which their women folk gather in their native woods and hills for food. "26

There is no regular market in the tribal areas. They wait till the date when

weekly markets are held in the locality. Thus everyday transaction of their goods is

not possible. This is a hindrance for their economic development. The features of the

weekly market held in the tribal areas is not profit oriented as it serves many other

purposes. The profit making motive is dominated by socio-cultural factors, the market

being the place for social interaction. "The weekly market is also a meeting place for

relatives, friends and lovers. Young people come to the market in their best tum­

outs."27 The family in the tribal economy is a unit of production. Every member in

the family contributes towards the economy of family. They live in an environment

where their mind is oriented in such a way that any diversion from the usual path

hampers their normal way of life. Division of labour is based on the basis of age and

sex. The men go for hunting and women are given the charge of the household

management, child rearing, and food and fuel wood collection. The children are also

assigned with certain of duties like cow herding and helping their parents in

agricultural work. The girl children take care of the household with their mothers,

collect fuel wood and fetch water. The parents remain busy in earning the daily bread.

So, the children's socialisation takes place through early age work. Hence, the

education of the children is oriented towards teaching them such skills which can

enable them to survive in a tribal environment. Hence, at family level their economy

is shaped by social traditions. The interdependence of the members in the family and

at community level is one of the important characteristics of the tribal economy. In

this regard, we have evidences that hunting is generally done communally. Sometimes

even they own the agricultural land communally and distribute the production among

themselves by following certain rules of their own where the headman or the village

priest may have a major share. According to Maler tradition the animals which the

2s Sarat Chandra Roy, 1970, The Mundas and Their Country, Bombay, Asia Publishing House, p. 239 26 S.C. Roy, 1972, Oran Religion and Customs, Ca1cutta,Temple Press, 1972, p.l39., 27 Sachidananda, 1979, The Changing Munda, New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company, p.174.

38

Maler hunting party procure is firstly given to the forest God. One leg goes to the

Manjhiye (the sacred head man), and the other goes to the person who has killed the

animal. The remaining portions are equally divided among the persons who

accompany the hunting group. The dogs also get their share and even the families

who do not take part in the hunt expedition due to illness are also given a share. 28 The

low level technology requires heavy manpower when nature is explored for

livelihood, and again the game is distributed among the members following the

community tradition where every one gets a share even the one who does not

accompany the hunting group. Since, tribal economy is related to religion, kinship,

etc. the members do not get much scope to follow any path independently for better

living. Among the settled agriculturists, the tribals work together in one field to get 0

their work done soon. The extreme form of interdependence of tribals between their

members discourage the idea of private property, hence, there is no incentive for hard

work either. Ceremonial exchange exists among tribals following the rules of

exchange. In this process, they exchange gifts in which each group whether a family,

kins group or a village follow the appropriate norms of reciprocity. Tribals in this

sense are very particular and feel obliged to return the gift the way it is required.

The degree of reciprocity as suggested by Service is of three standards. These

are, (i) general reciprocity, (ii) balanced reciprocity and (iii) negative reciprocity.

General reciprocity refers to the gifts and hospitality, sharing which are given and

taken back. The expectation of reciprocity is left indefinite, unspecified as to quality,

quantity and time. The value of return depends on the donor and the recipient

depending upon the capacity and suitability of time. In balanced reciprocity the

returned goods should be equal to what is received. The transactions that take place

during the marriage ceremony and the barter system of exchange are examples of

balanced reciprocity. The custom of exchange that takes place among the Andaman

Islanders come under both general and balanced reciprocity which results in an

approach to communism. When two friends meet each other after a long time they

exchange presents among themselves. Apart from that there is a constant exchange of

gifts in the village. "A young man or woman may give some articles to an old person

without expecting any return, but within equals (age) a person expects goods of equal

28 L.P. Vidyarthi, op.cit., 1963, p. 22.

39

values."29 In negative reciprocity bargaining takes place and the person concerned

wants to get something for nothing. This reciprocity takes place between tribals and

non-tribals.

Bronislaw Malinowski has given a good account of reciprocity of exchange

which takes place within the Trobriand Islanders and with the triblas of other Islands.

Through this study he has presented the culture of the Islanders in detail showing the

inter-connection between the socio-religious, economic and political life of Trobriand

Islanders as a whole.

