TRAINING OBJECTIVES

1. With the Field Guide as a reference, the trainee demonstrates a working knowledge of the ozone biomonitoring procedures.

2. Given a complete suite of data from a real biosite, the trainee accurately enters the data into the PDR program.

3. Given actual plants or high quality images, the trainee correctly identifies ozone injury symptoms on the bioindicator species.

4. Given actual plants or high quality images, the trainee accurately scores the plants for injury amount and injury severity.

5. Given actual leaves and voucher materials, the trainee prepares a proper leaf voucher sample and data sheet.

6. Upon visiting an actual field site, the trainee prepares a site map that meets minimum standards outlined in the Field Guide.

TRAINING OBJECTIVES

OZONE TRAINING AGENDAMorning Session: inside 8:00 to 11:30

• Introduction - Why do we do it?

• Field Procedures - How do we do it?

• Symptom Review - What does ozone injury look like?

• Written Test** - What information is in the Field Guide?

• PDR Data Entry and Data Sheets

• Plot Identification Codes and the Crosswalk Table

LUNCH

**require a passing grade for certification

OZONE TRAINING AGENDAAfternoon Session: outside 1:00 to 5:00

• Field exercise - What does a biosite look like?

• Review of species ID and plant selection

• Review of symptom identification and scoring

• Biosite map** - How is biosite location documented?

• Voucher handling - How are injury symptoms validated?

• Review of QA activities

• Debriefing Form

• Distribution of field supplies

**require a passing grade for certification

WHAT IS OZONE?

There is lots of ozone of ozone [O3] in the stratosphere. Stratospheric ozone is known as GOOD OZONE because it screens out harmful radiation from the sun.

Ozone occurs naturally in the troposphere but is considered a pollutant (BAD OZONE) when ground-level concentrations exceed background levels of 10-40 ppb.

Ozone pollution occurs under conditions of bright sunlight and warm temperature as a result of photochemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.

These ozone precursor pollutants are emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels by automobiles, industries, and electric power-generating plants.

This figure shows the photochemical oxidant cycle. Ozone [O3] is formed when:

• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is present

• Oxygen (O2) is present

• Sunlight is available

• Temperatures exceed 60 F

O3

You get ozone pollution when hydrocarbons from fossil fuel combustion are present, disrupting the normal photochemical oxidant cycle :

• Hydrocarbons react with some of the NO• This NO is no longer available to react with O3 and break it down to NO2 and O2

• Ozone builds up beyond normal background levels and becomes an air pollutant

Sources of Ozone Pollution

The sources of ozone pollution = the sources of the ozone precursor pollutants i.e., nitrous oxides and hydrocarbons.

These ozone precursor pollutants are emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels by automobiles, industry, and electric power plants.

The single most important source of ground-level ozone pollution is the car.

Bumper to bumper in Mexico City.

Ozone is a regional scale pollutant due to long-range transport of contaminated air masses within slow moving and often stagnant high pressure systems. Long-range transport leads to high ambient ozone concentrations in forests and natural plant communities in the downwind areas.

Ozone hot spots occur across the country downwind of populated areas. Normal wind and weather patterns tend to carry ozone into our region from urbanized areas to the south and west.

Red areas are in violation of the national ozone standard set to protect plants and people from ozone injury.

Day 1

Development of a typical ozone episode in the Northeast region. At Day1 the air quality is good with ozone levels below 60ppb. By Day3, the air quality is moderate (yellow). By Day5, ozone levels are above 100ppb and unhealthy for sensitive groups. Air quality returns to background levels by Day8.

Day 3 Day 5 Day 8

A very unhealthy ozone day for the mid-Atlantic region. Ambient ozone concentrations are in the 125+ppb range, in exceedance of the National Ambient Air Quality Standard.

HOW DOES OZONE INJURE PLANTS?

Ozone enters the leaf through the stomata during normal gas exchange. Once ozone is inside, it attacks cell membranes and disrupts many physiological processes. If cells collapse and die than visible symptoms appear on the leaf surface.

Upper-leaf surface where symptoms are visible.

Lower leaf surface where ozone enters the leaf.

