Translation Studies: An Anglo-American

Perspective

Dr. Constanza Gerding Salas

Universidad de ConcepciónUniversität Leipzig

May 2013

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Where to start? E. Genzler: leading US synthesizer of translation

theory Germanistics at Free University, Berlin PhD in Comparative Literature, Vanderbilt University,

Nashville, Tennessee Works at University of Massachusetts Amherst Contemporary Translation Theories (1993; 2001) General perspective on translation studies trends Translation and Identity in the Americas: New Directions in

Translation Theory (2008) The role of translation in the formation of Americas

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Translation in the the Americas Divided into geographical areas: the United

States, Canada, Brazil, Latin America, and the Caribbean Different linguistic history Research into translation has taken different

paths At present, Translation Studies scholars in the

Americas are viewing translation more as “a discursive practice that reveals multiple signs of the heterogeneous and polyvalent nature of the construction of culture” (Genzler, 2008: 183)

The study of translations, Genzler says, can reveal the processes of assimilation of language and culture

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New way of approaching translation in the Americas

It has come with the reassessment of the history of linguistic suppression in America

Suppression: preventing, inhibiting or eliminating the development or dissemination of languages (culture)

Valid situation in the whole continent in varying degrees

Indigenous languages minority group tongues Speakers marginalized and excluded. “Reductions”,

i.e. massive relocations of indigenous people Indigenous languages excluded from language

policies Fossils to be scientifically studied or exposed in

museums

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The US: multicultural but unilingual The USA is plenty of cases where the multicultural

population is forced to use the national SAE at school or at work

Due to massive immigration waves of Hispanics into the USA (80s and 90s), language became a problem for American identity

This strengthened the English-only Movement (a political group)

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Translation Studies: the continental situation

USA and Latin America: surprisingly slow in developing research into translation

The only two exceptions in the Americas: Canada Brazil

Professional associations, conferences, and important publications

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Brazilian examples of research instances

Brazil's National Library Foundation, a Ministry of Culture Office: Support program for the translations and publications of Brazilian authors abroad

Aim: to foster a greater presence of works of local literature in foreign publishing company's catalogs, bookstore shelves, and virtual bookshelves throughout the world

Cadernos de Traduçao, published by the Universidad Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil (Vol. 1, 1996)

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Canadian examples of research instances TTR, Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction, a journal

published by the Canadian Association for Translation Studies / Association Canadienne de Traductologie (Vol. 1, 1988)

Meta, journal des traducteurs / Meta: Translators' Journal, edited by Les Presses de l’Université de Montréal, Canada (Vol. 1, 1956)

Canada has been the location for debate about language and a policy of bilingualism since the 1960s

Translation has played a crucial part Research into translation started to develop in

Canada in the second half of the XX century

JournalTTR

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In the USA TIS: Translation and Interpreting Studies

Founded in 2008 Official journal of the American Translation and

Interpreting Studies Association (ATISA) American Journal of Translation Studies

Founded in 2009 Published by American Journal of Translation Studies

and Academic Press

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Implications of English dominance in the USA

The hegemony of English in the U.S. has resulted in an insignificant amount of translation of international literature

British and American publishers SELL the translation rights for English books at international book fairs, such as the Frankfurt Book Fair

But the number of translation rights they BUY is very low. Their interest is only in books that promise to be bestsellers

In comparison, France gets translated 12% and Germany about 15% (figures from 1990s given by Venuti, 1995)

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Monolingualism and culture survival The trend towards English books in the the USA may

indicate: a conceited belief of superiority of English an unwillingness to acknowledge or receive

different cultures Suppression of languages other than English: a way

of minimizing the effect of other cultures? About 20% of Americans speak a language other

than English at home today (2000 US Census)

Is translation then an issue?