The main theme of his research is based on Kula, a form of exchange

extensively inter-tribal in character which is carried on within the tribals of the

Trobriand Island and with the tribals of other Islands forming a closed circuit. More

or less number of men on every Island in each village takes part in Kula. The main

articles of exchange in Kula are necklaces and bracelets. In the one direction of the

hands of a clock moves constantly long necklaces of red shell, called soulava and in

the opposite direction moves bracelets of white shell, called mwali. This institution of

Kula seems to be simple, but if one gets into it in detail one will find the complicacies

of the system and how this ceremony has bound the native in one thread.

The Trobriand Islanders receive the goods, hold them for short time and pass

them on. Thus, everyone in Kula periodically receives one of the items and has to

pass it on to one of his partners from whom he receives the opposite commodity in

exchange. The necklaces and armlets in Kula always travel in the respective direction

which never stops. "It is easy to see that in the long run, not only objects of material

culture but also customs, songs, art motives and general cultural influences travel

along the Kula route. "30 One cannot keep the kula articles for any length of time and

the one keeping them for more than a year or two gains a bad reputation that he is

slow and hard in Kula. One transaction is not the end of the Kula relationship, it has

to be continued "once in Kula, always in the Kula" and a partnership between two

men is a life affair."31 Kula again is not an unpredictable and risky form of exchange.

It is quite rooted in the myth, backed by traditional law and surrounded with magical

29 Radcliffe-Brown, op. cit., 1922, p. 42. 30 Bronislaw Malinowski, 1972, Argonauts of Western Pacific, London, Routledge and Regan Paul

Ltd., E.P. Dutton and company, INC, p. 92. 31 Ibid., p. 83.

40

rites. The life long relationship in Kula implies mutual duties and obligations and

constitutes a type of inter-tribal relationship on an enormous scale. Kula is an

economic mechanism of transactions based on a specific form of credit, which implies

a high degree of mutual trust and ceremonial honour. Kula is not done under the stress

of any need. It is about a simple action of passing from hand-to-hand of two quite

useless objects but has succeeded in becoming the foundation of a big inter-tribal

institution. It is associated with so many other activities, myths and magic. Traditions

have built up around it and a definite ritual and ceremonial form has given it a special

value in the minds of the natives. This indeed has created a passion in their hearts for

this simple exchange. The people who take part in Kula follow a set of established

customs. These are an outcome of their belief in supernatural forces. Among them,

magic is the most important. Their every activity of life is accompanied by magic.

Fishing and gardening are the two prime means of occupation among the Trobriand

Islanders. The people work hard, but they believe that their work is guided by magic.

So, magical rites are performed in every stage when the cultivation work is in

operation. Magic is also applied for the construction of canoe for sailing safely in the

sea and also for the control of wind for the purpose of sailing and fishing. Magical

rites are performed through the magician whose position is next to the chief, which is

hereditary in nature. The people of higher rank in the Island not only enjoy special

rights and privileges but also feel obligated to distribute the things they own among

the villagers. The chief only can have the best and special kind of bracelets and

necklaces, the higher the rank of the person greater the obligation. "A chief will

naturally be expected to give food to any stranger, visitor even loiterer from another

end of the village. He is expected to share any of the betel-nut or tobacco he has with

him."32 Similar types of evidences are reported by Sarat Chandra Roy when he was

working with the Mundas. When the Panchayat is held, the Parha Raja, the president

of the Panch offers the necessary sacrifices in the Panch feast, eats first morsel before

the other Mundas present can commence eating.33 Since the chief enjoys certain

privileges being the head, he is required to perform certain duties too. So, "the main

symptom of being powerful is to be wealthy, and wealthy is to be generous. "34 The

32 Ibid., p.97. 33 Sarat Chandra Roy, op.cit., I 970, p. 239. 34 Bronislaw Malinowski, op.cit., 1972, p. 97.

41

chief owns plenty of crops in the sense that there is no shortage of wealth. This he

gets from his wives' house, which again shows that he has the privilege of having

many wives. So, he distributes the accumulated wealth generously. For them

generosity is the essence of goodness which Malinowski has observed at their home

and at work. He moreover, describes it through the ceremonial exchange of Kula. The

fundamental principle of the natives' moral code is that a man contribute his fair share

in Kula transaction and the more important person will desire to shine by generosity.