INJURY DEPENDS ON ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

• Temperature

• Sunlight

• Relative humidity

• Nutrition

• Soil moisture

• Any factor that influences whether the stomates are open or closed

Environmental Conditions Affect Ozone Uptake and Resulting Plant Injury

Biological Factors

• Genetic diversity

• Development stage

Plant growth stage

Leaf age

Older, lower leaves are affected first

Environmental Conditions Affect Ozone Uptake and Plant Injury

Physical Factors

• Air movement• Sunlight• Temperature• Nutrition• Relative humidity• Soil moisture

Any factor that influences whether the stomata are open or closed

Effects Of Ozone On Plant Growth

• Reduced photosynthetic activity• Changes in carbon allocation• Reduced height and diameter growth• Reduced viability of pollen and seeds• Altered water use• Predisposition to insects and disease• Visible damage to leaves and needles

Studies have shown that ambient ozone concentrations during the growing season can and do effect tree growth. For example:

Open-top fumigation chambers used in ozone effects research.

EPA facility - Corvallis, OR.

Ozone Injures Trees

Ponderosa pine stand Paul Miller and crew

1. More than 35 tree species have been identified as ozone sensitive based on foliar injury symptoms.

Ponderosa pine - CA

ozone sensitive black cherry in Vermont

2. In the field, symptoms are prevalent both on young trees and in the canopies of mature trees.

ozone sensitive aspen clone

3. Ozone can affect the genetic base of sensitive species through the elimination of sensitive clones and hypersensitive genotypes.

4. Ozone can reduce carbon fixation, increase foliar and root respiration, shift the partitioning of carbon into different chemical forms and disrupt carbon and nutrient allocation patterns.

Full crown on black cherry and, same tree, showing ozone-induced premature

defoliation later on in the growing season (Pennsylvania).

5. Small decreases in net photosynthesis or other growth-related processes compounded over the long life span of a tree may produce significant growth reductions or translate into large changes in stand dynamics, even if effects go undetected in the short-term due to the inherent complexity and variability of natural systems.

6. In the mixed conifer type in southern California, the elimination of ozone sensitive pines has led to an increase in ozone tolerant species characterized by thinner bark and branches close to the ground. This, in turn, presents a fuel ladder situation that jeopardizes the residual stand in the event of a catastrophic fire.

Tree ecosystem effect

BIOINDICATOR PLANTS

What is a bioindicator plant?

Certain plants respond in a predictable and well-defined manner to above-background concentrations of ozone in the ambient air. These plants act as “detectors” of ozone pollution. Detection is based on a visible foliar response.

Left: Chlorotic mottle on ponderosa pine. Center: Classic ozone stipple on sassafras. Right: Premature fall coloration on sweetgum.

BIOINDICATION

Ozone bioindicator plants provide evidence of plant stress. They tell us not only that ozone concentrations were elevated for a particular time and place, but also that other necessary conditions for ozone uptake and injury (e.g., adequate light, nutrition, and soil moisture) were also present.

The data collected on bioindicator plants provides FIA with information on ozone air quality and the potential for ozone impacts on forest growth and productivity over the long-term.

Why is the ozone indicator important?

The USDA Forest Service made a commitment to the international community to monitor the area and percent of forestland subjected to levels of specific air pollutants, including ozone, which may cause negative impacts on the forest ecosystem.

The FIA biomonitoring program is the only large-scale effort to monitor ozone stress in the natural environment.

1. TO MEET USFS INITIATIVES

Why is the ozone indicator important?

There is a recognized need for biological data that can help inform and influence the establishment of meaningful air quality standards to protect plants from ozone damage.

The scientific community says foliar injury data from natural systems is a priority research need.

The FIA biomonitoring program meets that need.

2. TO SUPPORT NATIONAL POLICY ON

PLANT HEALTH PROTECTION

Why is the ozone indicator important?

Model simulations are the only way we can get close to interpreting the risks associated with long-term ozone exposures.

Biomonitoring data provides more, different, and better data that will improve the reliability of forest health models.

3. TO IMPROVE FOREST HEALTH MODELS

ANALYSIS AND REPORTING

Using the foliar injury data collected by the field crews, analysts calculate an index of ozone stress for each biomonitoring site. (BI = biosite index)

Statistical techniques are applied to the index to generate a predicted response surface of ozone stress across the landscape.

The risk of probable ozone injury is low in the green areas, moderate in the yellow-orange areas, and high in the red areas.