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Translation training in the USA Today, about 30 colleges and institutes offer

translation-related programs in the United Sates Intercultural studies programs; translation and

interpretation certificates Low figures in relation to: the size of the nation the number of inhabitants the size of the non-English speaking population the diversity of the N-ES population hence the need for translation

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Translation training in Canada 13 prestigious translator training institutions All of them are members of the Canadian

Association of Schools of Translation They offer translation training ranging from

certificates to Ph.D.’s With minors and majors in translation and/or

interpretation, within degrees in English or French

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History of translation and identity formation in the USA

 The United States, a nation made up of immigrants People comprising the nation have come from a

wide range of linguistic and cultural origins American immigration history can be viewed in four

epochs: the colonial period (late 16th century)the mid-19th centurythe start of the 20th centurypost-1965

Multilingual/multicultural diversity has characterized American immigration

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Multilingualism: origin of settlers First three periods different regions of Europe After 1965 Latin America / Asia First settlers English, Dutch, French, Spanish,

Portuguese They traded with Native American peoples Before Columbus + 300 languages were spoken in

(today’s) USA Half of them are extinct today

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Migration into the USA after 1965 Ethnic quotas on immigration removed in 1965, the

number of first-generation immigrants living in the USA increased fourfold

Foreign-born population increased from 9.6 million in 1970 to over 40 million today

About 40% of them come from Latin America and Caribbean countries

Most of these immigrants speak Spanish as a first or second language (e.g. Guaraní as L1)

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Top 20 immigrant-sending: 2010, 2000 & 1990

Total 39,955,854 31,107,889 19,767,316

Source: decennial Census and American Community Survey

40 million = 13%± 40% from SS-LA

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Racially diverse, linguistically homogeneous?

Other important ethnic groups immigrating into the USA after 1965 (Source: 2000 census): Italian Polish Ukrainian Japanese Greek Portuguese Russian Taiwanese Irish Iranian Pakistani Thai

Ethnically, the USA is a diverse country No official language at the federal level Several unsuccessful proposals to make English the

USA official language In 1780, e.g., John Adams’s proposal was deemed

"undemocratic and a threat to individual liberty” Is linguistic unity possible in a diverse society?

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De facto national language in the USA Today’s situation is quite varied at state/territorial

level: Some states mirror federal policy: adopt no official

language Others have adopted English alone Others have officially adopted English as well as

local languages Still others have adopted a policy of de facto

bilingualism English is the de facto national language, with 80%

of the population claiming it as their mother tongue (US Census Bureau, 2012)

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Languages other than English Spanish second most common language in the

USA Spoken by over 15% of the population. However,

nearly all second-generation Hispanic Americans speak English fluently

People of German ancestry are the largest single ethnic group in the US. The German language ranks fifth

French, Italian, Polish, and Russian are still spoken among immigrant populations or their descendants

The use of these languages is decreasing as the older generations die

Source: US Census Bureau, 2012

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Main languages spoken in the USA Language N° of native speakers English 260 million

Spanish 44 million Chinese 3.5 million

French (& Creole)

2.5 million

Tagalog 2.5 million Vietnamese 2 million

German 1.5 million

The Spanish / Latino population is over 15%It outnumbers African-Americans (12.8%) (2006 US Census Bureau)Tagalog = Filipino: first language of 25% of Filipinos

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The linguistic situation in Canada Canada may look and feel like America. But when it

comes to translation, it is a different world Simple reason: Canada has two official languages,

English and French 25% of the population speak Québécois, and is

geographically concentrated in the province of Quebec

Few Canadians speak both English and French 7 of the 10 provinces are massively English Everything must be translated: government documents, public signs, court

decisions, packaging, advertisements, etc.

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Canada: a land of translation Canada is a land of translation demographic reality It occupies 10% of the global translation market

(Hamilton, 2010) Biggest employer of translators federal

government The government’s Translation Bureau hires 1,200

professionals: salaried translators interpreters terminologists localization specialists

The Translation Bureau also a regular source of work for hundreds of freelancers

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Translation industry in Canada Main difference between the USA and Canada

opportunity for salaried employment in translation Job opportunities pay good dividends in terms of

professional development in Canada Many thousands also work for private firms in Canada Banks (Royal, Montreal) have in-house translation

depts. Translators in Canada a variety of businesses:

accountancies airlines grocery store chains big retailers telecoms law firms

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Translation industry in Canada (ctd.)

Canada generalized need for translation Everybody who does business in Canada is a

potential translation client Most freelance translators can cultivate direct clients

among people in their families and social circles There are about 15,000 translators, interpreters,

terminologists, and localization specialists in Canada

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The translation industry in the USA With the English-only policy, a small number of

translators have developed a career Citizens are usually denied regular translation

services (Genzler, 2008) No programs with federal funding for translation,

e.g. courts, educational institutions, hospitals, police, banks, social security agencies, etc.