Bronislaw Malinowski's study on Trobrinand Islanders is a thorough research on their

life and culture in detail. He has collected every bit of information of their life

showing the inter-connection of the socio-religious, political and economic way of

life. The people are found to be generous and culture bound and do everything in Kula

for nothing, because two useless articles are exchanged which have no utilitarian

value. But for the natives, it satisfied the necessities of the higher order. This tradition

helps in the continuation of the established inter-tribal institution for ceremonial

exchange, which is associated with so many other activities. This study shows that the

tribals are more concerned about cultural continuity than the gratification of needs.

The moral code teaches them to be generous for which the chief feels obliged to

distribute his wealth, and people are so considerate when the chief owns the special

made articles of exchange. They have learned these principles as part of their culture,

and use them in every sphere of life. Economy and politics being two principal human

activities are shaped by culture. Therefore, through culture we come to know tribal

economy and politics etc. The reciprocal relationship of exchange among the tribals is

also reported by many other anthropologists.

L.P. Vidyarthi and B.K. Rai have mentioned that among the Mundas, Oraons,

Gonds and other similar agricultural tribes, the generalised resciprocity can be seen at

the time of transplantation of paddy. The close and distant kin members come

together to help each other in the field. At the end of the work, those people are

offered food and drink as hospitality.35 The functional relationship within the tribals

and with the non-tribals in any region is characterised by an interdependence that is

quite similar to the jajmani system. Under this system, each caste or tribe in the

village is expected to give certain standardised services to the people of the other

Js L.P. Vidyanthi and B.K. Rai, op.cit., 1985, p.l05. 42

castes or tribes who in return get paddy from the farmer, cloths from the weaver etc.

The person who renders the service is known as Kamen and for whom it is rendered is

known as Jajman. This is a continuous, unbreakable, multi-dimensional relationship

in which the two families become so close that they treat each other as members of

their kin group. Under this kind of a situation, people are more oriented towards

fulfilling the daily needs. Due to their emotional attachment with one another, they

hesitate to make any profit. Rather they are always interested in receiving less from

others. Moral principles and social values rather than maximization of profit and

minimization of loss guide the norms of transaction.

This way interdependence between people increases. Among the tribals,

because of absence of profit oriented of economy; they have no or a little scope for

economic development. Economic way of life is a part of one's culture. So, when one

interacts with the culture of a particular society, one also comes to know about the

economy of the group and the socio-religious factors in shaping the life of the people.

When we understand the meaning of culture in detail, we understand the economy of

such people too, because through this we know the norms of transaction, means of

fulfilling daily requirements, etc interdependence among the groups etc. Then we

understand how economy is shaped by culture as mentioned earlier in detail.

Culture and Power

Power, authority and legitimacy are binding forces of social system which

maintain order and cohesiveness of an otherwise chaotic society composed of various

diverse elements. While power and authority are the binding forces of a society, the

socio-cultural settings influence the political ideas and institutions. Various cultural

traits like art, language, religion, ideology, etc. are used as instruments of domination

and power and division of labour. Hence, a country's politics reflect the design of its

culture. "Culture here is not cults and customs, but the structures of meaning through

which men give shape to their experience; and politics is not coups and constitutions,

but one of the principal areas in which such structures publicly unfold. The two being

thus reframed, determining the connection between them becomes a practicable

43

enterprise, though hardly a modest one."36 The political processes of all nations are

wider and deeper than the formal institutions designed to regulate them. At times

some of the important decisions are not taken by the formal legislative or executive

institutions but are made in the informalised realms of "collective conscience." Thus

the question of legitimacy and obedience is determined by the cultural milieu of a

society. "Culture is perceived as an encompassing phenomenon, independent of any

other phenomena, having the capacity to influence power and social rank.ing."37

The realisation of the importance of political institution is not new.

Power was expressed in symbolic terms where it was exercised in a way neither the

ruled nor the ruler were aware of its presence. Various symbols were used as

instruments per excellence of social integration, as instruments of knowledge and

communication.38 Relations of communication were not always, inseparably, power

relations which in form and content, depended on the material or symbolic power

accumulated by the agents involved in these relations and which like gifts can enable

symbolic power to be accumulated. The existence of power either in symbolic or

manifest ways existed even among the food gathering and hunting people.

