TRAINER assessment criteria and methodology · Partner: IAT C. Knoll, H. Widlroither Partner: FOERST K. Foerst Partner: AUTH E. Bekiaris Project Co-ordinator: Mr. Guido BATEN BIVV/CARA

TRAINER (GRD1-1999-10024) Deliverable No 5.1

F e b r u a r y 2002 1

COMPETITIVE AND SUSTAINABLE GROWTH

(GROWTH) PROGRAMME

TRAINER

System for driver Training and Assessment using Interactive Evaluation tools and Reliable methodologies

GRD1-1999-10024

Deliverable 5.1:

TRAINER assessment criteria and methodology

Delivery type: PU

Contract date: January 2002 Submission date: February 2002

Type: Final

Commission of the European Communities - Competitive And Sustainable Growth (GROWTH) Programme


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AUTHORS OF DELIVERABLE 5.1:

Partner: CARA D. Pirenne, P. Arno, G. Baten

Partner: IFADo S. Breker

CONTRIBUTORS:

Partner: IFADo S. Rothermel

Partner: IAT C. Knoll, H. Widlroither

Partner: FOERST K. Foerst

Partner: AUTH E. Bekiaris

Project Co-ordinator: Mr. Guido BATEN

BIVV/CARA

Haachtsesteenweg 1405, 1130 Brussels, BELGIUM

Tel: +32-2-244 15 50

Fax: +32-2-246 13 42

Email: [email protected]


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of figures and tables................................................................................ 5

Abbreviation list............................................................................................. 8

Executive Summary ....................................................................................... 9

1 Background .......................................................................................... 11

1.1 Needs for a new driving curriculum ................................................................................. 11 1.2 Characteristics of the young novice driver ....................................................................... 14

1.2.1 Experience-related factors .................................................................................... 14 1.2.2 Age-related factors ............................................................................................... 16

2 Guidelines for a new TRAINER-based curriculum.............................. 18

2.1 The European directive ..................................................................................................... 18 2.2 Current practices: presentation and analysis of four representative driving curricula from

Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden............................................................................... 20 2.2.1 Presentation of representative theoretical curricula used in Belgium, Greece,

Spain, and Sweden................................................................................................ 21 2.2.2 Presentation of representative practical curricula used in Belgium, Greece,

Spain, and Sweden................................................................................................ 25 2.2.3 Differences related to legislative aspects ............................................................. 27 2.2.4 Differences regarding duration and number of sessions ...................................... 28 2.2.5 Differences concerning content of sessions ......................................................... 29

2.2.5.1 Content of theoretical training sessions .................................................... 29 2.2.5.2 Content of practical training sessions ........................................................ 31

2.3 Guidelines for a new TRAINER-based curriculum: conclusions ..................................... 32 3 Towards a new TRAINER-based curriculum ...................................... 34

3.1 Multi-Media Tool methodology ....................................................................................... 35 3.1.1 Description of the Multi-Media tool..................................................................... 35 3.1.2 MMT Training design .......................................................................................... 38

3.1.2.1 Scenario list............................................................................................... 40 3.1.2.2 MMT training blocks ................................................................................ 40

3.1.3 MMT performance assessment : test mode.......................................................... 42 3.1.3.1 MMT Test block 1..................................................................................... 43 3.1.3.2 MMT Test block 2..................................................................................... 43 3.1.3.3 MMT Test block 3..................................................................................... 43 3.1.3.4 MMT Test block 4..................................................................................... 44

3.1.4 MMT performance criteria ................................................................................... 44 3.1.5 General structure of the MMT test mode scoring system.................................... 45

3.1.5.1 Expert judgements on MMT scenario importance as basis for a scoring system........................................................................................................ 46

3.1.5.2 TRAINER MMT test mode scoring system.............................................. 48 3.2 Simulator Methodology .................................................................................................... 49

3.2.1 Description ........................................................................................................... 49 3.2.1.1 Low cost simulator.................................................................................... 49 3.2.1.2 Mean cost simulator .................................................................................. 49


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3.2.1.3 Software .................................................................................................... 50 3.2.2 Simulator training design ..................................................................................... 51

3.2.2.1 Scenario list............................................................................................... 52 3.2.2.2 Simulator training blocks .......................................................................... 52

3.2.3 Simulator performance assessment: test mode ..................................................... 54 3.2.3.1 Simulator test block 1................................................................................ 55 3.2.3.2 Simulator test block 2................................................................................ 55 3.2.3.3 Simulator test block 3................................................................................ 55 3.2.3.4 Simulator test block 4................................................................................ 56

3.2.4 Simulator performance criteria development ....................................................... 56 3.2.4.1 Towards functionally valid indicators for good and bad driver

performance............................................................................................... 56 3.2.4.2 Toward a scoring system for the ‘test mode’ of the TRAINER simulator 66

4 The new TRAINER-based curriculum................................................. 70

4.1 TRAINER proposed curriculum for theoretical driver training ....................................... 70 4.2 TRAINER proposed curriculum for practical driver training........................................... 71 4.3 Adaptation to each pilot site ............................................................................................. 72

4.3.1 Belgium ................................................................................................................ 73 4.3.1.1 Belgian adapted theoretical curriculum..................................................... 73 4.3.1.2 Belgian adapted practical curriculum........................................................ 74

4.3.2 Greece ................................................................................................................... 75 4.3.2.1 Greek adapted theoretical curriculum ....................................................... 75 4.3.2.2 Greek adapted practical curriculum .......................................................... 76

4.3.3 Spain ..................................................................................................................... 77 4.3.3.1 Spanish adapted theoretical curriculum .................................................... 77 4.3.3.2 Spanish adapted practical curriculum ....................................................... 77

4.3.4 Sweden ................................................................................................................. 77 4.3.4.1 Swedish adapted theoretical and practical curriculum.............................. 77

5 Conclusions........................................................................................... 77

6 References............................................................................................. 77

Annex: the GADGET-matrix: Hierarchical levels of driving behaviour..... 77


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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1: Young novice driver injuries in Europe (1993, 1994, & 1995)....................... 11

Figure 2: Young novice driver fatalities in Europe (1993, 1994, & 1995)..................... 12

Figure 3: Structure of the MMT..................................................................................... 36

Figure 4: Scenarios already implemented on TRAINER MMT.................................... 37

Figure 5: Example for direct assessment of the user's performance within TRAINER MMT............................................................................................................... 37

Figure 6: Proposing scheme for the TRAINER MMT................................................... 38

Figure 7: 15 theoretical driving tests (from 15 countries): questions – correct answers ratio................................................................................................................. 46

Table 1: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Belgian driving school.............................................................................................................. 21

Table 2: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Greek driving school.. 22

Table 3: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Spanish driving school.............................................................................................................. 23

Table 4: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Swedish driving school.............................................................................................................. 24

Table 5: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Belgian driving school.. 25

Table 6: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Greek driving school.... 25

Table 7: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Spanish driving school.. 26

Table 8: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Swedish driving school. 27

Table 9: Training models for Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden............................. 28

Table 10: Scenario list of TRAINER MMT..................................................................... 40

Table 11: Block 1: Basic knowledge related scenarios of TRAINER MMT.................. 41

Table 12: Block 2: Manoeuvring and safety related scenarios of TRAINER MMT....... 41

Table 13: Block 3: Particular situations: special driver states related scenarios of TRAINER MMT................................................................................................................ 42

Table 14: Block 4: Particular situations: new technologies related scenarios of TRAINER MMT................................................................................................................ 42

Table 15: MMT test block 1............................................................................................ 43



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Table 19: MMT scenarios and performance criteria................................................................... 45

Table 20: MMT scnearios and mean weights............................................................................. 47

Table 21: Scenario list for TRAINER driving simulator................................................. 52

Table 22: Block 1 of TRAINER simulator scenarios: basic control............................... 52

Table 23: Block 2 of TRAINER simulator scenarios: manoeuvring and safety (divided attention).......................................................................................................... 53

Table 24: Block 3 of TRAINER simulator scenarios: manoeuvring and safety (hazard perception)....................................................................................................... 53

Table 25: Block 4 of TRAINER simulator scenarios: particular situations with higher risk................................................................................................................... 53

Table 26: Block 5 of TRAINER simulator scenarios: particular situations: new technology - personality aspect............................................................................................. 54

Table 27: TRAINER simulator test block 1.................................................................... 55




Table 31: Mean expert judgements on TRAINER simulator scenario weighting........... 67

Table 32: TRAINER-proposed curriculum for theoretical driver training...................... 71

Table 33: TRAINER-proposed curriculum for practical driver training......................... 72

Table 34: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Belgian driving school adapted to include use of TRAINER MMT.................................................... 73

Table 35: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Belgian driving school adapted to include use of TRAINER simulator............................................... 74

Table 36: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Greek driving school adapted to include use of TRAINER MMT.................................................... 75

Table 37: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Greek driving school adapted to include use of TRAINER simulator............................................................ 76

Table 38: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Spanish driving school adapted to include use of TRAINER MMT.................................................... 77

Table 39: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Spanish driving school adapted to include use of TRAINER simulator............................................... 78


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Table 40: Example of a driving curriculum used in a Swedish driving school adapted to include use of TRAINER tools........................................................................ 79

Table 41: TRAINER adaptation of the GADGET matrix............................................... 87


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ABBREVIATION LIST

ABS Anti lock brake system

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control

ADAS Advanced Driver Assistance Systems

GADGET Guarding Automobile Drivers through Guidance, Education and Technology

LCS Low Cost Simulator

MCS Mean Cost Simulator

MMT Multi-Media Tool

TRAINER System for Driver Training and Assessment Using Interactive Evaluation Tools and Reliable Methodologies


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Traffic accidents are the leading cause of death among young people in many European countries. Young drivers are significantly more represented in the number of fatalities in comparison with other age groups. Moreover, young drivers are much more likely to be responsible for the crashes in which they are involved in comparison with experienced drivers. The issue of young drivers, and especially young novice drivers, is thus critical in Europe and its comprehension is vital to understand the cause of their accidents.

To reduce the number of road accidents in general, measures can be taken on different levels such as improving road infrastructure, enhancing vehicle safety, or improving novice driver training. Regarding the issue of young novice drivers in particular, focusing on driver training is a promising approach. Young novice drivers have indeed some difficulties in performing particular driving tasks, but it must also be recognised that some discrepancies exist between what young novice drivers should learn during their training period and what is actually taught by existing training curricula. Traditional driving curricula in all European countries focus on passing driving exams, emphasising the operational aspects of the driving task, without paying significant attention to higher-level skills such as risk perception. It also seems that the deficits in current training curricula are partly a result of a negligence to take into account the specific characteristics of young novice drivers.

The higher accident probability of young novice drivers stems from two important and interrelated factors: a lack of driving experience and age-related personal factors. On the one hand, the acquisition of basic vehicle handling skills is relatively straightforward. Yet, perceptual and cognitive skills, such as learning to select important information, judging the relevance of incoming cues, and evaluating the information flow, are higher-order skills that seem to be more difficult to acquire, and take more time to get internalised. Not only these skills take time to develop but they require practice and experience as well. On the other hand, age-related factors, such as attitudes, motivations and social influences, also play a significant role in the overrepresentation of young novice drivers in road accidents. It seems that drivers with 'right' attitudes towards road safety have a statistically significant lower accident risk than drivers with 'wrong' attitudes and this is particularly true for young novice drivers. Different motives influence the way one drives: sensation seeking and aggressiveness are examples of motivations that can be the basis for risky tendencies of adolescents while driving. Finally, young drivers, and especially young male drivers, are more inclined to commit violations such as speeding, drink-driving and dangerous overtaking, just because they are more influenced by social pressure coming from friends and partners in comparison with older drivers.

Thus, it is really important to provide young novice drivers with training which is more adapted to their particular characteristics. The TRAINER project’s main objective is to


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improve young novice drivers’ road behaviour through a new training methodology. The aim of the new TRAINER methodology is to pay significant attention not only to the handling of the car, but also to the enhancement of higher-order skills such as risk awareness.

The new training concept includes the use of a Multi-Media Tool (MMT) and of low and/or a mean cost simulator (LCS and MCS). These tools are developed in order to improve novice driver training using new technologies. Special emphasis is placed on gaining insight in road hazards and complex traffic situations in simulated traffic environments. Thus, a new curriculum has been developed, taking into consideration the advantages and disadvantages of already existing methods of driver training. The new TRAINER methodology should be used by driving schools as an additional support to their currently existing curricula. By doing so, it is hypothesised that the new curriculum will fill the gaps in existing learner driver training programs.

This Deliverable describes the background and development of the new TRAINER methodology. It is divided into four parts. In the first part, the need for a new training curriculum is described. In the second part, guidelines for the new curriculum are given. It includes a review of European requirements for driving licences and the analysis of existing curricula in Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden where the new TRAINER methodology will be tested. The third part presents the TRAINER tools as well as the scenarios which have been developed. In addition, the grouping pattern of the scenarios is presented. In the final part, the new curriculum is presented and adapted to the specific national requirements of each pilot site.


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1 BACKGROUND

In the previous parts of the TRAINER project, existing training methodologies in Europe have been analysed (Groot et al., 2001) and opinions of experts (professional instructors) has been collected (CIECA and TRAINER driving school questionnaires, see D1.2). The specific driving situations which are problematic for young novice drivers have also been reviewed (Hoeschen and Bekiaris, 2001). The conclusions from this previous work put in evidence that some discrepencies exist between the real needs of young novice drivers and the way these needs are taken into consideration in existing training curricula. As an introduction of this TRAINER deliverable 5.1 related to the development of a new training and assessment methodology, the major findings of TRAINER deliverable D.2.1 (Inventory of driver needs and major gaps in the relevant training procedures) are stressed below.