Biosite Index and Risk

Based on plant injury data from 1999 - 2002.

EPA air quality data from physical air samplers

FIA air quality data from biomonitoring plots

Which map is better?Because the FIA Biosite Index is derived from plant response data, it has biological relevance.

Biosite Index and Risk EstimationSOUTH CAROLINA

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

No Risk Low Risk Moderate Risk High Risk

Biosite Index Categories

Tre

e V

olu

me

(1,0

00,0

00 c

u.f

t.)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Per

cen

t o

f T

ota

l V

olu

me

Total Volume Sensitive Volume Sensitive as Percent of Total

Biosite Index Categories on the X axis represent the risk of probable ozone injury to ozone sensitive tree species.

In this example of state-level results, over 16 million cubic feet of tree volume falls into the high risk zone in South Carolina and 53 percent of this total includes tree species that are ozone sensitive.

STATE-LEVEL RESULTS

Why Does the Biosite Index Work?

GENERAL PROCEDURES

ESTABLISH ozone biomonitoring sites on the FIA Ozone Grid.

DETECT AND MONITOR trends in ozone air pollution injury on sensitive species.

Objective: To select and map a high quality ozone biomonitoring site within each polygon on the FIA ozone grid.

SITE SELECTION

Rhode Island

Ozone Hexagon Number = the 7-digit number that identifies each polygon on the grid.

Within each State, the network of biosites should be well distributed across the landscape.

The location of each site must be mapped. Detailed directions and geographic coordinates must be documented.

SITE SELECTION PROCEDURES

Completed maps are stored with each State or Regions permanent Plot Files.

GOOD SITE MAPS ARE CRITICAL

The same sites are evaluated every year.

The same population of plants is evaluated at every plot visit.

If an established site is overgrown or lost to development, select a REPLACEMENT SITE and draw a new map.

Add new or missing information to old maps.NEW 2005: Record datum used to collect GPS coordinates.

WHAT’S ON THE MAP?

1. Location of the site relative to an obvious and permanent marker.

2. Road names and distances

3. North arrow

4. Species codes and approximate location of plant groupings

5. Starting point for ozone evaluations

6. Location and distance to at least 2 major roads

7. Distance and direction to 2 major towns

8. Gazetteer reference page if available

9. Point where GPS readings were taken. (record DATUM used)

Geographic coordinates are recorded. Redraw the map and add new information each year as needed.

Document the site by recording State and County fips codes, Ozone HexNum, PlotNum and other plot identifying information.

Describe the site by recording Plot Size, Elevation, Aspect, Terrain Position, Soil Depth, Soil Drainage, and Disturbance.

Comment on safety or other useful information as needed.

SITE CHARACTERISTICS DATA - ENTERED ON THE PDR

SPLIT PLOT

LESS THAN 3 MILES

O3PlotNum = 1

O3PlotNum = 2

Use 2 locations within 3 miles of each other to increase species and plant counts.

Site Selection Goal for each O3HexNum = 30 individual plants of more than 3 bioindicator species

The same Ozone Hexagon Number is assigned to each location. Each location has a unique Ozone Plot Number. Separate files are maintained for each location. For analysis and reporting the two locations are considered one plot.

What Makes a Good Biomonitoring Site?

1. Easy and Safe Access

2. Wide Open Area Providing Good Air Mixing

Open areas must be greater than 1 acre.

The best sites are larger than 3 acres.

3. High Numbers of Species and Plant Counts

Each site should have at least 3 species.

The best sites have 5 species

Use split-plots to increase species and plant counts.

Continued...

What Makes a Good Biomonitoring Site?

4. Low Drought Potential

Avoid obviously dry or shallow soils.

5. Reasonable Fertility

Based on your best judgement.

6. No Obvious or Significant Disturbance

Natural disturbances that would limit site quality are fire and grazing.

Human activities that cause obvious soil compaction, erosion, or contamination by pesticides make a site unacceptable.

Examples of good sites

Large openings.

Different species are found along the edge and in the center of the opening.