Genzler (2008) possible cause: lack of funding, a sociopolitical issue

Over 150 languages are spoken in the USA today Is there a need for translation services?

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A unilingual melting pot The USA melting-pot ideology, aspiring to integrate

all incoming languages and cultures into one inclusive whole, does not match reality (Genzler, 2008)

The existing melting pot is the place where nothing has really melted

The English-only policy has played a role in people’s ghettoization. Several languages + cultures have been ghettoized because of socio-economic / legal pressure

Amerindians were relegated to reservations and blacks in urban ghettos

Chinese immigrants were centralized in Chinatowns and Latinos segregated in ‘barrios’ (where Hispanics can express communal culture and language)

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The English-only policy in the USA The current English-only policy in the USA dates back

to the epoch of the founding fathers Jefferson, Jay, and Franklin, among others, lobbied for

English as the national language Roosevelt: “We must have but one language. That

language must be of the Declaration of Independence.”

(Roosevelt’s Language Loyalties, quoted by Shell, 2002: 7)

Two hundred years later, arguments are still the same 2006, 2007, 2008: US Senate provisions to

“preserve and enhance the role of English as the national language of the United States of America”

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Translate or not translate… The Constitution itself was translated into several

languages (Fr., Sp., Ru., Ge., It.) in order to spread the word to the nation’s multilingual citizens

25% of the settlers were of non-English origin Those speaking African and Amerindian languages

were non-citizens, thus not included The German language was once a choice as a

national tongue in the USA 40% of Pennsylvania inhabitants spoke German there were many German-language newspapers there was even a German-language political party

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Non-translation policy in USA Treaties with Amerindians and Mexico invariably

supported language and translation rights for minorities in the past

Translation was put into practice in the early nation, but it quickly went underground

The monolingual English-only policy led to a translation policy of non-translation

The unwritten policy of non-translation became the norm enforced by “the system”

Genzler (2008) suggests that strategically repressed translation has played a central role in the construction of culture and identity

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No translation, no mediation, no integration

Non-translation policy is a leading socio-political issue today

No national translation policy no policy of mediation, negotiation, communication or inclusion

Discrimination against language minorities in streets, courts, jails, schools, hospitals, welfare offices

Ethnic and linguistic minority communities sometimes have their own committed group of (often unpaid) translators

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Translating from Amerindian cultures Translation from Amerindian cultures was a one-way

activity. British colonizers translated their culture into Amerindian languages for two reasons:

the non-translation policy dominance (power & influence) and domination (exercise of control)

the oral tradition of Amerindian literature In contemporary multicultural studies, traces of

Amerindian oral tradition occur, usually as “cultural translations” in the form of stories within stories

The role of translation from American Indian cultures in the formation of American identity has been neglected as a study area

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The turn into culture in translation studies Translation Studies became visibly active in the USA

when the pragmatic turn of the 1970s gave rise to the cultural turn in the 1980s

The importance of the CT in American translation studies (1990s) is evident (Genzler, 2008): cultural processes and systems of signification

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The cultural turn in America The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays

(1973) by American anthropologist Clifford Geertz was one of the foundational works facilitating the turn to cultural forms of analysis

The Interpretation of Culture elaborates upon cultural systems of social behavior (meanings, gestures, myths) that are unique to any given culture

People both shape and are shaped by society

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DTS: descriptive, target-oriented, functional & systemic

1990s new insights in translation in America and elsewhere

Societies were especially open to sociological & cultural factors

Research was based on the assumption that translation constituted a primary means by which culture is constructed

Translation became important to studies of cultural evolution and identity formation

Cultural studies became the impelling force of DTS scholars (“manipulation school”) in 1990-2000

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DTS: aim and interests

Aim: to describe the phenomena of translating and translation(s) as they manifest themselves in the world of experience

DTS focuses on three areas of research: Product:

synchronic (at one point) diachronic (as it has evolved)

Function: translation sociology or socio-translation studies

Process: psychology of translation or psycho-translation studies

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DTS and manipulation Premise: all translation implies a degree of

manipulation of the ST for a certain purpose 1990s focus on how textual practices are used by

governments, publishers, & educational institutions to manipulate culture

Fundamental questions around manipulation: Which texts are selected for translation Who makes the decisions and why Where those translations are made available Who the translations are meant for Perspective from which texts are translated to the

target culture

Manipulation is carried out in support of the status quo, i.e. the ultimate aim being to hold power

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Power in the construction of culture “Translation has been a major shaping force

in the development of world culture” (Lefevere & Bassnett, 1990: 12).