1.1 Needs for a new driving curriculum

As explained in detail in chapter 5 of TRAINER D2.1, traffic accidents are the leading cause of death of young people in many European countries. Regarding the number of fatalities young drivers are significantly over-represented in comparison with other age groups. In addition, young drivers are much more likely than experienced drivers responsible for the crashes in which they are involved (Finn and Bragg, 1986). Figure 1 (below) displays the percentage of young novice driver injuries in several countries of the European Union aggregated over 1993, 1994 and 1995. From these figures it becomes apparent that on average 25% of the total number of injuries involve a young novice driver.

25,69

20,98

23,61

24,03

23,86

23,32

22,17

30,32

24,55

24,57

28,17

24,71

32,54

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

UK

Sweden

Spain

Portugal

Netherlands

Italy

Greece

Germany

France

Finland

Denmark

Belgium

Austria


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Figure 1: Young novice driver injuries in Europe (1993, 1994, & 1995). (Source: TRAINER D.2.1).

Figure 2 shows the percentage of young novice driver fatalities in the same countries. Displayed is the proportion of young novice driver fatalities relative to the total number of driver fatalities in 1993, 1994, and 1995. The mean percentage aggregated over all evaluated countries is 23%.

23,69

16,28

21,99

20,8

23,08

22,03

17,65

29,78

22,7

22,92

23,56

24,84

33,33

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

UK

Sweden

Spain

Portugal

Netherlands

Italy

Greece

Germany

France

Finland

Denmark

Belgium

Austria

Figure 2: Young novice driver fatalities in Europe (1993, 1994, & 1995). (Source: TRAINER D2.1).

Though young novice drivers represent only a minority of all drivers, they are involved in nearly a quarter of the total injuries and fatalities. In spite of large differences between national accident statistics, the issue of young novice drivers thus remains critical throughout the European Union.

Facing such a problem, it is vital to understand the cause of the overrepresentation of young novice drivers in accidents. It is true that novice drivers have some difficulties in performing particular driving tasks (see TRAINER Deliverable 2.1 for an exhaustive list of the various situations where novice drivers have specific difficulties). However, it must also be recognised that some discrepancies exist between what young novice drivers should learn during their training period and what is actually taught by existing training curricula.

Situations in which novice drivers encounter particular difficulties concern all levels of the Gadget-matrix (Hatakka et al., 1999):

At the first level (vehicle manoeuvring), it is evident that basic vehicle-control tasks are part of every driver training. On the other hand perceptual skills, which are important for all vehicle control and manoeuvr ing tasks, are apparently not trained in a systematical way. For example, novice drivers should be aware that certain factors (e.g. listening to music) may influence estimations they make during driving about distances, speed and other factors. Also,


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the appropriate use of new car control aids (ABS, ACC, etc.) is often missing in common driver trainings. Trainees should be taught to cope with these new devices in order to learn to adapt their behaviour accordingly.

At the second level (mastery of traffic situations), several situations seem to be particularly difficult for novice drivers, which should be emphasised during the training. For example, tailgating situations may be a problem for novice drivers. When they want to perform a braking manoeuvre in time, chosen distances are often too small. The trainees should thus learn or better experience the relationship between reaction distance, braking distance and total stopping distance. As overtaking situations also pose difficulties to novice drivers, trainees should be trained to perform this manoeuvre at varying speeds in order to experience subsequent perceptual changes.

In situations requiring to enter and leave traffic or change lanes, young novice drivers tend to underestimate the time needed by another vehicle to reach them. Safe distance estimation skills should thus be trained specifically.

In situations requiring visual scanning, novice drivers do not make use of their peripheral vision and, as a consequence, they perform poorly in detecting distant cues and hazards, especially when they have to negotiate intersections, junctions, roundabouts, to turn off/ turn over, or when they have to react to traffic signs and traffic lights. The consequences of such accident-prone behaviours are overspeeding, running a red light, entering a one-way road in the wrong direction, and not stopping at a stop sign. Thus anticipating skills and hazard perception should be trained specifically.

Regarding negotiating hills, slopes or curves, although these are partially trained in existing driving curricula, the trainees’ awareness of the probability of unexpected events in such situations can still be increased.

Young novice drivers should also learn to a greater extent that they have to adapt their driving as a function of several factors, such as road or weather conditions. They indeed have the tendency to drive in the same way whatever the conditions are. Training should focus on avoiding to be involved in difficult situations at all more than on the way to react in such situations. Due to a weak ability to perceive risks and to detect hazards, often coupled with overconfidence into the own skills, the young novice drivers’ driving style is often risky. Novice drivers should experience the consequences of risky driving in simulated conditions in order to reduce their motivation to risk their life and the life of other road users.

At the third level (driving goals and context), some gaps in existing driver trainings can account for the difficulties novice drivers experience in certain circumstances. As the determination of trip goals, route and modal choice influences the actual driving performance,


F e b r u a r y 2002 14

the importance of preparing a trip in advance should be highlighted during the training of novice drivers.

Young novice drivers are not sufficiently aware that the risk level is associated with personal states like stress, mood, or fatigue. Drivers should know that, under certain circumstances, they are not able to drive safely at all. Novice drivers should be taught that some personal motives work against safe driving, such as to show off, seek sensation, or competing and testing the limits.

At the fourth level (goals for life and skills for living), certain attributes of young people may partly be the cause of their involvement in an accident. During their training, novice drivers should be made aware that certain factors as lifestyle, social background, gender, age and other individual preconditions have an influence on driving behaviour, and consequently on their accident involvement. In order to train young novice drivers to become safe drivers, the training should thus act not only on the operational level, but also on the behavioural level. Sensation seeking, social pressure, alcohol and drug abuse increase the risk of accident involvement. These topics should therefore receive particular attention during driver training.

1.2 Characteristics of the young novice driver

The review of the results of the TRAINER D2.1 highlights weak points and deficits in existing driving curricula. Gaps in training are comparable across Europe. Thus, there is a real need to improve training of young novice drivers.

It seems that these deficits in current training curricula are a result of a negligence to take into account the specific characteristics of young novice drivers.

As mentioned before (see TRAINER D2.1), the higher accident probability of young novice drivers stems from two important and interrelated factors: a lack of driving experience and age-related personal factors. The acquisition of basic vehicle handling skills, which is important but not enough for driving safely, is relatively straightforward. Yet, perceptual and cognitive skills seem to be more difficult to acquire, and these higher-order skills take more time to get internalised. Indeed, learning to select important information, judging the relevance of incoming cues, and evaluating the information flow are skills that take not only time to develop but require practice and experience as well. As long as young novice drivers encounter only simple and predictable situations, they can easily master them. But when less frequent hazardous situations occur, young novice drivers often do not have sufficient experience.

1.2.1 Experience-related factors


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Hazard perception seems to pose a particular problem for novice drivers. It appears that young novice drivers perceive less holistically and detect hazards less quickly and efficiently when gathering information, possibly due to less efficient visual strategies. This crucial skill will be treated with emphasis in the new TRAINER-based curriculum using both the MMT and the simulator. The scenarios that have been designed to train this topic deal with unpredictable situations. In the simulator, the scenarios designed deal with hazard perception in a simulated driving environment. To train such visual strategies the MCS will be probably more efficient than the LCS because its visual field is larger (120° vs. 40°).

Risk perception refers to the subjective experience of risk in potentially hazardous situations. Young novice drivers perceive relatively low levels of risk in specific driving situations when compared to experienced drivers. It is therefore important to treat this topic in the new TRAINER curriculum by showing the negative consequences of seemingly riskless situations. Scenarios for MMT and simulator have been designed to enhance young novice drivers awareness in dangerous situations.

Regarding risk acceptance, studies generally tend to show that novice drivers are more likely to adopt a riskier driving style than experienced drivers (Elander, West & French, 1993), which would mean either that young novice drivers are willing to accept higher levels of risk, or that they have greater difficulties to perceive risks to their full extent (Deery, 1999). Age-related factors contribute as well. Personality traits like sensation seeking, impulsiveness, or adoption of a risky lifestyle are all more prevalent among young people. Both the overestimation of their own driving skills and the underestimation of the probability to encounter negative events are factors underlying higher risk acceptance. In order to treat this specific matter in the new TRAINER-based curriculum, MMT as well as simulator scenarios have been designed to confront young novice drivers with potentially dangerous situations.

Experience is a very important factor in tasks requiring to divide one’s attention. The quantity and the type of processing resources that are available influence the way a task is performed. With increasing automatisation, car control becomes easier and less demanding, setting attentional resources free for higher- level cognitive tasks. Clinical data have shown that divided attention is trainable (Ponsford, 1990). Therefore scenarios dealing with divided attention tasks have been included in the new TRAINER curriculum. These scenarios are typical dual-task situations.

Visual scanning strategies of young novice drivers display a smaller range of horizontal scanning of the surroundings and are characterised by closer looks in front of the vehicle; less frequent mirror and object checks; less efficient use of peripheral vision; and fewer object fixations. If the focus of attention is more or less directed away from hazardous aspects of the driving task, then the driver is more susceptible to become involved in an accident. The problem may come from the inability of inexperienced drivers to perform several tasks simultaneously. They focus their attention on the most demanding subtask so that they fail to


F e b r u a r y 2002 16

notice other relevant aspects of the traffic environment. This topic will be specifically treated in the new curriculum using simulator scenarios.

An accurate assessment of one’s own driving skills is obviously very important. The reported overestimation of driving skills is a factor also mentioned to explain the higher percentage of accidents in young novice drivers. According to McKenna (1998) novice English drivers succeeding their driving exam automatically think that they are proficient drivers. On the other hand, the underestimation of one's own driving skill can lead to unnecessary careful behaviour which may endanger other road users, for example by drastically slowing down far before an highway exit. This topic will be tackled in various MMT and simulator scenarios. Through negative feedback after bad performance, the trainee shall become aware of his/her factual driving skills. According to Keskinen et al. (1999) self-evaluation and more effective feedback methods must be an important teaching method already in the first phases of training.

Calibration refers to the extent a person is capable of matching his or her performance with the demands of the task at hand. For example, when a driver approaches a junction he or she has to increase invested efforts since more aspects have to be attended to at the same time. Though there are no specific scenarios developed to train this particular topic, the use of the simulator can nevertheless be generally useful to improve calibration, because the trainee gets accurate performance feedback after each completed driving task.

1.2.2 Age-related factors

Age-related factors play a significant role as well in the overrepresentation of young novice drivers in road accidents. Unfortunately, some types of young novice drivers take unreasonable risks. Age, experience and stress are factors difficult to untangle. Accident involvement is initially high in all age groups and decreases during the first few years. However, according to Maycock, Lockwood and Lester (1991), the initial level of risk is reduced with higher licensing age (probably until a certain age, i.e. elderly people who start driving training have again a higher initial level of risk). The initial risk during the first few years decreases by 59% due to experience and 31% due to other age factors. Age-related factors are especially important among young male drivers.

Attitudes, motivations and social influences are among the most cited age-related factors to explain the higher involvement of young drivers in accidents.

Some literature exists (e.g. West and Hall, 1997) on the relationship between attitudes and accident involvement. In general, drivers with 'right' attitudes towards road safety have a statistically significant lower accident risk than drivers with 'wrong' attitudes. This is particularly true for young novice drivers. This topic must be discussed between the trainee and the instructor in order to make the trainee aware of this fact.


F e b r u a r y 2002 17

Different motives influence the way one drives. e.g., sensation seeking and aggressiveness are motivations that can be the basis for risky tendencies of adolescents while driving. While this matter is not sufficiently taken into consideration in existing driving curricula, simulator scenarios, treating this matter will be included in the new TRAINER curriculum. These scenarios have been created to show the influence of dangerous motives.

As young people, and especially young male people, are more influenced than older people by social pressure coming from friends and partners, young novice drivers are more inclined to commit violations like speeding, drink-driving and dangerous overtaking. Though it is not possible to specifically train this topic, information about the risks of social pressure will be provided in the new TRAINER curriculum.

In summary, it is important to provide novice drivers with training more adapted to their particular characteristics. By acting at that level, the new methodology pays significant attention not only to the handling of the car, but also to the enhancement of higher-order skills like risk awareness. Doing that, it is hypothesised that the new curriculum will fill the gaps in existing learner driver training programs. The new TRAINER methodology should be used by driving schools as an additional support to their currently existing curricula.


F e b r u a r y 2002 18

2 GUIDELINES FOR A NEW TRAINER-BASED CURRICULUM

Several points have to be taken into account for the composition of the new curriculum. First of all, a driving curriculum must allow trainees to pass the actual theoretical and practical driving tests. European requirements regarding driving licences are consequently the minimum criteria to be reached at the end of the curriculum. But it has to be emphasised that the acquisition of a driving licence does not guarantee in itself that one indeed drives safely. Thus, a new methodology must allow trainees on the one hand to pass the driving exams but must on the other hand also fill the gaps in current driver training.

The European requirements regarding driving tests are briefly reviewed here since all points are relevant for the new TRAINER-based curriculum. Then, current practices will be analysed and a comparison will be made between Belgian, Greek, Swedish and Spanish curricula, in order to propose one common curriculum for all TRAINER pilot test sites.

2.1 The European directive

According to the European directive published in 1991 (91/439/CE) and updated in 2000 (2000/56/CE), member states have to take measures to ensure that applicants for driving licences possess sufficient knowledge and skills, and exhibit behaviour appropriate for driving a motor vehicle. Thus, each European country has to organize both tests, theoretical and practical.