Where To Look For Good Sites

1. Large, privately owned farms where there are abandoned or little used fields.

2. Recently logged areas with large, open landings.

3. Privately run nature centers and forests.

4. State or federally owned wildlife refuges where open areas and paths are maintained.

5. State protected watershed areas - permits may be required.

6. State forests and parks with remote camping areas.

Sites To Avoid

1. Open areas underneath a high tension power line.

2. Anywhere on or near an active or reclaimed landfill.

3. Around the perimeter of a farmed area or tree plantation where fertilizers and pesticides are applied.

4. Fields that are mowed regularly.

5. Along the edges of a dirt road where dust has obviously settled on the plant leaf surfaces.

6. Any area obviously stressed by people traffic.

SITE

SELECTION

PROCEDURES

MAP THE SITE

RECORD DIRECTIONS

RECORD PLANT LOCATIONS

RECORD LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

Decision Table First Choice Second Choice

Access Easy Easy

Location Single location One or twolocations

Size of Opening Wide open area>3 acres

Between 1 and 3acres

Species Count More than 3species

Two or morespecies

Plant Count 30 plants of 3species10-30 plants ofadditional species

30 plants of 2species10-30 plants ofadditional species

Soil Conditions Low droughtpotential.Good fertility.

Moderately dry.Moderate fertility.

Site Disturbance No recent (1-3years)disturbance. Noobvious soilcompaction.

Little or nodisturbance. Noobvious soilcompaction.

SPECIES SELECTION0915 Blackberry

0762 Black Cherry

0365 Common and Tall Milkweed

0621 Yellow Poplar

0541 White Ash

0931 Sassafras

0366 Spreading and Erect Dogbane

0364 Big Leaf Aster

0611 Sweetgum

0761 Pin Cherry

Evaluate 30 plants of 3 or more species at each site.

The top 3 species are the most common. Use these whenever possible.

Any species with 30 or more plants should be included in the site evaluation.

Check the Field Guide, Appendix A for species ID key.

SPECIES SELECTION

Blackberry - second year canes only

SPECIES SELECTION

Black Cherry Pin Cherry

SPECIES SELECTION

Common Milkweed Tall Milkweed

SPECIES SELECTION

Yellow Poplar

SPECIES SELECTION

White Ash

SPECIES SELECTION

Sassafras

SPECIES SELECTION

Spreading Dogbane Erect Dogbane

SPECIES SELECTION

Big Leaf Aster

SPECIES SELECTION

Sweetgum

TEST SPECIES NEW SELECTION

Coneflower

Required Plant Count:

30 plants of 3 species;

10-30 plants of additional species.

Additional species may be selected from the official bioindicator list or from this list of supplemental species.

Use the plot notes screen or hard copy to record data on supplemental species.

PLANT SELECTION

Starting point and direction of movement through the site.

762

365

541 and 931

541

Time Spent On Site = 45 to 75 minutes.

Use a systematic and unbiased method to select which plants to evaluate.

Use common sense and safety to guide how much ground to cover.

There are no borders.

365

Thirty plants of each species must be sampled if available.

Things to Remember about Plant Selection:

1. Record AMOUNT and SEVERITY ratings for each plant.

2. Do not skip plants with little or no injury.

3. Select the more exposed plants and avoid suppressed and shaded individuals.

4. Avoid plants under 12 inches in height.

5. Avoid trees too tall for you to see at least 1/2 of the crown.

6. Avoid repeat sampling of clonal material.

7. Use the Pop-Up menu to keep track of plant counts.

8. ZERO values (no injury) are important!

Symptom Identification And Scoring

The FIA bioindicator species are highly sensitive to ozone and show a distinct foliar injury response to ozone uptake.

Genetics and leaf age influence sensitivity.

Numerous site factors modify sensitivity.

Expect variation in plant response to ozone.

Only a small percentage of plants in any one area will show obvious symptoms.

Expect variation in plant response to ozone!

Same species - different cultivars.

ozone sensitive ozone resistant

DIAGNOSING OZONE INJURY

Check for the Following

1. Symptoms are typically visible as tiny pigmented spots on the upper leaf surface. Spots tend to be uniform in size and shape.

OZONE STIPPLE

close-up

2. Symptoms are more severe on mid-aged and older leaves.

3. Symptoms are generally confined to the upper leaf surface.

4. Symptoms generally occur between the leaf veins.

5. Check leaves covering each other. Overlapped leaves show no injury on the bottom leaf.

Leaflet remains green where overlap occurs.

