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Triads: social, political or religious group?

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preliminaries• definitions decide what you will find

• historically defined group (descending from Coxinga/Ming loyalists/etc.)

• type: organized ethnically Chinese crime• group sharing specific rituals and myths (my preference)

• historiography• suffers from inconsistent different definitions• has attempted to separate the political and religious• tends to side with state (in definitions of crime) and romanticize Triads

• concepts• history vs mythology• social, political and religious

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sources• largely in context persecution and repression• Qing state• colonial state• local gazetteers

• ritual manuals• from early 19th century onwards • descriptions of ritual• in confessions• (very few) partial eyewitness accounts (Western)• painting of initiation ritual (Singapore)• extant altars (HK and Singapore)

• contextualisation within local culture of the south

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research• see also detailed historiographical survey by Dian Murray (Qin, Baoqi

coll.), The Origins of the Tiandihui: The Chinese Triads in Legend and History (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994)

• Western colonial officers stressed ritual and myth, for instance:• Schlegel• Ward and Stirling (Freemasons)• Stanton• Morgan

• Chinese academic historiography• inspired by connections to the nationalist revolution (early on, still alive)• linking up to Zheng Chenggong/Ming loyalists• analyzing foundation myth as close to history

• looking at movement thru archives and local histories• role as moving force of history (rebellions, revolution)• Triads as mutual support groups, gangs or otherwise (close to Qing readings)

• Western academic historiography• early work influenced by marxist models • more recently: following Chinese work stress on mutual support groups

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uniting the social, political and religious

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modern categories• categories split and confine• this is necessary, but always analytically subject to

correction and replacement• risk of projecting back modern categories (check: our

definitions of the political, social and religious)• social and religious often coincide• as a result use of terms such as “diffuse” religion• earlier therefore proposal: all lasting social formations in

premodern China have a cult of worship at their centre • Triads are such a group, with a twist: with addition of a

seemingly political dimension

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my definition• sufficient elements of the following characteristics • name (or a variant): Heaven and Earth Earth Gathering 天地會 , or Triads 三合會，三點會• family name Hong 洪 (radical!)• bloodcovenant• initiation ritual in three passages• elements foundation myth

• on this basis• selection cases• selection topics for analysis

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contextualising the ritual

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contextualising• frustrations of Qing officials and colonial officers• Triad members unable to “explain” their ritual and mythology• foundation myth or history

• what is explanation anyhow?• Triad members: quoting poems from the ritual• us: taking ritual apart to explain its purpose

• how do we know our explanation is “true” and what is the relevance of this “explanation”• “true” : by contextualising within rituals and narratives of the

participants as a group• relevance: ask and answer the quesiton of how participants

in a culture “know” meanings and what “meanings” mean

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burning incense• central devotional act without intrinsic Triad

meaning• Triad founders on the run had to use grass

• incense burner as ritual centre of a cult group• more important than statues etc.• miraculous appearance of the White Ding burner with the

text 復明滅清• leader initiation ceremony called Incense Master

• reenactment by new members of first incense burning by Triad founder creates community in the present and links up with the past

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the bushel and the altar• bushel commonly used in variety of rituals (at least since

Tang)• measure filled with local grain (=community)• objects (scissors etc.) inside receive Triad specific

meanings taken up their exorcist functions• five-coloured flags or threads symbolizing Five

Encampments/ Five Houses Triad mythology• Triads: 木楊城 or safe haven

• altar• table with incense burner, bushel, candles, sacrificial food• other objects on the altar as location in the City of Willows

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the initiation journey: preliminaries• liminal places and transitions• occur all the time in ritual practices & narrative elements

• grottoes• rivers & bridges• gates, passes seas & boats• springs, sources, wells

• places for administering status• cities for salvation (incl. Western Paradise, imagined as a city)• cities for judgement and rebirth (underworld)

• safe places & retreats• gardens• grotto worlds

• rituals and narratives manage transitions between different states of being (death, life, no-death, before life, etc.)• funerary ritual• after-birth rituals• exorcisms