Concerning the theoretical test, applicants must know the list of items given below. Form and content of questions are left to each member state. Content of the theory test concerns categories B, B1 and B+E, other vehicle categories having supplementary requirements. The items to be known are:

- Road traffic regulations. - Alertness and attitude towards other road users. - Perception, judgement, decision-taking, reaction time as well as changes in driving

behaviour due to the influence of alcohol, drugs medicine, and fatigue. - Principles of a safe distance between vehicles, braking distance and road holding

under various weather and road conditions. - Driving risk factor related to various road conditions. - Characteristics of various types of road. - Specific risk related to the lack of experience of other road users. - General rules specifying how the driver must behave in the event of an accident. - Safety factors related to the vehicle, the load and persons carried. - Precautions necessary when alighting from the vehicle.


F e b r u a r y 2002 19

- Mechanical aspects of road safety. - Vehicle safety equipment and the use of safety-belts and head restrains - Rules regarding vehicle use in relation to the environment.

Regarding skills and behaviours to be checked during practical test, the list encompasses the following (skills only concern categories B, B1 and B+E):

- Sitting position. - Adjusting rear-view mirrors, seat belts and head restrains. - Checking that the doors are closed. - Checking: tyres, brakes, steering, lights, reflectors, direction indicators, audible

warning device. - Checking the safety factors related to vehicle loading. - Checking the coupling mechanism and the brake and electrical connections. - Executing at least two of the four following manoeuvres:

o reversing (straight, left or right); o turning in the opposite way; o parking and leaving a parking space; o braking.

- Performing some actions in normal traffic situations, in complete safety and taking all necessary precautions, such as:

o driving away after parking, or after stopping in traffic; o driving on straight roads, passing oncoming vehicles; o driving a round bends; o crossroads: approaching and crossing of intersections and junctions; o changing directions, left and right turns; changing lanes ; o approach/exit of motorways or similar roads; o overtaking/passing; o special road features handling: roundabouts, railways level crossing; o taking the necessary precautions when getting of the vehicle.

Generally all the above-mentioned items are part of any driving training curriculum. Referring to the GADGET-matrix (Hatakka et al., 1999), one can see that most of those items concern the operational and tactical levels of driving. Yet, as already reported in the scientific literature (see TRAINER Deliverable D2.1) and by driving experts (see results of the CIECA and EFA questionnaire in TRAINER D1.2), fulfilling the requirements of driving tests does not mean per se being a safe driver. Traditional driving curricula in all European countries focus on passing driving exams, without paying significant attention to higher- level skills like risk perception. Most of the time young novice drivers wrongly believe they are proficient drivers just because they passed the driving test, regarding the licence itself as a proficiency standard (Mc Kenna, 1998).


F e b r u a r y 2002 20

2.2 Current practices: presentation and analysis of four representative driving curricula from Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden

As evaluation experiments will be carried out in Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden (citer le futur TRAINER deliv.), one driving curriculum from a given national driving school is analysed, and all four curricula are compared to each other. The curricula are those designed to provide training in driving a car (category B)1.

Generally each driving school has designed its own driving curriculum. Given the number of existing curricula, only one curriculum has been considered per country. Differences between curricula within countries are indeed small.

Curricula analysed here are presented in different tables. In total, four tables for the theoretical curricula and four tables for the practical curricula are presented for each country. Content of sessions is briefly described. Comparing those curricula session by session is neither possible nor useful. Thus, each curriculum has been arbitrarily divided into three parts, corresponding to a beginning, a middle, and a final phase of learning. This allows to compare the three separated parts across the four countries.

Tables 1 to 4 present the Belgian, Greek, Spanish, and Swedish theoretical curricula. Tables 4 to 8 represent the Belgian, Greek, Spanish, and Swedish practical curricula.

While considering the results of the comparison between the selected curricula, it is important to keep in mind that there are already legislative discrepancies between countries. Those aspects are thus first briefly presented. On it, readers can find more details in TRAINER Deliverable 1.2. Other differences or commonalties between the curricula concern the total duration of training, the number and the duration of sessions. They constitute the second part of this presentation. Then, we present extensively the individual sessions’ content, which is the most informative part for designing a new curriculum. The comparison is made by referring to the Gadget-Matrix levels (Hatakka et al., 1999).

1 Those curricula take into account requirements of the older directive 91/439. The new directive 2000/56 was not yet existing when they were designed.


F e b r u a r y 2002 21

2.2.1 Presentation of representative theoretical curricula used in Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden

Nr Belgium

12 sessions of 60 minutes

1 How to get a driving licence Techniques and principles of defensive driving Accidents (what, types, consequences)

2 Types of license (validity) Special states (alcohol, drugs, medicines, stress, fatigue,…) Highway code Traffic rules

begi

nnin

g pa

rt

3 Speed (what is speed, following distance, limits, …) Braking techniques Priorities

4 Manoeuvres Road crossings Crossing Overtaking (what is overtaking, when, how) Changing direction (what, when, how)

5 Particular situations: - Highway - Motorway - Residential area - Speed ramp - Zone 30

6 Waiting and parking (rules, signs and defensive aspects)

7 Traffic lights Use of the horn Safety belt and child protection

8 Behaviour towards other road users

mid

dle

part

9 Risks (passengers, load, caravans,...) Breakdown (precautions) Accident with physical injury (first aid) Accident with material damage

10 Traffic signs

11 Road markings

12 Heavy penalties Technical requirements (brakes, tyres, windscreen, car documents...)

final

par

t

Table 1: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Belgian driving school.


F e b r u a r y 2002 22

Nr Greece


1 Acquaintance with the car (driving instruments)

2 Acquaintance with the car

Traffic signs, traffic lights, road signs, road crossing, priorities...

begi

nnin

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rt

3 Speed limits, safety distance, braking distance, stopping distance, vehicle positioning on the road.

4 Stop and parking on the road (traffic signs) Oncoming traffic Overtaking Driving in curves

5 Handling other road participants Handling road maps and definition of road Traffic signs in Highway - Motorway Highway driving Preparation of driver for longer trips

6 Driving under reduced visibility Driving under reduced friction Driving on rural roads Fatigue and hypovigilance

7 Behaviour in case of an accident Car insurance

8 Car maintenance Active and passive safety Economy driving Emergency situations (car malfunction)

mid

dle

part

9 Car documents Driving license categories Penalties Mechanical issues of cars Special rules for facilitation the transportation of people with special needs

10 Repetition (as needed, depending on trainees gaps)



final

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t

13 Repetition

Table 2: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Greek driving school.


F e b r u a r y 2002 23

Spain


Basic concepts

Administrative requirements to drive a car

Factors which decrease the driver ability

Communication to other users

begi

nnin

g pa

rt

Drive controls and adjustments of the vehicle. Visibility: Transparent elements of the car. Light systems and optical signalling. Other systems and signalling devices on vehicle. Number plates, signs and distinctive on vehicles. Tyre and adherence; brakes; passive safety.

The road: fundamental notions; general rules about traffic signs; road marks; vertical signs; traffic lights; road work signs; signs and commands of police traffic.

Normal Progression. Traffic Direction. Placement on the Road. Lane uses.; Speed. Traffic Incorporation and Lateral Displacements. Overtaking. Intersections. Train passing and drawbridge. Direction Change. Reverse. stopping, stop and parking. Car immobilization by Traffic Police. Road Dangers: their signalling. Highway and main roads driving. Night and bad conditions with decreased visibility driving.

Transport of people and vehicle load issues.

Special Vehicles and integration with them.

mid

dle

part

Traffic Accident Factors. What to do in an accident.

Vehicle mechanics; accessories, spares and tools. Periodic inspections.

Economical Driving, the Environment and Environmental Pollution.

Fin

al p

art

Preparation and Travel Planning.

Table 3: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Spanish driving school (the precise content of each session is unavailable, this table gives an idea of the topic order inside the theoretical curriculum).


F e b r u a r y 2002 24

Sweden

35 sessions of 40 minutes Vehicle knowledge To provide knowledge about vehicle construction and maintenance and to enlighten the environmental and economical factors that are related to road traffic. (function and maintenance of engine, electrical system, steering, brakes, wheels/tyres, 2-/4- wheel drive; how load the car; influence of trailer on driving; fuel consumption; pollution) Relevant Practical training Traffic rules To provide knowledge about the traffic rules, which is a necessary precondition for cooperation between road users. (the learner is expected to know all traffic rules).

begi

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rt

Relevant Practical training Unexpected situations in traffic Provide larger risk awareness through knowledge about the risks that are present in the traffic. To show hidden hazards and provide awareness of small safety margins. (typical accidents, accident development and distributions, accident causes, consequences, and countermeasures). Relevant Practical training Human limitations Provide better self-assessment through knowledge about human limitations, overestimation and by pointing out that a good driver is recognised by personal maturity and respect towards other people. (Prediction, rules, moral, human capacity, interpretation, decision making, locomotion, maturity, personality, social aspects, disabilities, fatigue, alcohol, drugs, learning principles.)

mid

dle

part

Relevant Practical training Others aspects and application of certain regulations Provide knowledge about rules and driving in certain environments such as city traffic, rural roads, driving in darkness, low friction. Provide knowledge about important regulations concerning load, driving license and violations. (stopping distance, special rules and demands for driving in cities, motorways, highways. Shifting beams, visibility darkness, risks and demands for driving in low friction, winter equipment, winter tyres. License regulations, rules for practising, mandatory car controls, control sticker. Passengers and load, safety belts, use of trailers. Measures at accident site, first aid. Responsibility rules in traffic. Insurance, car registration…)

final

par

t

Relevant Practical training Table 4: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Swedish driving school (the precise

content of each session is unavailable, this table gives an idea of the topic order inside the theoretical curriculum).


F e b r u a r y 2002 25

2.2.2 Presentation of representative practical curricula used in Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden

Nr Belgium

10 sessions of 120 minutes (total duration: 20 hours)

1 Security (go in and go out the car, rear view mirror, safety belt,...) Driving instruments (steering, starting, clutch, handling the gear box,..)

2 In the traffic (positioning on the road, visual scanning, curves, crossroads,...) Crossing (speed, direction, priorities,...)

3 Changing direction (speed, priorities, left or right turn...) Overtaking (visual techniques, …)

4 Highway (positioning on the road, changing lanes, speed,...) On the training ground (manoeuvres) In the traffic (parking, turning...)

5 In the traffic (defensive driving, visual scanning, signs...)

6 Crossing (defensive driving, visual scanning, signs,...) Changing direction (defensive driving, visual scanning, left or right turn,...)

7 Overtaking + manoeuvres (defensive driving, visual scanning, positioning,...)

8 Recapitulation + Manoeuvres

9 Traffic notions (taking a decision...) Attitudes (concentration and attention, emotion, social driving)

10 Recapitulation and Synthesis

Table 5: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Belgian driving school.

Nr Greece

10 sessions of 120 minutes (total duration: 20 hours)

1 Acquaintance with the car Driving in easy conditions

2 Driving towards a city peripheral road

3 Driving in urban areas

4 Driving in urban areas Reverse driving

5 Driving in urban areas Reverse driving

6 Parking in the right side Reverse driving

7 Parking in the left side Reverse driving

8 Parking Reverse driving

9 Repetition (as needed by each trainee)

10 Repetition (as needed by each trainee)

Table 6: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Greek driving school.


F e b r u a r y 2002 26

Spain 30 sessions of minimum 45 minutes (total duration: +/- 25 hours)

Learning with the vehicle stopped: Previous Checking. Vehicle Verification (To be performed everyday; to be performed periodically; other things that the trainee has to know about the car) Before starting the vehicle engine (Adjustments and Regulations. Finding and knowledge of use of vehicle controls; Start and stop the vehicle engine). Driving Learning: Acquisition of the driving basic automatisms First step: Exercises to start to handle the vehicle controls Driving Learning: Acquisition of the driving basic automatisms Second step: Exercises to complete the acquisition of the basic automatisms Driving Learning: Improving and domain of the vehicle control handling Exercises to obtain the improving of the gearshift handling Exercises to obtain the improving of the steering wheel handling Exercises to obtain the improving of the clutch handling Exercises to obtain the improving of the brakes handling Exercises to obtain the domain of the vehicle in reverse Learning with Traffic Situations Training and practice with traffic in a normal progression and basic traffic manoeuvres (Normal progression. Incorporation to the traffic. Lateral displacement and lane changing. Stopping and parking. Overtaking. Intersections. Negotiation Direction change). Learning with Traffic Situations: Driving adaptation of the vehicle to special and/or particular conditions (Highway and main roads driving. Urban driving. Saturated roads. Adverse environmental conditions driving. Night driving. Driving on a hill).

Table 7: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Spanish driving school (the precise content of each session is unavailable, this table gives an idea of the topic order inside the practical curriculum).


F e b r u a r y 2002 27

Sweden 35 sessions of 40 minutes (total duration: 25 hours)

Relevant Theoretical learning The vehicle Provide skills in detecting errors and wear, to repair minor errors, and to load the car in a safe way. (Perform controls and detect errors on steering, brakes, wheels, tyres, lights, electrical system, exhaust system. Change bulbs, fuses, wipers and wheels. Check fuel, oil, brake fluid, battery fluid, cooling fluid etc. Perform safety control. Load the car safely). Relevant Theoretical learning Manoeuvring Provide a high level of skills concerning choice of measure, co-ordination, quickness and carefulness concerning manoeuvring of the car. (Posture, controls, mirrors, safety belts, start, stop, slow driving, steering, precision driving, reversing, start in sloops, gear shift, braking, turning, parking, co-ordination of tasks). Relevant Theoretical learning Driving in traffic (defensive driving) Provide such knowledge, skills and attitudes that the learner reaches a clear willingness for carefulness and consideration towards other road users. Use and realise the advantages with a defensive driving style and chose the correct speed in different traffic situations. (Starting from the road side, positioning, speed choice, meeting, platoons, lane shifting, car following, parallel driving, junctions, roundabouts, one-way streets, zebra crossings, bicycle paths, turning, stopping, parking, overtaking, motorways and highways, railway crossings, road works, unprotected road users, animals, emergency vehicles, attention, risk awareness). Theoretical learning Driving in special conditions Provide knowledge, skills and attitudes concerning driving in low visibility, darkness and low friction. (Fog, rain, snow, darkness, low friction). Theoretical learning Skid course (4 hours)

Table 8: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Swedish driving school (the precise content of each session is unavailable, this table gives an idea of the topic order inside the practical curriculum).