6. Stippling may be associated with leaf yellowing or leaf drop.

Early in the season Late in the season

Black cherry crown: leaves injured by ozone dropped prematurely

Field examples of ozone injury. Note how the ozone stipple is more pronounced on the older foliage. The leaves with the most severe injury are chlorotic and may drop off prematurely.

Black cherry

Milkweed

Ozone injury is cumulative over the growing season.

Ozone Evaluation Window = late-July to mid-August

maximize ozone detection

Don’t Waste Time!

Record data. Collect a leaf sample. Mail it in for injury validation.

?

The Uncertainty Factor: In those cases where you are uncertain as to whether the injury symptoms are caused by ozone, record the symptoms as “ozone-like” and score the plants using standard procedures.

SCORING OZONE INJURYThirty individual plants of each species are rated for the percent of the plant that is injured and the average severity of injury on a 5-point scale.

Code Scale

0 No injury

1 1-6%

2 7-25%

3 26-50%

4 51-75%

5 >75%Ref.: Horsfall and Barratt. An improved grading system for measuring plant disease.

INJURY AMOUNT

Estimate and record the percentage of leaves on the plant with ozone injury symptoms relative to the total

number of leaves on the plant.

0 = No injury

1 = 1 to 6 % of the leaves have injury

2 = 7 to 25 % of leaves injured

3 = 26 to 50 % of leaves injured

4 = 51 to 75 % of leaves injured

5 = > 75 % of the leaves have ozone symptoms

Injury Amount - Percent Scale

The plant has 10 leaves. 6 of the 10 leaves are injured

Percent injured leaves = 60%

Record Code = 4 for Injury Amount

Code Scale

0 No injury

1 1-6%

2 7-25%

3 26-50%

4 51-75%

5 >75%

INJURY SEVERITY

Estimate and record the mean severity

of symptoms on the injured foliage.

0 = No injury. The plant has no leaves with ozone injury symptoms.

1 = On average, 1 to 6 % of the leaf area of the injured leaves have ozone symptoms.

2 = On average, 7 to 25 % of the leaf area of the injured leaves have ozone symptoms.

3 = On average, 26 to 50 % of the leaf area of the injured leaves have ozone symptoms.

4 = On average, 51 to 75 % of the leaf area of the injured leaves have ozone symptoms.

5 = On average, > 75 % of the leaf area of injured leaves have ozone symptoms.

Injury Severity - Percent Scale

The plant has 10 leaves but only 6 of the 10 leaves are injured. Estimate the average severity of injury on these 6 leaves.

Percent of the leaf area injured ranges from 5% to 45%.

Mean severity estimate = 20%

Record Code = 2 for Injury Severity

Code Scale

0 No injury

1 1-6%

2 7-25%

3 26-50%

4 51-75%

5 >75%

Things to remember about scoring ozone injury:

If a plant does not have injury, it is still tallied with zeros for injury amount and injury severity.

Blackberry and white ash have compound leaves. Use the whole leaf, not each leaflet, to estimate injury amount and injury severity.

Use the foliage on second year canes of blackberry only.

Recognition of ozone injury is NOT an exact science.

Stand so that you reduce glare on the leaf surface.

Long periods without rain will inhibit symptom development.

Do not take measurements in steady rain.

COMMUNICATE

COLLECTION OF LEAF SAMPLES AND VOUCHER DATA

A voucher leaf sample (pressed leaves with ozone injury symptoms) is collected for each injured species evaluated on the biomonitoring site. The voucher is returned to the regional expert for validation of the ozone injury symptom.

3 leaves = 1 voucher A plant press is essential

Collection of Leaf Samples

The most useful voucher shows obvious foliar injury symptoms.

Select 3 leaves from different plants, if possible.

Fill out the petiole leaf label.

Place the leaves into the plant press with NO overlap.

Complete the voucher data sheet before leaving the biosite.