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enactment journey through hell (funerary ritual)

中元 / 鬼節

transitions&connections

廈門 龍珠殿 送王船

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the initiation journey: from the Eastdeath/separation

crossings

• Tian Youhong’s interview with the gatekeepers

• preliminary questions• encounters with two

mysterious women• Dark Dragon Hill & the Foot of

Nail Mountain• boat crossing of Triad River at

Hongying Ferry, landing at Great Peace Market

• under the bridge with the two beams

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the initiation journey: to the Westpassages

birthpurificationincorporation

• Hong Gate• Hall of Loyalty and

Righteousness• Circle of Heaven and Earth• City of Willows• Mountain of Fire• concluding blood covenant at

the Hong/Red Flower Pavilion• festive banquet

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“ 竹簍檔太陽，很重要的動作” : more likely a prophylactic measure, traditionally with winnowing basket

crossing the fire with possessed sedan chair

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blood covenant• ancient and common practice• drinking alcoholic spirits mixed with blood of sacrificial

victim (attested since CQ & WS period at least) • gate of swords (attested in Song source!)• aim to strengthen mouth as vehicle of words• self-imprecations

• contents covenant• sworn 洪 brothers• duties of family members• self-imprecations

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membershipcertificate

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back to “meanings”• contextualisation=>

• use conventional practices => meaning ritual works through shared cultural experience

• no meaning, but meaningful• made specific by Triad mythological explanations (next

section)• Triad internal explanation

• as theatrical performance in five acts and an epilogue• First Act: Gathering Together in the Flower Pavilion• Second Act: Instructing the Children in the Central Hall• Third Act: Taking the Oath at the Flower Pavilion• Fourth Act: Meeting at the Side of the Bridge• Fifth Act: Stabilizing the Country and Beheading the Traitor• Epilogue: Banquet

• other indications: ritual preface with Eight Immortals, make-up of the Vanguard official in the British Museum Triad manual, use of whip to indicate horse riding (Morgan description) etc.

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Triad foundation myth

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nature of the account• “narrative” • to explain and justify the Triads>conceived as history• modern view would deny historicity=> mythological

account• matter of degree: academic history often serves

legitimation attempts!• specific aims of the narrative• creation of an in-group (Triads) and out-group (the Qing

state)• justification of Triad activities as legitimate on a higher

poltical level• fall-from-grace plot is widespread type of southern

Chinese story (more further below)

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the basic plot (1810 version)• at the time of Li Zicheng one concubine fled>gave birth

to the Young Prince• rebellion Xilu Barbarians(Xilu 西魯 ~Xifan 西番 ) rebelled

>emperor asked for help• Shaolin monks from Gansu (!) responded> defeated the

barbarians, thanked by emperor, returned to monastery • traitorous official persecuted the monks, 13 survivors fled• appearance of incense-burner with 復明滅清 , made into

focus blood covenant survivors• successful fight against Qing armies• loss Young Ruler and their original leader Master Wan,

founding of the Five Houses from the five provinces

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impact of fiction: Putian ‘s Shaolin Monastery

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dating the Triads narrative• uniquely Triad elements

• High Creek as important location （ 1787>)• Red Flower Pavilion as important location (1787>)• story of fighter monks, dispatching spirit soldiers, losing their lives with

13 monks left (1787 >)• meeting Zhu prince and Triads (1801-1802>)• mythical date jiayin (1801-1802>)• Zhu-prince flees the imperial palace (1803-1806>)• City of Willows (1803-1806 >)• Triad (Five Houses) armies from specific provinces ((1803-1806>)• Shaolin monastery in Gansu (1807-1808 implicitly, 1810 explicitly >)• Mount Wan (1807-1808>)

• first complete narrative extant in 1810 manual, most constituent parts already present several or more years before

• names most prominent figures stem, from demonological messianic paradigm (see further on)