2.2.3 Differences related to legislative aspects

Across Europe, the training of young novice drivers is organised in very different ways (Groot et al., 2001). The obligation to follow driving courses or not, whether for theoretical or practical training, at a driving school is one of the big differences between Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden. In Belgium, Spain, and Sweden theoretical and practical training with a non-professional supervisor is possible, without the involvement of a driving school (see model 5 in table 9). The trainees also have the possibility for mixed training. They can follow some courses (both theoretical and practical) in a driving school and then continue learning (see model 2). On the other hand in Greece, the trainees are required to follow both theoretical and practical training in an approved driving school (see model 1). Finally in Belgium, the trainees have the possibility to follow theory and practical training at a driving school, followed by an internship of a minimum of 3 months and a maximum of 12 months2 (see

2 Depending on the number of lessons followed in the driving school, the internship lasts between 3 and 12 months (more lessons means less internship) (see Deliverable D1.2).


F e b r u a r y 2002 28

model 6). In this system, the trainees are allowed to drive alone during their internship. This internship is dedicated to the acquisition of road experience. Below follows is a recapitulative table of the legislative aspects of driver training and driver licensing in Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden.

Country Training model 1 Training model 2 Training model 5 Training model 6

Belgium X X

Greece X

Spain X X

Sweden X X Table 9: Training models used in Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden (table adapted from TRAINER

Deliverable D1.2)3.

- Model 1: Theory and practical training at a driving school is compulsory. - Model 2: Theory and practical training possible at a driving school, without

obligations. - Model 5: Training with a non-professional supervisor, without the involvement of a

driving school. - Model 6: Training at a driving school or with a non-professional supervisor,

followed by a non-accompanied internship. The four curricula presented refer to models 6, 1, 2, and 2 respectively. The Swedish curriculum presented here is particular because theoretical and practical training is integrated, so that each theory lesson is systematically followed by a practical session. In the other three countries this is not the case. Trainees must firstly complete their theoretical training and pass the theoretical exam. Then they can start practical training.

2.2.4 Differences regarding duration and number of sessions

Another point concerns the duration of individual learning sessions. For the theoretical learning, the session duration varies between countries, and is 60, 90, 60, and 40 minutes in Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden, respectively. The number of sessions is approximately the same for Belgium (12) and Greece (13), but clearly superior for Spain (25) and especially for Sweden (35). Total learning duration in Belgium is 12 hours, in Greece it is 20 hours, and +/- 25 hours in Spain and Sweden.

3 All other training models existing in Europe are presented in detail in TRAINER D1.2. Here, only these four training mo dels are presented because that are the four training models existing in the four studied countries.


F e b r u a r y 2002 29

For the practical training, again the duration of individual sessions varies between these four countries, and is 120, 120, 45, 40 for Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden, respectively. Concerning the number of practical sessions, there is also a marked difference between on the one hand Belgium (10) and Greece (10) and on the other hand Spain (30) and Sweden (35). But in total, complete duration training is more or less similar between the four countries since it is 20 hours for Belgium and Greece and it gives a total of 25 hours for Spain and Sweden.

2.2.5 Differences concerning content of sessions

As already mentioned, the analysis of the content of sessions is based on the GADGET-matrix. The matrix is briefly described in annex 1.

2.2.5.1 Content of theoretical training sessions

Generally, any training process follows a logical order, going from the most simple to the most complex situations. Regarding the four theoretical curricula analysed and presented here, this logical order is more or less respected. Nevertheless, this does not necessarily mean that the progression of learning corresponds to the progression inside the GADGET-Matrix. Indeed, the four levels of the Matrix are not difficulty levels since motivation and allocation of attention are present at each level and depend on the driving task. The matrix is used to describe the competences a driver needs in order to become a safe driver. The idea behind a hierarchical approach is that failure as well as success on higher levels affects the demands on skills on lower levels. For example, if the motivational level fails to produce a safe strategy for driving, no level of skills in mastering traffic situations or vehicle handling is high enough to compensate for this lack of safety orientation and to produce a safe output (Hatakka et al., 1999).

Differences related to the session content that can be observed between the four curricula concern the moment the different levels of the Matrix are approached. In Belgium for example, topics related to the four th level are already tackled at the beginning of learning while in the other pilot sites, this level is part of later sessions. Thus the four curricula do not follow the same progression inside the GADGET-matrix. The main point is not the order in which the GADGET-matrix levels are taught but that all levels in the hierarchy have to be dealt with in driver education. If any part of the hierarchy is missing, the view of the driver’s task is not complete, which has effects on the educational goals and the learning exercise, both during training and afterwards (Hatakka et al., 1999).

An analysis of each part of the theoretical training is done in order to check that all the levels are taught in the existing curricula.


F e b r u a r y 2002 30

2.2.5.1.1 Beginning part of theoretical learning

In Belgium, the beginning of the learning focuses on training defensive driving techniques and principles. Risks related to the effects of alcohol, drugs, medicines, and risks related to fatigue or hypovigilance are also explained in this part. At the end of the first part, in general, the driving code is taught and applied by means of exercises (traffic rules related to security, speed limits, priorities,...). In this part, some braking techniques are explained as well. In Greece, this part essentially focuses on the acquaintance with the car instruments and on the basic traffic rules (lights, signs), as well as in Sweden. In Spain, it is dedicated to basic concepts, regarding the driver status and behaviour, and the vehicle parts.

In summary, the first part in Greece and Sweden concerns the two first levels of the GADGET-matrix (vehicle manoeuvring, mastering traffic situations). In Belgium, the three higher levels of the GADGET matrix are already included in the beginning. The Spanish trainees receive sessions about the first and the third levels of the GADGET-matrix.

2.2.5.1.2 Middle part of theoretical learning

In this part, Belgian and Greek trainees learn to manoeuvre in traffic (overtaking, road crossing, changing direction, parking, types of road, traffic rules related to different types of road, behaviour with the others road users and the reactions in accident situations). Defensive driving is learned at this stage by Greek and Swedish trainees. Driving under special conditions, like reduced visibility or friction is taught to trainees in Greece, but not in Belgium. In Sweden, this part introduces topics such as unexpected situations in traffic, human limitations, special driver states. In Spain, topics constituting the second part deal with manoeuvring, driving under special conditions, information about accidents.

In summary, in Belgium, Greece, and Spain, the three lowest levels of the GADGET-matrix are included in the middle part. In the Swedish curriculum this part is more related to the two highest levels of the matrix.

2.2.5.1.3 Final part of theoretical learning

In Belgium traffic rules, technical requirements for a safe driving and heavy penalties are taught during this last part. In Sweden the final part of training is used for special rules, security and special conditions. Some elements of mechanics, economical driving, and preparations to travel are the three last topics taught in the Spanish curriculum.

The aim of the Greek curriculum during this stage is to repeat important topics and conclude theoretical learning. In the Belgian curriculum, learning continues with new topics corresponding to the second level. In Sweden, this part teaches aspects of the second and third levels of the GADGET-matrix. In Spain, the theoretical course is concluded with the two higher levels of the GADGET-matrix.


F e b r u a r y 2002 31

2.2.5.1.4 Conclusion regarding the content of theoretical learning

Only few major differences can be seen between the four curricula. The sessions’ content is quite comparable, and all GADGET-Matrix levels are tackled. Differences concern the number of sessions, the session duration and the sequencing of the sessions. With regard to this last point, two different methods can be distinguished. On the one hand, sequencing starts with most important elements and ends with rather basic traffic rules. This is the case in Belgium. On the other hand, sequencing shows a progression following the GADGET-matrix starting with topics related to basic car control and ending with topics related to driving in special conditions. This is obviously the situation in Greece. The Swedish and Spanish curricula follow a logic comparable to the Greek program.

2.2.5.2 Content of practical training sessions

As already mentioned, in Belgium, Spain, and Sweden trainees are not required to follow an official training at a driving school. They may learn to drive without the involvement of a driving school, if they are assisted by a non-professional supervisor under special restraints (see TRAINER Deliverable 1.2). After such a training, they must be able to manoeuvre the car and to drive in different situations.

In the four countries, practical training starts with lessons corresponding to the first level of the GADGET-matrix. Instructors first emphasize the importance of the driver position, the mirror position, the safety belt use (see tables 4 to 8 of this deliverable) for a complete description). Then trainees can start to drive in very easy conditions, allowing them to learn to use the different car commands (steering, gear box, clutch, brakes,…) in order to control the vehicle. After acquisition of basic car control skills, trainees start to drive in low traffic conditions. In the following, trainees are trained for more and more complex skills and behaviours. They learn to master traffic situations like overtaking, changing direction, driving on a highway, driving in dense traffic, negotiating crossroads. Driving skills become more and more automatic and errors minimise. Among the skills to acquire, four manoeuvres have to be trained on a private ground (parking, U-turn, parking in a garage and reverse driving). All these elements are related to the first two levels of the GADGET-matrix (mastering traffic situations). Belgian trainees learn how to take the right decision in heavy traffic situations. They also learn the impact of attitudes during driving. The effect of personal variables (attention, concentration, emotion, decision taking) is taught in Belgium and not in the three other countries. In the end, Swedish trainees are given instructions about special conditions and they have to follow a special skid course of 4 hours. Given the climatic conditions in the north of Europe, these additional 4 hours are probably required.

In summary, though all four levels of the GADGET-Matrix are more or less tackled, the content of the four practical driving curricula presented here still focuses nearly exclusively on the operational level of the driving task. According to the results of the CIECA and EFA


F e b r u a r y 2002 32

survey (see TRAINER D.1.2), this weakness is probably due to the fact that training curricula are too strictly tailored to the skills that are required to succeed the driving exam. In other words, the analysis shows that training is not sufficiently oriented to the higher levels of the GADGET-matrix.

2.3 Guidelines for a new TRAINER-based curriculum: conclusions

From the European directive it is possible to extract the relevant themes to succeed the driving exams (theoretical and practical). These themes must be taken into account when developing a new curriculum. The four curricula presented here show that existing training curricula focus too narrowly on those skills that are required to pass the exam.

The comparison of the different national theoretical curricula shows differences in learning duration, the number of sessions, the individual session duration, and the session sequencing. In the analysis of the practical curricula, it has been noticed that these trainings focus too much on vehicle manoeuvring and mastering of traffic situations. Experts have confirmed these findings (see TRAINER D1.2).

If the objective is that novice drivers become safer drivers, then the curriculum must tackle not only the themes required for the exam but in addition also improves higher-order cognitive skills. Thus the new TRAINER-based curriculum must be designed taking into account the following recommendations:

- The new curriculum should confront trainees with difficult and/or risky situations, like special traffic situations and special environmental conditions. That is also noticed in the GADGET project, where it was noted that a simple increase of training duration does not improve safety. An extension of the contents of the training is needed at the same time (Christ et al., 2000).

- The new curriculum should cover all levels of the Gadget-matrix (Hatakka et al., 1999).

- The practical training process should start with learning vehicle manoeuvring, and then proceed to mastering more complex traffic situations (Hatakka et al., 1999). This way the curriculum would follow at the same time the progression through the learning stages as described by Lewin (1982).

- For the practical curriculum, training on the two lowest levels is more effective when it starts with manoeuvring skills (Hatakka et al., 1999).

- The higher levels in the hierarchy are not accessible using teacher-centred methods like lecturing, or simply by increasing the amount of training. Active learning methods are needed (Hatakka et al., 1999; Lonero et al., 1998).


F e b r u a r y 2002 33

- The curriculum should be flexible in the sense that it should permit consideration of individual differences between trainees (Hatakka et al., 1999; Lonero et al., 1998).


F e b r u a r y 2002 34

3 TOWARDS A NEW TRAINER-BASED CURRICULUM

The objective of the TRAINER project is to improve training of young novice drivers. The TRAINER project develops a Multi-Media tool (MMT), a low cost simulator (LCS), and a mean cost simulator (MCS) to fill the gaps in existing driver training programs. The MMT supports theoretical training aiming at a more vivid understanding of abstract theoretical knowledge. The simulators support practical training.

Previous attempts to teach safe-driving strategies were often less efficient than required, because extensive skill training can result in risk underestimation and in manoeuvring skills overestimation (e. g., skid training in Norway, see Katila, 1996). Skid-control-courses significantly increased accident rates, suggesting that this type of training focuses too much on coping with skidding situations instead of avoidance of these situations right from the start. The consequence can be on the one hand a reduced risk-awareness for low friction situations and on the other hand overconfidence in one’s own skills to deal with such situations.

According to Reed & Green (1999) and van Emmerik & van Rooij (1999) the advantages of driving simulators are the following:

- Improve safety: some exercises are too dangerous to be conducted in vehicles on the road.

- Reduce equipment costs: simulators allow to study driver responses to be changed in the vehicle without having to construct a vehicle with those features or performance characteristics.

- Allow experimental control: a wider variety of test conditions can be prescribed and consistently applied in a driving simulator than on the road.

- Allow to control the type and timing of training events. - Adapt the training task to the performance of the trainee. - Provide augmented cueing and feedback. - Record and diagnose trainee performance. - Automate the process of training and instruction. - Reduce the amount of practice by providing immediate feedback.