State______ Cnty________ Species

O3HexNum_______________

O3PlotNum 1 - 2

Date ________2006

blk berry ylw poplar

blk cherry sweet gum

pin cherry sassafras

milkweed spdogbane

white ash blaster

State: 42 County: 13

O3HexNum: 4107814 O3PlotNum: 2

Date: 7/30/03 Species: 365

VOUCHER DATA SHEET

Record biosite ID information

Record leaf voucher information

Add notes as needed

Leaf Voucher

Leave the bottom half blank

Mail leaves and data sheet together

State Cnty O3HexNum O3PlotNum Month Day CrewID Crew Type

21 011 1021016 1 8 2 426 X regular

Record the Following Information:

Bioindicator Injury Injury Is the leaf sample injury 100% stippleSpecies Location Type or is some other injury also present?

365 2 1 Close to 100%

762 2 1 Close to 100% 60 Percent other 40

541 2 2 Close to 100% 20 Percent other 80

915 3 1 Close to 100%

Notes: Weather has been very dry. Pin cherry also on site with injury but less than 10 plants available. Check for more next year. All of the ash had the same symptom - may be early fall coloration.

Data Sheet for Voucher leaf Samples

The plants from which the leaf vouchers are selected are evaluated for INJURY LOCATION and INJURY TYPE, and for the amount of injury present on the selected leaf sample that is NOT ozone stipple.

INJURY LOCATION

1 = >50% of the injured leaves are younger

2 = >50% of the injured leaves are midaged or older

3 = injured leaves are all ages

INJURY TYPE

1 = the injury on >50% of the injured leaves is classic ozone stipple

2 = the injury on >50% of the injured leaves is other (e.g., general discoloration)

3 = the injury is varied or, otherwise, difficult to describe

About 20% of the injury on the leaf is due to insect feeding. This was not rated as ozone injury.

COMMUNICATEwith the person who will receive your leaf samples

Things to remember about leaf vouchers:

A voucher consists of THREE leaves.

Label the leaf voucher

Use the plant press or the leaf sample will be ruined

Species with compound leaves - send the whole leaf, not leaflets.

Complete the top half of the voucher data sheet

Do not tape, glue, or staple leaves to the data sheet.

Any ozone data that cannot be matched with a validated leaf voucher is deleted. The leaf voucher must be received by September 15 in good shape and properly labeled - not broken, not faded, not missing.

Some problematic Leaf Samples

These leaves were not pressed properly. They are broken, fragile, and very difficult to evaluate under the scope.

These leaves have lost all of their green color. It is difficult to determine if the stipple-like lesions are caused by ozone or some non-specific stress agent. Good leaf vouchers are green and healthy except for the visible ozone stipple.

The top leaf is undersized. Good leaf vouchers should be as close to normal leaf size as possible.

Supplemental Species

Not official bioindicator species.

Use as the 4th, 5th, or 6th species at a biosite.

DO NOT use to meet the requirement for 3 species per biosite.

Silver maple Boneset

Pawpaw Woodland sunflower

Swamp milkweed Wild plum

Trumpet creeper Winged sumac

Red bud Cup plant

Catalpa Iron weed

Nannyberry Spicebush

Greenbriar Wild grape

Use the Plot Notes Screen to record data on supplemental species.

FIELD GUIDE INFORMATION

1. Contact Information: National Advisor - Regional Advisor

2. All Plot Level Measurement Codes and Definitions

3. Appendix A: Key ID Characteristics of Bioindicator Species

4. Appendix B: All Field Data Sheets - Back-Up

5. Appendix C: Detail on Leaf Vouchers

6. Appendix D: Special Insert for Plain States

All field data are collected electronically!

TRAINING HANDOUTS

1. Training Handout on Leaf Vouchers

2. Site Ranking and Biosite Selection

3. List of Supplemental Species

4. QA Summary for Field Crews

5. Field Data Sheets

6. Debriefing Form

QA Activities:

1. Training and Certification

2. Remeasurement -10 per Region (Hot Audits)

3. Leaf Vouchers

4. Debriefing

Essential Equipment:

1. Plant Press

2. 10X Hand Lens

3. Reference Material (books, laminated leaf samples)

4. Hard copy data sheets, leaf labels, mailing envelopes

WE CAN LEARN ABOUT OUR ENVIRONMENT FROM PLANTS

Plants respond to environmental change.

We can learn about the condition of our environment by knowing how to read and interpret plant responses.

You and the FIA Biomonitoring Program are making an important contribution to our understanding of

air quality and forest health.

STAY INTERESTED - STAY CURIOUS HAVE FUN!

END