Different view points are raised by many scholars regarding the origin of the

political institutions. Some argue that the political institution originated out of man's

realisation of the necessity of such an institution which became possible through his

fellow beings. J. J. Rousseau proposed in his famous book 'Contact Social' that "early

man was utterly carefree and independent. But he made a contact to live with others in

society and consequently lost his freedom by the artificial restraints imposed on him

by social life and organization."39 L. H. Morgan held that "the state was a natural

human institution and believed that it was an out growth of clan system. "40 Man

creates a political organisation to live peacefully to provide the essential material

requirements and protect himself from the anti-social acts done against him by others

with the help of the political authority.

36 Clifford Geertz, 1973, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays, New York, Basic Books, Inc.Publishers, p.312. 37 K.L.Shanna, 1997, Social Stratification in India: Issues and Themes, New Delhi, Sage Publications, E.42.

8 Pierre Bourdieu, 1991, Language and Symbolic Power, Cambridge, Polity Press, p. 166. 39 Stephen Fuchs, op.cit., 1963, p. 165. 40 Ibid, p.l65.

44

Like economy, the political life of people has also originated from their

culture. There is no society ·where political activities do not exist. The nature of

political organisation and the selection procedure of the political head may vary from

one society to another but some form of political organisation does exist in all

societies. Tribal societies are not barred from it. Tribal political life is different from

the rest of the population where social values occupy a key position in determining

the individuals' actions. Every tribe occupies a territory and the activities of the

group take place within its boundary. The elders basically rule the tribals. Among

some tribes the elders play a vital role in ruling the local group. "The Caribou the

Eskimos, the Y amana the V edda the Andamanese the Semang have no social

organization other than the local group. The decision of the elders is final and no

appeal to the higher authority is not possible."41 In a tribal community, the head is

respected, honoured and given due importance in the affairs of the tribal village. The

office of the head is hereditary. He is considered as the supreme authority and

officiates each and every meeting held in the village. He is in some cases assisted by

other members such as the village priest, the village messenger and other elder

members of the village. However, among some Hill tribes the village Priest is the

overall head of the village. He is considered as the sacred as well as the religious

head. The Birhor and the Maler, etc. have only such leader. Earlier even the settled

agriculturists like the Mundas, the Oraons and Hos, etc. had only one leader. "The

village priest was in direct descending line of the Risa system of leadership

introduced by the tribal colonists of Chotanagpur, centuries earlier. In due course, to

minimize his pressure of work, village Priest delegated some of his secular power to a

person generally known as Mehto or Munda. " 42 The Birhors have strong faith in the

village Priest. They realise that it is because of his magical power the Birhor

community exists. The Birhors are nomads who migrate from one place to another

when exploitation of all sources of sustenance at one place is over. At the time of

migration, the advice of the Priest is highly essential. Under this circumstance, there is

need of greater co-ordination among the religious, magical and secular affairs of the

Tand (some family group) and Naya (the village head). It is a belief that with his

41 Stephen Fuchs, op. cit., 1974, p. 20. 42 L. P. Vidyarthi, op.cit., 1976, p.l53.

45

experience and age he is in a better position to fulfil the obligations expected from

him.43 Among some tribes, the bride price during marriage is passed through the

priest to the members of the kin of the bride. So, his actions carry weight for the

villagers. What Sukumar Banerji observed from his study on kuvi-kandhas in Koraput

district of Orissa is that "Bride price is handed over to the priest (Jani) of the bride's

village who in turn passes it on to the village secular headman and ultimately reaches

the girl's father."44 The tribal chief as the political head enjoys certain privileges

which Malinowski has described. In 'Kula' exchange "The number of partners a man

has varies with his rank and importance. A commoner among the Trobriand Ialanders

would have a few partners only where as a chief would number hundreds ofthem."45

These activities of the tribes are the reflections of their culture which they

have retained as a part of their social value and feel is desirable. They have strong

faith in social tradition which they feel has to be continued as disobedience may cause

harm to their life. Social value of moonlight affords the best opportunity in the middle

of the night to go for fishing or turtle hunting. During the second quarter the moon

rises in the evening with a red swollen appearance, which the natives interpret as the

angry moon. The moon is angry because any one would have used a fire or burning

resin which shows in disappreciation of moon light.46

Tribals live in small groups united by kinship, marriage, etc. Frequent contact

takes place between the members for communal hunting, festival celebration, feasting

and evening dance, etc. So, their socio-religious, economic and political life is inter­

related and it is difficult to distinguish political affair from the domestic affairs. The