The use of MMT, LCS, and MCS should allow not only to improve driving training but also to solve the “young driver paradox”. Risk perception, like other higher order perceptual and cognitive driving skills, takes several years to develop with driving experience. It is difficult, however, for novices to gain driving experience without being actually exposed to driving risks (Regan et al., 1998). Driving in a simulated environment provides experience with risky situations without exposing the trainees to any ‘real’ risks. However, the aim of the new curriculum is not only to teach the trainees how to react in risky situations but as well to teach them what to do in order to avoid such risky situations right from the start. Error training


F e b r u a r y 2002 35

leads to significantly better transfer to real driving tests. In addition, error training is more effective for learning to cope with novel driving situations. Ivancic (2000) claims that error training also reduces self-confidence in driving skills at the end of a training compared to errorless learning.

Therefore it is proposed to confront the trainees with realistic driving situations as much as possible. A list of driving scenarios has been proposed and developed for the MMT and the simulators. The purpose is to train not only vehicle handling like in conventional trainings, but also to educate higher-order skills like hazard perception and anticipatory driving.

The objectives of the next chapters are to develop and to present a new curriculum integrating the new TRAINER tools. The scenarios developed for MMT and for the simulators will be grouped in blocks. These blocks correspond to particular theoretical and practical topics exceeding conventional novice driver training programs.

The criteria for driver performance assessment are introduced as well. Monitoring the progress of the trainees during the curriculum demands a valid framework for performance assessment.

Theoretical and practical curricula of the new TRAINER concept are separated, following the logic of the curricula in Belgium and Spain.

3.1 Multi-Media Tool methodology

3.1.1 Description of the Multi-Media tool

The Multi-Media Tool is basically a training tool, conceived as a complementary tool to the theory lessons of traditional theoretical curricula. It supports theoretical training on the strategic and tactical/manoeuvring level (risk awareness, hazard perception, self-perception, etc.). Traffic rules are therefore not specifically addressed in the MMT. The MMT recommends ways to avoid and overcome difficult situations. As the tool supports assessment of theoretical knowledge as well, it includes two types of user interaction: a training mode and a test mode.

The general structure is comprehensible by all types of users (see Figure 3). After selection of a language and a login the user can select a session (see Figure 4). Eight languages are available: Dutch, English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Spanish, Swedish.

One session contains a short training and/or scope presentation. Assessment (see Figure 5) is done immediately, so that the user gets feedback about his/her knowledge, performance and improvement after each session. After the assessment a user can either repeat the same session or select another one.

Sections of each scenario (Roskam and de Waard, 2001) include:


F e b r u a r y 2002 36

• Description of the problem that is addressed.

• Description of the aim of the scenario.

• Description of situations to be simulated, with

- particular sub-scenarios for each;

- type of each sub-scenario, depending on the data gathered for it (road video, animation, photo, crash test video, text, sounds, recorded speech, etc.);

- text describing each sub-scenario with application details (how many cars, how to interact, positions on the road, even the cars’ colours).

• Success estimation (criteria).

• Reference to GADGET matrix.

By using the MMT, the user should gain experience regarding:

• Visual scanning techniques. • Speed judgement and adaptation in various situations.

• Relative speed and headway judgement to lead and rear vehicles. • Overtaking. • Reaction times. • Handling of vulnerable road users and other traffic participants. • Critical situations and their development.

Figure 3: Structure of the MMT.

Short training and/or scope presentation

Selection of other session

Assessment

Language selection

Login

Selection of session


F e b r u a r y 2002 37

Figure 4: Scenarios already implemented on TRAINER MMT.

Figure 5: Example for direct assessment of the user’s performance within TRAINER MMT.


F e b r u a r y 2002 38

3.1.2 MMT Training design

In the framework of TRAINER requirements for MMT design have been proposed, including:

- a pass/fail decision is required for each scenario;

- a weight for each question is required specifying the importance of a given scenario;

- pupils can choose whether to repeat a scenario or not;

- questions are grouped and each block is divided into sections;

- immediate feedback will be given;

- the GADGET-matrix should not be followed too strictly. Levels can be switched, there is no specific order to follow, and it is not absolutely necessary to go from the lowest level to the highest level.

The MMT scheme is displayed on the following figure.

MMT

Personal data

Block X

Block A

Block B

END

Feedback

Feedback

Feedback

Final Results

Figure 6: Proposing scheme for the TRAINER MMT.

During the training mode, feedback will be given immediately after each scenario and in addition after a complete block.

Scenarios are classified into three classes:

a. Multiple choice and simple questions.

b. Scenarios requiring a kind of ‘training’.

c. Scenarios with instructional purpose.

For each failed scenario from categories b and c, the trainee has the opportunity to redo it immediately (with the button escape as an alternative). Where available, an alternative scenario with the same educational objective will be presented.

In order to avoid memory effects, failed scenarios from category a must not be redone immediately. An exception is done for important mistakes: these scenarios will be presented


F e b r u a r y 2002 39

again immediately. Again, where available, an alternative scenario with the same educational objective will be presented.

The trainee has the possibility to redo (with the button “Repeat”) a given scenario or to give up (with the button “Escape”) answering this scenario. This way the trainee can control the rhythm of learning self-paced.


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3.1.2.1 Scenario list

All scenarios are numbered from 1 to 31:

Scenario

number

Scenario

1 Brake / Crash at straight road, high friction.

2 Brake / Crash at straight road, low friction.

3 Brake at curved road, for low friction.

4 Stopping distance with and without ABS

5 ABS

6 Traffic lights 7 Dirty windshield

8 Dirty headlights

9 Car safety check

10 Gap acceptance

11 Gap acceptance, lorries

12 Detection of road-side dangers 13 Learning the traffic signs

14 Foreign signs

15 2-second rule explanation

16 2-second rule following

17 Car following 18 Car following situation on a country road

19 Multi-vehicle platoon driving

20 Unpredictable behaviour of children

21 Road works visibility, safe merging

22 Relation of speed to stopping distance under different road conditions

23 Response under influence of alcohol 24 BAC

25 Questions about alcohol

26 Effects of drugs, and combination with alcohol

27 Fatigue

28 Safety belt use

28 A Economical driving 29 Ecological driving

30 Ecological driving

31 ADAS

Table 10: Scenario list of TRAINER MMT.

3.1.2.2 MMT training blocks

Each training block is presented in a table. The first column indicates the digit corresponding to each scenario. The third column indicates which class the corresponding scenario belongs to. For scenarios from class a., the feedback is given immediately after the scenario but the


F e b r u a r y 2002 41

second attempt is not proposed immediately. For scenarios from class b. and c., the feedback is also given immediately but here it is proposed to redo it immediately. When the trainee must redo a failed scenario, it is better to present him/her an alternative of the scenario not answered correctly in order to avoid memory effects.

3.1.2.2.1 Block 1: Basic Knowledge:

Nr Title Scenario class

9 Car safety check a. 6 Traffic lights c.

7 Dirty windshield a.

8 Dirty headlights c.

If necessary, second attempt of the scenarios 9 and 7.

13 Learning the traffic signs a.

14 Foreign signs a. 28 Safety belt use c.

If necessary, second attempt of the scenarios 13 and 14. Table 11: Block 1: basic knowledge, related scenarios of TRAINER MMT.

Inside a block, the scenario order is proposed.

The traffic signs scenario is included here because it is part of the knowledge which should be known before actual driving. Those two scenarios are placed before scenario 28, in order to have a gap between two eventual new attempts of scenarios 13 and 14. The second attempt is presented at the end of one block to finish one topic before starting another one.

3.1.2.2.2 Block 2 : Manoeuvring & safety

Nr Title Scenario Class

1 Brake / Crash at straight road, high friction. b. 2 Brake / Crash at straight road, low friction. b. 3 Brake at curved road, for low friction. b. 22 Relation of speed to stopping distance under different road

conditions a.

If necessary, second attempt of the scenario 22. 12 Detection of road-side dangers a. 20 Unpredictable behaviour of children b. 10 Gap acceptance b. 11 Gap acceptance, lorries b. 18 Car following situation on a country road a. 19 Multi-vehicle platoon driving b. If necessary, second attempt of the scenarios 12 and 18 15 2-second rule explanation c. 16 2-second rule following c. 17 Car following b. 21 Roadworks visibility, safe merging a. If necessary, second attempt of the scenario 21

Table 12: Block 2: Manoeuvring and safety related scenarios of TRAINER MMT.


F e b r u a r y 2002 42

Block two contains scenarios including interactions with other road users, and in addition scenarios dedicated to security rules.

Again, the facultative step is placed at the end of the block.

3.1.2.2.3 Block 3 : Particular situations: special states


23 Response under influence of alcohol c. 24 BAC c. 25 Questions about alcohol a. 26 Effects of drugs, and combination with alcohol a. 27 Fatigue a. If necessary, second attempt of the scenarios 25, 26, and 27.

Table 13: Block 3: particular situations: special driver states related scenarios of TRAINER MMT.

The purpose of this block is to understand that driving under influence of alcohol, drugs, and fatigue is really dangerous.

3.1.2.2.4 Block 4 : Particular situations: New technologies


4 Stopping distance with and without ABS c. 5 ABS a. 31 ADAS a. If necessary, second attempt of the scenarios 5 and 31 28A Economical driving c. 29 Ecological driving a. 30 Ecological driving c. If necessary, second attempt of the scenario 29

Table 14: Block 4: Particular situations: new technologies related scenarios of TRAINER MMT.

Block four provides information about the effects of new systems (ABS, ADAS) and about ways to drive economically and ecologically.

3.1.3 MMT performance assessment : test mode

For the test mode, four blocks, including all scenarios, have been designed. During the test, each block will be presented to the trainee. There will be neither a possibility to redo a scenario, nor to change the scenario sequence.

All four blocks must be carried out in one session, with embedded pauses after each block. Feedback will be given only after completing all blocks.


F e b r u a r y 2002 43

3.1.3.1 MMT Test block 1

No Title

9 Car safety check

6 Traffic lights

7 Dirty windshield

8 Dirty headlights

13 Learning the traffic signs 14 Foreign signs

28 Safety belt use

Table 15: MMT test block 1.


No Title

1 Brake / Crash at straight road, high friction.

2 Brake / Crash at straight road, low friction. 3 Brake at curved road, for low friction.

22 Relation of speed to stopping distance under different road conditions

12 Detection of road-side dangers

20 Unpredictable behaviour of children

10 Gap acceptance

11 Gap acceptance, lorries 18 Car following situation on a country road

19 Multi-vehicle platoon driving

15 2-second rule explanation

16 2-second rule following

17 Car following 21 Road works visibility, safe merging



No Title

23 Response under influence of alcohol

24 BAC

25 Questions about alcohol 26 Effects of drugs, and combination with alcohol

27 Fatigue



F e b r u a r y 2002 44


Nr Title

4 Stopping distance with and without ABS

5 ABS

31 ADAS

28A Economical driving

29 Ecological driving 30 Ecological driving


3.1.4 MMT performance criteria

Monitoring a trainee’s progress during the TRAINER curriculum demands a well-organised structure for performance assessment.

This part depicts scenario-specific performance criteria for the MMT and describes their combination to a scoring system for the TRAINER MMT test mode.

The scenarios included in the MMT are predominant ly multiple choice scenarios (class a.)4. For each of them, there is a corresponding right or wrong answer. Several scenarios have in addition an instructional purpose, and aim at educating a certain understanding of a given topic (class c.). For scenarios of classes a. and c. it is not necessary to specify special thresholds, i.e. performance criteria, because the correct answer is already defined by the scenario description itself. Multiple choice scenarios (class a.) and instructive scenarios (class c.) are, thus, completed correctly when the trainee gives all correct answers demanded by the scenario description.

Those MMT scenarios requiring a kind of ‘active’, procedural reaction (class b.) to moving images apply the same thresholds as proposed for the TRAINER simulator.5 In MMT scenario class b. a ‘right’ answer corresponds to avoiding an accident, to accepting the right gap or to avoiding line crossing. ‘Wrong’ stands vice versa for causing an accident, taking a wrong gap or crossing the line.

4 See point 3.1.2 (pg 38) of this chapter. 5 See section 3.2.3 (pg. 54) of this deliverable on driver performance criteria for the TRAINER simulator.


F e b r u a r y 2002 45

Following is the scenario list including assessment criteria6.

Number Scenario description

Assessment criterion7

1 Brake / Crash at straight road, high friction. No accident / Accident 2 Brake / Crash at straight road, low friction. No accident / Accident 3 Brake at curved road, for low friction. No line crossing / Line crossing 4 Stopping distance with and without ABS No error / Error 5 ABS No error / Error 6 Traffic lights No error / Error 7 Dirty windshield No error / Error 8 Dirty headlights No error / Error 9 Car safety check No error / Error 10 Gap acceptance Gap accepted > 5 s and < 10 s /

Gap accepted < 5 s or > 10 s 11 Gap acceptance, lorries Gap accepted > 5 s and < 10 s /

Gap accepted < 5 s or > 10 s 12 Detection of road-side dangers No error / Error 13 Learning the traffic signs No error / Error 14 Foreign signs No error / Error 15 2-second rule explanation No error / Error 16 2-second rule following No error / Error 17 Car following Time headway > 2 s /

Time headway < 2 s 18 Car following situation on a country road No error / Error 19 Multi-vehicle platoon driving No accident / Accident 20 Unpredictable behaviour of children No accident / Accident 21 Roadworks visibility, safe merging No error / Error 22 Relation of speed to stopping distance under

different road conditions No error / Error

23 Response under influence of alcohol No accident / Accident – No error 24 BAC No error / Error 25 Questions about alcohol No error / Error 26 Effects of drugs, and combination with alcohol No error / Error 27 Fatigue No error / Error 28 Safety belt use No error / Error

28 A Economical driving No error / Error 29 Ecological driving No error / Error 30 Ecological driving No error / Error 31 ADAS No scenario description yet Table 19: MMT scenarios and performance criteria.