“The key topic that has provided the impetus for the new directions that translation studies have taken since the cultural turn is power” (Genzler/ Tymoczko, 2002: XVI)

“Translation […] was shown to be instrumental in the process of developing and maintaining power” (Genzler, 2008: 1)

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Power in translation In DTS power should not be understood as that

exclusively exercised by institutions and authorities traditionally seen as the proprietors of power

According to Tymoczko (2007), power is also exercised by people seeking empowerment, as a means to resist oppression

Power in translation is linked to: Hegemony: dominant cultures Norms: standards language target groups censorship ideologies (political, religious)

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Power and the role of the translator The role of translators is closely related to power:

‘the ability to influence the behavior of others’ Translators often function as double agents:

“representing both the institution in power and those seeking empowerment” (Gentzer/Tymoczko 2002: xix)

Translators always have the possibility to influence texts by emphasizing specific content by rearranging parts of the text

Imbalance of power

In the USA, “the English-only majority uses practices of translation and non-translation to marginalize language minorities” Gentzler (2008: 32)

The hegemonic power of English-only discourse plays a double role (Genzler, 2008: 32): externally, in global relations and

international exchanges internally, in relations with language

minorities within the borders of the USA

Translation Studies in the USA: infant stages

The American Translation and Interpreting Studies Association (ATISA) has only existed since 2002

Translation did not use to be a subject matter TS did not develop in the USA until the XX

century Translators were pragmatic users of the

languages they translated They knew very little about translation theories Most came to the field by chance and stayed by

choice

Translation studies in the USA and Canada Translation in the USA XX and XXI centuries Venuti, Maier, Tymoczko, and Levine, among

others, have increasingly connected translation phenomena to issues such as:

marginalization migration resistance Identity

Other TS scholars focusing on cultural aspects, identity, and minority groups in Anglo America: Simon, Von Flotow, Godard, Arrojo (2000-2010)

Translation in the USA in the 1960s The 1960s a great age

for cultural expansion in general for translation in particular

Many ideas entered US culture for the first time

Remarkably, key creative writers were also active translators:

William De Witt Snodgrass William Stanley Merwin Charles Simic Robert Bly Gary Snyder Philip Levine

Translation: not a minor affair During this period, important works entered

USA culture via translation: Philosophers: Husserl, Sartre, Lévi-Strauss,

Habermas, Heidegger Poets: Apollinaire, Rimbaud, Neruda, Vallejo Experimental playwrights: Beckett, Brecht,

Pirandello, Ionesco Marxist thinkers: Mao, Trotsky, Che Guevara,

Fanon, Luxemburg

Translation: a tool to uncover/discover culture

Translations have served not only to import ideas from other cultures

Also to inform and allow citizens to better understand themselves via an alternative culture

In the 1950s and early 1960s, e.g. translations helped to uncover unconscious thoughts and powerful emotions, e.g.: Pablo Neruda Antonio Machado Federico García Lorca

TS housed by American Studies The larger field of American Studies

(translation), is increasingly turning toward multilingual and multicultural issues

A new generation of researchers, who focus on the many cultures of the USA, is emerging

In this new American Studies paradigm, “American” does not (only) refer to the USA; it also includes the different languages, nationalities and cultures of the New World: Canada, Latin America and the Caribbean

AS focus on border cultures Scholars of American Studies (Dimock, Rowe,

Gruesz, Shell, Pease, Siemerling) focus on points of historical, geographical and linguistic contact where two or more communities must negotiate their respective identities

They have concentrated mainly on border cultures and contact zones within the Americas, which are obvious sites of translation Canada-USA USA-Mexico Brazil-ten neighbors

The scope of American Studies

American Studies focus on the United States’ new role as a global

power its form of linguistic, cultural and intellectual

domination the paradigm is also international: it includes

viewpoints from American scholars outside the USA: Latin American, Philippine, Vietnamese, and even Near Eastern perspectives on US texts and culture

Canada today

Canada contains a “nation” within a nation Québécois is the predominant variety of (formal

and informal) French spoken in Canada Quebeckers have maintained their language

and culture for nearly 400 years There have even been attempts to define

Québécois as separate from standard French

Linguistic reality of Canada The struggle once was: which language to use?