Naya, the political leader of Birhor is not only supposed to regulate the routine affairs

connected with secular, religious life but he is in many cases a good witch-doctor,

magical- conjurer as well as medicine-man himself. Thus he wields great influence

and exercises supreme leadership among his people.47 The same is also observed

among the Maiers. The ecological setting of the forest and frequent experience of

disease and death creates fear of the supernatural powers and spirits among them. The

43 Ibid, p.168. 44 Sukumar Banerji, 1969, Ethnographic Study of the Kuvi-Kandhas, Calcutta, Anthropological

Survey of India, p. 59. 45 Bronislaw Malinowski, op.cit., 1972, p. 91. 46 Ibid., pp.340-341. 47 L. P. Vidyarthi, op.cit., 1976, p.J44.

46

village has a single leader who combines in him secular and religious leadership of

the village. The Manjhiye settles village disputes and makes decisions in communal

undertaking, he is also the custodian for the conservation of the traditions and customs

of the village.48 So, socio-religious and political activities among them go together

and one cannot be separated from the other. On the one hand respect for the village

headman is an essential part of their culture, on the other hand, their political life is

related with the village headman being the political head. So, this way culture helps us

to understand tribal economy and politics. The economic and political activities are

carried on the basis of social norms which are a product of culture. So, economy and

politics are shaped by culture in many ways. The do's and don't do's play an

important role in the economic and political life of the tribals for which they regard,

obey and even avoid certain things and do the rest which are permitted. They perform

certain rituals when agricultural activities are in operation in order to gain more

production. The ritual performance is embodied in their culture which they believe

increases production. Therefore, good production is cognated to religious rituals

performance. The Oraons take an intense delight in hunting wild animals not merely

for pleasure but a more serious motive is behind the communal periodical hunting.

Festivals are celebrated for this special occasion. This is the desire to secure a

luxuriant rice-crop through the mysterious magical influence of successful hunt.49

The headman dissolves various disputes in the village. So, his work is beneficial for

the village. Hence, he should get a share of agricultural production. The agricultural

tribes like the Oraon, the Munda, the Hos and Santhals when living in the dance forest

of Chotanagpur, used to perform periodical propitiation of the village deities and

sprits through the village priest. The village priest wielded a strong influence on his

people in religious as well as secular matters. He was maintaining a harmonious

relationship between the villagers and the supernatural powers and was given special

land in this connection, know as Bhutkheta50 Thus culture shapes the politics and

economy of a tribe.

It can be concluded that culture as a learned behaviour is a continuous process

whcich passes from one generation to the other. Therefore, culture is basically a

48 Ibid., p.l49. 49 S.C. Roy, op.cit., 1972, p.l66. 50 L. P. Vidyarthi, Opinion cited, 1976, pp.l52-153.

47

process of evolution. In the evolutionary process of development, different cultures

have taken different shape according to the time and social requirement. Hence, there

is cultural multiplicity and diversity of various cultural traits among different

communities. Some see their own culture as superior and the culture of others as,

inferior. This ethnocentric bias has developed cultural relativism leading to cultural

typologies like 'barbarism', 'uncultured', 'pre-civilised', 'primitive', etc. But a value

neutral analysis proves that every culture is shaped by the prevailing socio-economic

milieu and various cultural traits are related to the life pattern and economic activities.

Specially, tribal culture is shaped by their economic activities and vice versa. Their

polity, religious practices and worldview act as binding forces to keep their society

together as a coherent force. Their social practices, marriage system and social system

as a whole still retain its uniqueness in spite of cultural contact with their non-tribal

neighbours and the impact of modernity. These unique characteristics are said to be

the core of tribal society and culture that can be distinctly studied from tribe to tribe

and even among the same tribe from place to place.

48