3.1.5 General structure of the MMT test mode scoring system

The TRAINER MMT is basically an educational software for theoretical driver training. The MMT framework for performance evaluation adopts therefore the performance classification scheme of a theoretical driving test.

6 Scenario numbering as applied on MMT scenario clustering (see Pirenne et al., 2001). 7 Before slash: correct answer / after slash: incorrect answer.


F e b r u a r y 2002 46

CIECA provided a figure for 15 different countries, representing the relationship between the total number of questions asked in the theory test and the number of correct answers that is demanded to pass the official driving ability test (fig. 7).

The mean percentage of correct answers required to pass the exam will be used as a baseline for the scoring system of the TRAINER MMT.

Figure 7: 15 theoretical driving tests (from 15 Eu ropean countries): questions – correct answers ratio (source: Hendrix et al., 2001)

Mean percentage of correct answers required to pass the theoretical test is 87.5%. Following a conservative, cautious strategy the threshold to pass the TRAINER MMT test is set accordingly at 90%. This means that a trainee driver needs at least 90% of the highest possible score to pass the TRAINER MMT test.

3.1.5.1 Expert judgements on MMT scenario importance as basis for a scoring system

The performance in the individual MMT scenarios has to be integrated into a total score for the MMT test mode, in order to indicate whether a MMT user has passed or failed the theoretical test of the TRAINER curriculum. The educational objectives of each individual scenario differ in general relevance for the curriculum. These variations have to be considered in the final scoring system. The specific relevance of a given scenario will be expressed as a weight assigned to the scenario in question. The total sum of the scenarios’ weights indicates the highest possible score attainable during the MMT test mode.

Theory test category B

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Country

Num

ber

of q

uest

ions

/N

umbe

r of

cor

rect

ans

wer

s

nr.of questions 28 40 50 30 25 25 40 30 60 35 55 35 30 90 20 20 30 40 35 50 30 25 10 23 50

nr.of correct answers 22 32 45 28 20 23 35 27 49 30 43 32 26 83 16 17 27 35 30 45 27 22 9 21 40

percentage 80 80 90 92 80 92 88 90 82 86 78 90 87 92 80 85 90 88 86 90 90 88 90 91 80

A B CH D DK DZ E EST FIN GB H HR IL IS L LT LV MC NI NL P PL RUS SLO TN


F e b r u a r y 2002 47

The importance of individual MMT scenarios was judged among members of the TRAINER consortium. Experts representing different geographical areas (Northern, Central, Southern Europe, etc.) and with different professional backgrounds (traffic safety, driving instruction, driver performance research, etc.) judged the importance of individual scenarios in order to get a combined mean weight for each scenario. Weights were given for each scenario: 1 indicates a less important skill, 2 an important skill, 3 a very important skill, and 4 an absolutely important skill. The result of the rating is provided as mean weight in the following table:

Number Scenario

description Weight -mean-

1 Brake / Crash at straight road, high friction. 2,72 2 Brake / Crash at straight road, low friction. 2,71 3 Brake at curved road, for low friction. 2,85 4 Stopping distance with and without ABS 2,57 5 ABS 2,14 6 Traffic lights 1,14 7 Dirty windshield 1,57 8 Dirty headlights 1,43 9 Car safety check 1,43 10 Gap acceptance 3,43 11 Gap acceptance, lorries 3,14 12 Detection of road-side dangers 3,57 13 Learning the traffic signs 1,85 14 Foreign signs 1,57 15 2-second rule explanation 2,71 16 2-second rule following 2,86

17 Car following 3,00

18 Car following situation on a country road 3,00 19 Multi-vehicle platoon driving 2,86 20 Unpredictable behaviour of children 3,43 21 Roadworks visibility, safe merging 2,57 22 Relation of speed to stopping distance under

different road conditions 3,43 23 Response under influence of alcohol 3,86 24 BAC 3,14 25 Questions about alcohol 3,14 26 Effects of drugs, and combination with alcohol 3,57 27 Fatigue 3,29 28 Safety belt use 3,00

28 A Economical driving 1,86 29 Ecological driving 2,29 30 Ecological driving 2,57 31 ADAS 2,33

TOTAL SCORE 85.03 Table 20: MMT scenarios and mean weights.

The sum of the individual scenarios’ weights, and, thus, the maximal score in case a MMT user makes no error at all during the MMT test mode is roughly 85.


F e b r u a r y 2002 48

3.1.5.2 TRAINER MMT test mode scoring system

The TRAINER MMT test mode should have a high ecological validity, i.e. the simulated theoretical test has to resemble a ‘real’ theoretical driving test. Given that the highest possible score (all scenarios completed without any error at all) is 85.03, the 90% threshold to pass the MMT test of the TRAINER curriculum is 76.53 points, needed to 76 points.

Any MMT user with 76 and more points at the end of the test mode has passed the TRAINER MMT theoretical test. Every scenario not answered correctly causes a reduction of the final score. The amount of reduction corresponds to the specific weight of an erroneously answered scenario.

The segment between 76 points and the highest possible score of 85 points is allotted into equal segments marking different performance levels:

85 points: ‘Excellent! No error at all, brilliant performance. You passed the test with distinction.’ (Grade A)

82 – 85 points: ‘Very good! Your performance was almost perfect. You passed the test.’ (Grade B)

79 – 81 points: ‘Good. That’s alright. You passed the test.’ (Grade C)

76 – 78 points: ‘Okay. Your performance was not really good, but still sufficient. You passed the test, but better improve your theoretical skills!‘ (Grade D)

Less than 76 points: Sorry, too bad! You made too many errors. Please improve your theoretical skills and repeat the test later on. (Grade E)

An illustration: A MMT user has made three errors during the test : one error in scenario 4 (stopping distance without ABS), one error in scenario 21 (roadworks visibility), and one error in scenario 24 (BAC).

Weight of scenario 4 is 2.57, weight of scenario 21 is 2.57, and weight of scenario 24 is 3.14. The sum of the score reduction would be 2.57 + 2.57 + 3.14 = 8.28. The final MMT test score of this exemplary MMT user would be 85.03– 8.28 = 76.75, rounded up to 77 points.

Hence, the final score is slightly above the 76 points threshold and therefore still sufficient, although the trainee made three mistakes during the test. The corresponding Grade D would be given at the end of the MMT test of the TRAINER curriculum.


F e b r u a r y 2002 49

3.2 Simulator Methodology

3.2.1 Description

3.2.1.1 Low cost simulator

The low cost simulator is composed of a driving stand, a driving computer with integrated image generator, and a separate monitor, which is put on top of the driving stand in front of the steering wheel. The horizontal view angle is 40 degrees. Computer and image generator are accommodated inside the cabin. The driving stand comprises a wooden cabin, the drivers seat, a dashboard with instruments, and operational elements as accelerator-pedal, brake-pedal, clutch-pedal, handbrake, gear stick, blinker lever, headlight switch, windshield wiper lever, ignition key, horn button and steering wheel. The shaft of the steering wheel is connected to an electrical motor and pulse generator. The motor generates the torque onto the steering wheel, and the pulse generator supplies the input for an incremental steering wheel angle measurement counter. A direct current motor with worm gear, ratio of 70:4 = 17,5 is used. The worm gear box is integrated at the motor. In order to firstly have a sufficiently high torque on the steering wheel and secondly to be able to control the steering wheel torque in a natural range, a control unit with a maximum of 6 A is used, which creates a maximum torque of about 6 Nm. The output signal of the PC is supplied to the input/output interface board N10E and from there to the control device of the motor. It is possible, to realize by software any characteristic of the steering wheel in dependency upon the steering wheel angle and the speed of the car. For data gathering, gravity sensors are used for the pedals. The simulated gearbox is equipped with switches. The mechanical forces on pedals, gear stick and steering wheel are nature-like. The forces and strokes of the pedals may be changed by mechanical means. Several software modes and scenarios can be pre-selected by the computer menu, using a small control unit with two buttons. For the noises a PC-sound-card, an audio amplifier and a loudspeaker, 20 W, in a closed, screened box is used.

3.2.1.2 Mean cost simulator

The mean cost simulator differs from the low cost simulator by the use of three monitors, a vibration system and a simple motion system. Each of the two peripheral monitors has an own PC as image generator. The sight system is a fixed screen system, that means, also at a motion of the driving stand by the motion support described below the picture screens do not move.

There is a vibration of the steering wheel at running vehicle engine. A long- life excenter motor is connected to the shaft of the steering wheel. The shaft is buffered to the main frame of the simulator by rubber-cylinders. The mounting of the vibration motor to the steering wheel compared to a vibration of the whole simulator has the advantages, that the excenter motor needs less power. The support stand of the simulator does not vibrate, so that the


F e b r u a r y 2002 50

driving computer may be integrated in the simulator cabin. The vibration device does not move the plastic cover with the two levers for light, horn and windshield wiper. Also it does not move the dashboard.

The motion system is a support unit, which can be put under the driving stand. It is controlled by the driving computer, improves the driving feeling at steering and is intended to reduce the motion sickness. The support construction has the size 78 x 78 cm. It is able to shift the top plate of the support unit in accordance to the lateral acceleration of the simulated car. Motion sickness is avoided, as the movements are short-stroked. The delay time between the causing event and the movement of the motion system is extremely short, so that not only the general feeling of driving is improved, but also the steering behaviour, which is typically poor in simulators, is stabilized. An advantage of this modular motion support is, that it may be used as well for the simulation of longitudinal acceleration forces, just by turning it around 90 degrees.

3.2.1.3 Software

The software of the driving simulators is structured in modules. Its features are:

- realistic driving-dynamics model of the simulated car; - road database with various courses, 50 km long, highway, autobahn, city-drive; - simulated crossings, junctions, traffic signs and traffic lights; - various traffic users as passenger cars, trucks, pedestrians and animals are simulated; - intelligent traffic behaviour simulations; - various weather conditions as nice weather, fog, rain and snow are also simulated; - various brightness conditions as day and night are supported in the simulation; - various road surface conditions as firm hold and slipperiness are included in the

simulation; - text edition on the monitor for driving failure indication, evaluation and explanations; - collision detection; - driving failure sanctions; - replay functions for the analysis of traffic events; - menu control; - multi channel video output for any number of monitors; - 3d-graphics generator with high performance; - realistic sound generator; - statistical various analysis functions; - input/output interface; - data acquisition interface.

Using these features the software realizes scenarios which are developed and defined by the TRAINER group. The software of the mean cost simulator differs a bit compared to that of


F e b r u a r y 2002 51

the low cost simulator, as it includes also specific scenarios, which require a large horizontal sight angel, by the use of three monitors.

Like the MMT, the simulators offer two user interaction modes: a training mode and a test mode. Both ways to interact are described separately.

3.2.2 Simulator training design

Among the TRAINER consortium it had initially been decided to group the simulator scenarios into four blocks. However, increasing the number of blocks results in reducing both time between performance and feedback provision and simulator sickness. It is thus proposed to divide the 31 scenarios (see Table 22) into five blocks lasting approximately the same time (Tables 23 to 27).

The teacher has the opportunity to decide which blocks the pupil ought to do. Within a same block, a next following scenario is automatically and systematically proposed to the trainee, according to a predefined order. Yet, in case the trainee wants to select another scenario, he/she has the possibility to use the ‘escape’ button and perform his/her own choice from the full scenarios list.

For a more ecological presentation, a transition scenario showing the way from a city to a countryside or highway has been designed. It is possible to change the environmental conditions easily, e.g. day - night, high friction – low friction, etc.

Voice messages and simple visual messages are used for instructions and error feedback. If a particular task inside a given scenario is carried out correctly, or if only a small deviation from good performance is detected, a scenario will continue without interruption. Only a short written and/or oral message for positive reinforcement will be presented.

In case of a serious offence (i.e. major traffic violation) or accident, the scenario will be stopped immediately. From a pedagogical point of view, it is better to repeat failed scenarios immediately in order to get optimal learning effects. Error feedback is given to the trainee so that he/she can understand his/her errors. To provide a more global view on individual errors, a bird’s eye view of the situation where the serious error occurred is presented.

Complete feedback is given at the end of each block. A message advising the trainee to repeat failed scenarios is presented. The trainee has got the opportunity to decide whether to repeat a scenario or not by pressing the button ‘redo’ or ‘escape’.

In order to know the performance during the training, the simulator keeps the pupils’ score per scenarios.


F e b r u a r y 2002 52

3.2.2.1 Scenario list

All scenarios are numbered from 1 to 31.

Scenario number

Scenario List

1 Start and gear shift straight on 2 ABS and steering ability in critical situations 3 ABS and braking distance 4 Negotiating a curve 5 Stopping distance on low friction 6 Skid control on low friction 7 Split friction 8 Aquaplaning 9 Traffic rules 10 Gap acceptance (for turning left) 11 Left turn at light regulated junction 12 Left turn at light regulated junction with oncoming car 13 Following situation on a country road 14 Following situation on a country road, headway as a consequence of a car behind 15 Platoon situation with oncoming car, which overtakes in a risky manner on a

country road 16 Overtaking manoeuvres – learning sequence 17 Overtaking manoeuvres – higher risk 18 Overtaking manoeuvres – varying the risk 19 Overtaking manoeuvres – darkness 20 Shifting beams 21 Car stopping on the road in darkness 22 Pedestrians crossing in a junction when dark and rainy 23 Speed adaptation when turning 24 Parked car with cue for hazard perception 25 Parked car without cue for hazard perception 26 Search strategy 27 Reaction time and stopping distance during normal driving 28 Reaction time and stopping distance applying brake alertness 29 Ecological / economical driving 30 Mental workload and use of stereo and mobile phone 31 Influence of dangerous motives on driving

Table 21: Scenario list for TRAINER driving simulator.