English, British English, American English, Canadian English, French, standard French, Canadian French or Québécois?

The Québécois secession movement has failed In 1976, French became the official language of

Quebec Both English and French are official languages in

Canada today By the Constitution, both languages have equal

status and rights in Parliament and in Government

Bilingualism/biculturalism Two significant immigration waves into Canada: 1901-1911: over 1.7 million people; WWI and

the Great Depression halted the flow 1951-1961: over 2 million people; after WWII

But Canada has concentrated on its bilingual nature

Thus, it has excluded other language groups from discussions on social/cultural policies defining its multiculturalism: indigenous populations recent immigrants (e.g. political refugees)

Immigrant-sending countries into Canada, 2010

Country Number %Philippines 36,578 13.0India 30,252 10.8China 30,197 10.8 United Kingdom 9,499 3.4

United States 9,243 3.3 France 6,934 2.5

Iran 6,815 2.4 United Arab Emirates 6,796 2.4Morocco 5,946 2.1South Korea 5,539 2.0Top 10 Total 147,799

52.7Other 132,882

47.3Total 280,681

100

• Canada’s population: 34.5 million

• Immigration: 20%• Rate: 250,000 a

year

Source: Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2010

Canada: also a multicultural society Canada has immigrants from dozens of

countries Up until 1960, about 90% of immigrants were

European Most learned English quickly; assimilated to

Canadian life Immigration policies ensured the dominance of

English speakers and a Eurocentric cultural policy

Today, the top three immigrant-sending countries are The Philippines, India, and China

Translation bridges cultures?

Translation has proven to be a crucial tool in culture formation

It has played a crucial role in aiding understanding and the shaping of identity

A bridge between peoples of Canada It has also exposed power imbalances and

exacerbated problems Translation was a leading tool for the

construction of a separate “Québécois identity” and the social democratic Parti Québécois

Translation a tool for empowerment

Translators felt standard French was incapable of expressing certain experiences/concerns of Quebeckers

The translation of canonical literature (Molière, T. Williams, Pirandello, B. Brecht, B. Shaw) into Québécois was a clear attempt to make foreign works Quebec’s own

The language of translation thus became a tool: for empowering regional groups for articulating repressed social/political

concerns

Translation and feminism in Quebec Translation had to do with how NOT to be

assimilated by the other It was a way to reject the other It allowed space for the creation of

Quebeckers’ own identity Social turmoil (1960s and early 1970s) some

women began to use language & translation to critique the predominant, powerful, patriarchal structures

Quebec feminists perform(ed) double translation: English/Québécois and masculine/feminine

Visibilizing the feminine in Quebec Women writers/translators (Brossard, Godard, De

Lotbinière-Harwood) have studied/practiced feminist translation, developing a form of translation called the ‘rewriting of the feminine’

Inventing words part of this feminist strategy: auther instead of ‘author’, herstory instead of ‘history’

Not only adapting words/re-sexing pronouns to destabilize male discourse: translation has been used to articulate a new theory of culture: one that is a) more inclusive, b) more democratic, and c) more open for change

Speaking out against discrimination The situation in Quebec has underscored the

value of translation as a tool in the construction of the identity of any ethnic minority

Marginalized peoples, being discriminated against for

language differences ethnic backgrounds sexual orientations

can learn a lot from Quebec translators and translation theorists (Genzler, 2008)

Support of translation in Canada

In this context, it is interesting to note that: the Canada Council supports translation and

publication of selected Canadian titles from one official language into the other

translations of Canadian titles into various languages are published around the world

Canada has grants to support the translation of works into languages other than French

(Edwin Genzler, 2008: 40)

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cgerding@udec.cl

Thank you!