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fall from grace plot• examples• Patriarch Luo (Non-Action Teachings foundation myth)• Eight Trigrams• Green Gangs• Yao culture and other southern local cultures (partially)

• basic plot• loyal service to the imperial state in defeating barbarian

ennemy• reward • betrayal• strong in-group consciousness

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the messianic substrate

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messianic demonological paradigm• similar to tradition of charismatic networks discussed in an earlier

lecture• cosmic change and the fall of the dynasty• preceded by violent times filled with war and the coming of the apocalypse (often

mention of a Black Wind) • advent of divine armies from distant places, led by a young ruler and his generals,

to defeat the demonic creatures causing apocalyptic disasters • western location as origin saviour• find of treasures, city as safe haven• no role for the Eternal Venerable Mother myth• in late imperial period mainly a southern paradigm

• Qing version: • prince is of Ming Zhu-family descent• generals have auspicious names suggesting long life 紅 , 桃 , vastness 洪 and

auspicious numbers 九 , 萬 .• some cases

• Ma Chaozhu (1752) and other smalls cases• crucial impact on Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (in notion safe haven in

Nanjing, barbarian./Manchu threat)

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五營 ~ 五房

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messianic core structure Triad narrative• Young Prince (Young Prince important folkloric

element in general), referred to as 明君 , 明王 , 明主• general as assistants with auspicious names 朱洪德 , 朱紅竹 , 朱九桃 , 李桃洪 , 朱七桂 , 萬雲龍 and so on• demological armies from concrete distant places 五房• city as safe haven (City of Willows 木楊城 ), compare 楊州 / 陽州• Sichuan (western location) as provenance savior• fixed date (jiayin 甲寅 )• weak sense of apocalyptic disasters, but strong sense

of barbarian (Manchu) threat

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Triads a messianic group?• weak messianic impulse • messianic ruler present: Young Ming Prince• concrete event in the future predicted, not expected• weak sense apocalyptic disasters

• possible moments• translation into activities against Manchu/Qing regime• maybe during the Triad uprisings of 1840s?• maybe some expectations in late 19th century =->

collaboration early nationalists• for an evaluation, discussion of political symbols is

required

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social and political implications

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the political dimension• Mandate of Heaven

• Son-of-Heaven as recipient of tribute (i.e. not ruler over territory): ordering All-under-Heaven

• classical and vernacular Daoist ritual specialists: ordering All-under-Heaven• local deities with feudal titles: ordering the local territory on behalf of

heaven• shared language

• “following [the mandate of] heaven” 順天• “the revolution” 運• seals• precious objects (tripod, sword, etc.)• messages from heaven

• please note: • political and religious dimensions coincide• here: political and messianic dimensions coincide• treasures also have exorcist functions

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mythical “Triad” leaders• leaders of Triad events who were never arrested:

• Wan Tiqi 萬提起 (1787 Lin Shuangwen rebellion)• Zhu Jiutao 朱九桃 (1851intended [?] uprising)• Zhu Hongying 朱洪英 , Zhu Shenghong 朱盛洪 a.o. (1852 actual

rebellion)• Wan Dahong 萬大洪 (1850s Guangdong Red Turban rebellions)

• extensive search, at best claimed death=> mythical elements confused with real history

• political or religious rebellions?• probably both• attempts to bring the ideal Triad state about• low level of long term planning

• some late 19th century Triad leaders may have seen nationalist revolutionaries in similar light

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reusing the Triads

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20th century usages• as part of nationalist historiography=> creating a

pedigree/historical depth for nationalist activities• Ming-loyalists (not entirely untrue, although always a myth)• anti-Manchu• connecting to Zheng Chenggong/Koxinga

• martial arts connection• Shaolin element• prelude of martial arts films• Incorporation into martial arts foundation myths, historical depth unclear

• proto-revolutionaries• because of purported nationalist connection• social rebels (mutual support groups)

• police exaggeration• organized crime> more funds & more freedom of persecution