3.2.2.2 Simulator training blocks

An initial block (block 0) of 5-10 minutes, that consists of normal driving through different environments (urban, rural, highway) is also added to accustom users to the TRAINER simulator use and features. Block 0 can be inserted optionally either before or after block 1.

3.2.2.2.1 Block 1 : Basic knowledge

9 Traffic rules

1 Start and gear shift straight on 4 Negotiating a curve

27 Reaction time and stopping distance during normal driving

28 Reaction time and stopping distance applying brake alertness

Table 22: Block 1 of TRAINER simulator scenarios: basic control (duration: +/- 10 minutes).


F e b r u a r y 2002 53

The traffic rules scenario is proposed inside this block because it is part of knowledge which has to be known before starting to drive. Naturally, this scenario is also an integral part of all other scenarios.

3.2.2.2.2 Block 2 : Manoeuvring and safety (divided attention)

13 Following situation on a country road 14 Following situation on a country road, following distance and tailgating 15 Platoon situation with oncoming car, which overtakes in a risky manner on a

country road 23 Speed adaptation when turning 16 Overtaking manoeuvres – learning sequence 17 Overtaking manoeuvres – higher risk 18 Overtaking manoeuvres – varying the risk 19 Overtaking manoeuvres – darkness

Table 23: Block 2 of TRAINER simulator scenarios: Manoeuvring and safety (divided attention) (duration: +/ - 19 minutes).

Block 2 contains scenarios dealing with manoeuvring. Such situations require not only to control one’s own car but also at the same time to pay attention to other vehicles and the total traffic environment.

3.2.2.2.3 Block 3 : Manoeuvring and safety (hazard perception)

26 Search strategy 10 Gap acceptance (for turning left) 11 Left turn at light regulated junction 12 Left turn at light regulated junction with oncoming car 24 Parked car with cue for hazard perception 25 Parked car without cue for hazard perception 22 Pedestrians crossing in a junction when dark and rainy

Table 24: Block 3 of TRAINER simulator scenarios: Manoeuvring and safety (hazard perception) (duration: +/ - 15 minutes).

The purpose of the first scenario is to train visual search strategies. This scenario is a prerequisite for the following ones. The task complexity increases from one scenario to the other.

3.2.2.2.4 Block 4 : Particular situations with higher risk

5 Stopping distance on low friction 6 Skid control on low friction 7 Split friction 8 Aquaplaning 20 Shifting beams 21 Car stopping on the road in darkness 19 Overtaking manoeuvres – darkness 22 Pedestrians crossing in a junction when dark and rainy

Table 25: Block 4 of TRAINER simulator scenarios: Particular situations with higher risk (duration: +/- 19 minutes).


F e b r u a r y 2002 54

Block 4 and block 5 are important because these particular tasks are not systematically trained in existing curricula (exception is Sweden where a trainee must follow a skid course). Trainees will be familiarised with such situations in a simulated environment so that they learn how to cope with such situations.

3.2.2.2.5 Block 5 : Particular situations: new technology - personality aspects

2 ABS and steering ability in critical situations 3 ABS and braking distance 29 Economical / ecological driving 30 Mental workload and use of stereo and mobile phone 31 Influence of dangerous motives on driving

Table 26: Block 5 of TRAINER simulator scenarios: Particular situations: new technology - personality aspects (duration:+/- 22 minutes).

Even if it might be better to learn how to drive economically already at the beginning of the training, it is indeed impossible because a minimum of skills is required to train a specific driving style. Therefore the “economical driving” scenario is placed in block 5.

Remark: the simulator methodology essentially concerns the MCS, as some scenarios cannot be realised in the LCS. The LCS has only a visual angle of 40°. The scenarios in question are:

Scenario 23: speed adaptation when turning.

Scenario 11: Left turn at light regulated junction.

Scenario 12: Left turn at light regulated junction with oncoming car.

Scenario 10: Gap acceptance.

Scenario 22: Pedestrians crossing the road when dark and rainy.

These scenarios are not implemented in the LCS. In all other respects the methodologies of the LCS and the MCS are similar.

3.2.3 Simulator performance assessment: test mode

In order to avoid that the trainee experiences motion sickness, the test is divided into four parts, each part being a mix of different scenarios from the same blocks.

If a simulated accident takes place during the test mode, the test is automatically terminated (result is then automatically: failed). A message is given to the trainee for proposing to him/her to restart the training for the failed block. Scenarios requiring too much instructions are removed so that a more natural driving test is possible. Thus 24 scenarios clustered in four blocks (see tables 28 to 31) are used for the driving test. This test must be carried out in one session, with embedded pauses, in order to have a single score for each subject. The pauses allow to avoid eventually motion sickness by the trainees. The feedback will be given only at the end of each block.


F e b r u a r y 2002 55

3.2.3.1 Simulator test block 1

Nr Title

13 Following situation on a country road

17 Overtaking manoeuvres – higher risk

23 Speed adaptation when turning

26 Search strategy

24 Parked car with cue for hazard perception 12 Left turn at light regulated junction with

oncoming car Table 27: TRAINER Simulator test block 1 (duration:+/- 14 minutes).


Nr Title

10 Gap acceptance (for turning left)

27 Reaction time and stopping distance during normal driving

30 Mental workload and use of stereo and mobile phone

15 Platoon situation with oncoming car, which overtakes in a risky manner on a country road

11 Left turn at light regulated junction

25 Parked car without cue for hazard perception Table 28: TRAINER Simulator test block 2 (duration:+/- 15 minutes).


Nr Title

4 Negotiating a curve

18 Overtaking manoeuvres – varying the risk

14 Following situation on a country road, following distance and tailgating

28 Reaction time and stopping distance applying brake alertness

29 Ecological / economical driving Table 29: TRAINER Simulator test block 3 (duration:+/- 14 minutes).


F e b r u a r y 2002 56


Nr Title

5 Stopping distance on low friction

22 Pedestrians crossing in a junction when dark and rainy

6 Skid control on low friction

21 Car stopping on the road in darkness

19 Overtaking manoeuvres – darkness

8 Aquaplaning 7 Split friction

Table 30: TRAINER Simulator test block 4 (duration:+/- 16 minutes).

3.2.4 Simulator performance criteria development

The assessment of a trainee’s performance during the TRAINER curriculum demands a valid framework for driving performance evaluation.

The first step towards any kind of objective driver performance assessment is a definition of ‘normative’, i.e. desirable driving behaviour for each individual simulator scenario. Criteria for training and performance assessment are required which are able to distinguish between safe and unsafe driving behaviour of the trainee, in order to monitor his/her progress during the simulator sessions.

As a second step, the scenario-specific indicators for good and bad driving have to be combined in a total score for the complete simulator test, in order to decide whether a trainee has passed or failed the -simulated- driving test of the TRAINER curriculum.

3.2.4.1 Towards functionally valid indicators for good and bad driver performance

In order to define correct driver performance in particular traffic situations a normative model for car control and manoeuvring is required. Factors of a normative model for driver performance that have to be considered are:

- traffic rules;

- socially accepted behaviour in traffic;

- characteristics of the traffic environment;

- technical and physical characteristics of the car;

- general characteristics of human information processing.

Due to the complicated interrelation between ‘objective’ traffic rules and ‘subjective’ individual and social factors a general normative model for driver performance would be extremely complex, and, hence, no accepted normative model exists yet (Reichart, 2000).


F e b r u a r y 2002 57

The technical capabilities of the TRAINER simulator hardware allow principally to monitor nearly all ‘objective’ driver performance values during a simulator session (speed, gear position, headway, time-to-contact for obstacles or oncoming traffic, etc.). An absolute criterion representing the ‘red line’ between safe and unsafe driver behaviour for each relevant and less relevant driver performance dimension is, however, neither practical nor appropriate to achieve psychological, i.e. functional validity of the TRAINER curriculum.

As the individual simulator scenarios are designed to teach particular driving skills only those performance values corresponding to the educational goal of a scenario are of major importance for training purposes (see Farmer, Rooj, Riemersma, Jornaa & Moraal, 1999). For this reasoning only the performance indicators immediately associated with a particular scenario’s educational objective are regarded as crucial for the assessment of a trainee’s performance in a given scenario. E. g., gear shifting errors are regarded as major errors in the scenario devoted expressly to teaching basic car control skills, while gear shift errors are naturally only of minor importance in any other kind of scenario.

3.2.4.1.1 Scenario-specific error types for performance assessment

All minor errors, which are not immediately associated with a scenario’s educational objective, are monitored as well, but they are regarded as tolerable. Critical errors associated with the educational objective of a scenario, i.e. the skill in focus of a given scenario, are intolerable errors, because they indicate that a trainee has failed to learn the lesson of this scenario. A third class of errors regards major traffic violations which are on the one hand not immediately related to a scenarios educational aim, but which indicate on the other hand that a trainee still lacks other fundamental driving skills, like compliance to traffic rules or rudimentary car control skills.

Following this logic three types of errors are distinguished for each scenario:

A) General errors - tolerable: Unspecific minor errors, not related to the educational objective of the scenario, trainee performance is regarded as sufficient. The trainee has learned a scenario’s lesson in absence of Type B and Type C errors.

B) Specific errors - intolerable: Scenario-specific errors, associated with the educational objective of the scenario trainee, performance is not sufficient. The trainee has failed to learn the scenario’s lesson.


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C) General errors - intolerable Major traffic violations 8, not immediately related to the educational objective of the scenario trainee, performance is regarded as not sufficient. The trainee lacks fundamental driving skills.

A type A error would be for example a short time headway to the car in front without consequences (crashes, etc.) in any kind of scenario but scenarios teaching to keep safe headways.

An example of a type B error is vice versa a short time headway in a scenario devoted to learning safe headways.

A type C error would be exceeding the legal speed limit by more than 10 km/h in any kind of scenario.

3.2.4.1.2 TRAINER simulator scenarios: specification of performance criteria

The TRAINER performance criteria will be used in a curriculum tailored to a driving simulator with unique technical and physical characteristics. Moreover in a particular simulated traffic environment, the best way to develop the criteria would be to define them based on quantitative, empirically validated driver performance data gathered with TRAINER simulator prototypes. ‘Objective features of the driving situation indeed provide the limiting conditions under which a driving task has to be carried out, and the permissible thresholds for fulfilling the driving task’ (Reichart, 2000).

However, due to logistic reasons the corresponding empirical procedure could not be carried out during the current project stage. For this reason the initial criteria for the assessment of learner driver performance have to be based on corresponding literature on normative driver performance in different traffic situations.

Driving standards providing normative values for driver behaviour beyond compliance to legal traffic rules are, however, extremely rare (e.g. Brookhuis, de Waard & Fairclough, submitted). An additional problem is due to the fact that the TRAINER curriculum puts strong emphasis on teaching skills for less likely and difficult traffic situations in order to learn higher-order cognitive abilities like responsible-minded, anticipatory driving. Quantitative normative standards for driver behaviour in complex, uncommon, difficult and / or dangerous traffic situations do not exist at all.

The performance indicators for the TRAINER curriculum, i.e. the thresholds marking driving errors have to be nevertheless specified in a way that guarantees optimal monitoring of the trainees performance while driving in a given scenario. A literature review has been carried

8 For a specification of ‘Major Traffic Violations’, based on Belgian law, see corresponding CARA internal report (Gieseler and Baten, 2001).


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out in order to identify appropriate performance criteria for individual TRAINER simulator scenarios. To ensure a high educational effect it was decided to select and formulate the criteria, i.e. the error thresholds in a conservative way. E.g., although it is well known that experienced and expert drivers choose headways to the car in front well below two seconds (e.g. Taieb-Maimon and Shinar, 2001) trainee drivers in the TRAINER simulator still have to follow the two-seconds rule, as standards for driver risk-management propose headways up to four seconds while following a car at the same speed (www.nidb.org/nidbhomepage/standards.html).

In the following section, Type A, B and C errors are specified for the scenarios depicted in the full list of TRAINER simulator scenario descriptions (Gregersen et Falkmer, 2001). A short introduction to a scenario’s educational objective is given before specifying the relevant errors for each scenario. Where available, references for the error definitions are provided as well.

Scenario 1: Start and gear shift

Educational objective: basic driving skills – use of accelerator, clutch, gear, etc.

Type A errors (tolerable)

Time headway < 2 seconds (see argumentation above)

Time-to-line-crossing < 1.3 seconds (Reichart, 2000)9

Time-to-contact < 4 seconds (Summala, 2000)10

Type B errors (intolerable):

Incorrect gear shifting sequence

Declutching time > 1500 msecs

Rpm range petrol-driven car > 3500 rpm

Type C errors (intolerable):

Violation of traffic rules (see Gieseler and Baten, 2001)

Scenarios 2 and 3: ABS

Educational objective: experience ABS, learning benefits and breaking distances

Type A errors (tolerable):

9 Brookhuis et al. (submitted) suggest a minimal TLC value of 1.1 seconds for experienced drivers. Following the conservative strategy of criterion specification the safer criterion given in Reichart (2000) was selected.

10 According to Summala (2000) a TTC value of about 4.0 seconds corresponds to ‘a fairly urgent situation’.


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Time-to-line-crossing < 1.3 seconds (Reichart, 2000)

Time-to-contact < 4 seconds (Summala, 2000)

Type B errors (intolerable):

In case of ABS activation: Interrupted ABS-activation

In case of ABS activation: Steering wheel deflection < 5°



Scenario 4: Negotiating a curve

Educational objective: learning the best way to negotiate a curve




Type B errors (intolerable)

Absolute g-force ( ) ( )22lateralallongitudin aa + > 0.7 g for dry road conditions (Reichart, 2000)

Continuous acceleration ( ) ( )22lateralallongitudin aa + < 0.1 g inside curve 11

Crossing the center or edge line (Jamson, 1999)



Scenarios 5, 6, 7, and 8: Low friction

Educational objective: awareness of risks when friction is low





11 Start and finish of curve section are scenario-dependent and have to be defined by Dr. Foerst.


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Scenario 1: Speed > 50 km/h

Scenario 2: Skidding occurs

Scenario 3: Skidding occurs

Scenario 4: Aquaplanning occurs

Type C errors (intolerable)


Scenario 9: Traffic rules

Educational objective: to comply to traffic rules








Type C and type B errors are identical in this scenario

Scenario 10: Gap acceptance

Educational objective: practice estimating and choosing gaps





Time-to-contact to oncoming traffic < 5 seconds 12

Time-to-contact to oncoming traffic > 10 seconds

12 As TTC value of four seconds corresponds to a ‘fairly urgent’ situation (Summala, 2000) the TTC in the scenario devoted to ‘gap acceptance’ has to be higher, because the trainees have to learn to accept only really safe gaps.


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Scenarios 11 and 12: Light regulated intersections

Educational objective: scanning for risks and anticipating behaviour of other drivers

Type A errors tolerable




Time-to-contact to oncoming traffic < 5 seconds (see footnote 6)

Time-to-contact to oncoming traffic > 10 seconds



Scenarios 13, 14, and 15: Headway/tailgating, choice of following distance

Educational objective: learning effects of speed and other factors while following a car






G-force longitudinal > 12s

m



Scenarios 16, 17, 18, and 19: Overtaking

Educational objective: estimating and adjusting speed during overtaking




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Time-to-line-crossing < 1.3 seconds (Re ichart, 2000)



Time-to-contact to oncoming traffic < 4 seconds

Time headway to passed car < 1s when returning to the right lane



Scenarios 20, 21, and 22: Driving in darkness

Educational objective: learning the difficulties while driving in darkness






Full beam except for situations in which opposite car blinding occurs

Time to switch from full beam to half beam > 1 second

Time to switch from half beam to full beam > 3 seconds

Scenario 2: additional; no skidding must occur.

Scenario 3: additional; no skidding must occur



Scenario 23: Speed adaptation when turning

Educational objective: adapting speed when entering junction with intention to turn







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Continuous acceleration ( ) ( )22lateralallongitudin aa + > 0.1 g during turn



Scenarios 24 and 25: Parked car

Educational objective: teaching that small cues can be important for safety






G-force longitudinal > 72s

m

Scenario 2: No specific criterion



Scenario 26: Search strategy

Educational objective: improve search strategy






Release of accelerator pedal > 1 second after hazard occurence



Scenaris 27 and 28: Reaction time and stopping distance

Educational objective: understand duration of reaction time in different situations


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Release of accelerator pedal > 1 second after hazard occurence



Scenario 29: Ecological/economical driving

Educational objective: learning how driving style affects fuel consumption






The fuel consumption may not exceed a specified amount. Average speed and travel time are calculated for a comparison.



Scenario 30: Mental workload / use of stereo and mobile

Educational objective: understand the consequences of distraction






Steering wheel deflections > 3°



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Scenario 31: Influence of dangerous motives

Educational objective: learning influences of personal motives on driving






Arrival in time / too late. Criterion scenario-dependent, ergo to be specified by Dr. Foerst.



3.2.4.2 Toward a scoring system for the ‘test mode’ of the TRAINER simulator

The error types specified in the previous section indicate whether a trainee has learned the educational objective of a particular scenario. These indicators can be used as basis for the descriptive feedback given after each scenario during the simulator training mode. For the simulator test mode the performance during the individual scenarios has to be combined into a total score, which has to indicate whether the trainee has passed the simulated driving test of the TRAINER curriculum or not.

3.2.4.2.1 Expert judgements on scenario importance as a basis for a scoring system

The skills taught by each individual scenario differ in their importance for learning safe and responsible-minded driving. The relevance has to be expressed in weights assigned to the individual scenarios.

At this point the problem described in chapter 2.1 appears again: as the TRAINER curriculum puts strong emphasis on teaching higher-order skills not covered by common driver training no normative standards, which could be applied for weight-assignment, exist. Therefore it was decided to judge the importance of the individual scenarios with expert ratings from within the consortium of TRAINER project. Traffic experts from a variety of geographical regions (Northern Europe, Central Europe, Southern Europe, etc.) and with different expertise (traffic safety, driving instruction, driver performance research, etc.) rated the individual scenarios in order to get an integrated score for each scenario.


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Weights were given for each scenario: 1 corresponds to a less important skill, 2 to an important skill, 3 to a very important skill, and 4 to an absolutely important skill.

The final results are indicated as mean score in the table below:

Scenarionumber

Scenario description

Weight -mean-

4 Negotiating a curve 3,14

5 Stopping distance on low friction 3,14

6 Skid control on low friction 3,00 7 Split friction 2,57

8 Aquaplaning 3,28

10 Gap acceptance (for turning left) 2,72

11 Left turn at l ight regulated junction 2,28

12 Left turn at light regulated junction with oncoming car 2,85

13 Following situation on a country road 2,43 14 Following situation on a country road, following distance and

tailgaiting 2,85

15 Platoon situation with oncoming car, which overtakes in a risky manner on a country road 2,71

17 Overtaking manoeuvres – higher risk 3,00

18 Overtaking manoeuvres – varying the risk 3,14

19 Overtaking manoeuvres – darkness 3,00 21 Car stopping on the road in darkness 2,28

22 Pedestrians crossing in a junction when dark and rainy 3,15

23 Speed adaptation when turning 2,71

24 Parked car with cue for hazard perception 2,43

25 Parked car without cue for hazard perception 2,43

26 Search strategy 3,72 27 Reaction time and stopping distance during normal driving 3,29

28 Reaction time and stopping distance applying brake alertness 3,72

29 Ecological / economical driving 2,15

30 Mental workload and use of stereo and mobile phone 3,29

TOTAL SCORE 69.28

Table 31: Mean expert judgements on TRAINER simulator scenario weighting.

Adding up the individual scenario’s weights results in 69.28 points as the highest possible score in case a driver makes no error at all during the TRAINER simulator test mode.

3.2.4.2.2 TRAINER simulator test mode scoring system

The TRAINER simulator test mode should have a high face validity, i.e. the simulated driving test should be as realistic as possible. Therefore the test mode has to be comparable to the


F e b r u a r y 2002 68

general structure of a practical driving exam. For this reason any kind of ‘Major Traffic Violation’ (intolerable type C error13) leads immediately to not passing the simulated driving test. Likewise, any kind of specific error associated with a scenario’s particular aim (intolerable type B error) indicates that a trainee has not learned a particular scenario’s educational objective up to a sufficient level, and, hence, has not learned an important driving skill that is regarded as crucial for the TRAINER curriculum.

In short, any kind of type B or type C error during the TRAINER simulator test mode leads to immediate failure of the simulated driving test.

Even in complete absence of type B and type C errors individually tolerable type A errors must not be frequent in order to pass the simulated driving test. In addition to the definition of intolerable type B and type C driving errors a threshold for the upper frequency of Type A errors during the test mode is required. Taking the scenario-weighting of the previous chapter as a basis, an optimal test mode drive, without any kind of type A, B or C error, would end with a total score of 69.28 points after driving through all 24 individual scenarios.

Any kind of tolerable type A error leads to a reduction of the final score corresponding to the mean weight a scenario has been assigned based on the expert judgements. Given that less than 90% of the total score indicate bad performance,14 the border differentiating between passing and failing the test mode is set at roughly 62 points.

Consequently, any trainee without intolerable type B and type C error, and 62 or more points at the end of the test mode would have passed the TRAINER simulator driving test session.

The region between 62points and the maximal score of 69.28 points is divided into equal subsections indicating different learner driver performance levels:15

69.28 points: ‘Excellent! No error at all, brilliant performance. You passed the test with distinction.’ (Grade A)

67 – 69.27 points: ‘Very good! Your performance was almost perfect. You passed the test.’ (Grade B)

64.6 – 66.9 points: ‘Good. That’s alright. You passed the test.’ (Grade C)

62 – 64. 5 points: ‘Okay. Your performance was not really good, but still sufficient. You passed the test, but better improve your driving skills!‘ (Grade D)

Less than 62.35 points: ‘Sorry, too bad! You made too many errors. Please improve your driving skills and repeat the test later on. (Grade E)

13 See section 3.2.4.1.1 pg. 57 of this deliverable.

14 See corresponding chapter on MMT performance assessment.

15 More detailed feedback on actual performance and errors in individual scenarios has certainly to be given as well.


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The structure of the TRAINER test mode can be summarised the following way:

- Intolerable Type B or Type C error, anywhere during the test mode: failed.

- In absence of type B and type C errors: performance assessment corresponding to the scheme outlined above.

A concluding illustration:

A learner driver without critical type B or type C error during the test mode has made two individually tolerable type A errors, one type A error during scenario 11 (Left turn at light regulated junction), and one final type A error in scenario 23 (speed adaptation while turning).

Weight of scenario 11 is 2.28, and weight of scenario 23 is 2.71. The sum of the score reduction is 2.28 + 2.71 = 4.99. The final test score of this exemplary learner driver is 69.28 – 4.99 = 64.29 points.

Hence, the final score is well above the 62 points threshold and therefore still sufficient although the trainee made two minor mistakes during the test. The corresponding Grade D would be given at the end of the simulated driving test of the TRAINER curriculum.


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4 THE NEW TRAINER-BASED CURRICULUM

In the previous chapters, we have seen that improving training of novice drivers could rend them safer. The idea developed in TRAINER is to adapt traditional driving curricula in order to extend it from an emphasis on the vehicle control to a better awareness of risk and road hazards. To do that, it has also been suggested to use the TRAINER tools in order to take more into consideration personal characteristics of young novice drivers.

The starting point of the new curriculum is the analysis of existing curricula from the four pilot sites. The session content, the progression, the duration and the number of sessions have been analysed for each curriculum (cfr chapter 2 of this deliverable). Designing a common curriculum is not possible when considering the differences existing between each country, given national legislations and habits. Thus, the new TRAINER-based curriculum has to be considered as a general structure (like a ‘template’) specifying the items to be trained. Inside the structure of the new TRAINER-based curriculum, changes concerning the number and/or the duration of sessions can be added in order to adapt the curriculum as a function of the national legislative requirements of each country.

In most European countries theoretical and practical trainings are separately performed. Trainees have often to succeed the theoretical driving exam before beginning driving training16. This way trainees have a minimum of knowledge about the driving code and/or the basic safety rules before starting driving training. Thus the new TRAINER-based curriculum also involves two distinct parts for theoretical and practical training, respectively.

4.1 TRAINER proposed curriculum for theoretical driver training

The Multi-Media tool has been developed with the aim to provide traditional theoretical training with a support, in order to extend it from a simple traffic rules check to actual handling of complex traffic situations. The theoretical TRAINER template curriculum is designed with the content of the existing curricula and the MMT blocks. It is hoped that trainees can get a better understanding of risks and road hazards. In this new curriculum, Multi-Media scenarios have been embedded into traditional driving curricula, by grouping theoretical lessons and Multi-Media scenario blocks dealing with the same theme. Theoretical lessons precede corresponding MMT blocks in order to allow the trainee to immediately put the matter previously seen into practice.

16 Even if it is not obligatory because a young novice driver can drive with a driving school instructor before passing his/her exam.


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The TRAINER proposed curriculum is presented in the following table:

Content

Items: Acquaintance with the car (driving instrument, knowledge about vehicle construction), checking elements, traffic rules, traffic signs, road marking.

MMT Block 1: Basic knowledge

Items: Braking (techniques), interaction between road users, security rules, manoeuvres (overtaking, changing lane,...).

MMT Block 2: manoeuvring and safety

Items: Human limitation (alcohol, fatigue, drug, stress, medicine,...), special conditions (darkness, fog, rain, snow,...)

MMT Block 3: particular situations: special states

Items: New technologies (ABS, ACC,...), new way of driving (economical and ecological driving), preparation and travel development.

MMT Block 4: Particular situations: new technologies

Items: Risks related to driving (accidents, breakdown, penalties,...)

=> Synthesis

Table 32: TRAINER proposed curriculum for theoretical drivers training.

4.2 TRAINER proposed curriculum for practical driver training

The TRAINER simulators have been developed with the aim to provide traditional practical training of trainee drivers with a support. The low cost simulator can be helpful in training and assessment of manoeuvring and control tasks, while the mean cost simulator can additionally support specific needs of selected driver cohorts.

As for the theoretical TRAINER template curriculum, simulator scenarios have been embedded into traditional driving curricula, by grouping lessons and simulator scenario blocks dealing with the same theme. Contrary to the theoretical curriculum, practical lessons don’t precede but follow corresponding simulator blocks. Using the simulator for teaching basic handling skills before moving up to practice with real vehicles is indeed particularly indicated with inexperienced drivers (Awane, 1999). Young novice drivers have the possibility to be first trained in a safe environment. It has been decided to group two blocks inside each simulator session.

The proposed practical curriculum is presented in the following table:


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Content

Simulator Block 1: Basic control

Simulator Block 0: Acquaintance with the simulator

Items : Acquaintance with the car (checking elements, sitting position, mirrors, safety belts,...), driving on easy road (handling the car)

Simulator Block 2: Manoeuvring and safety (divided attention)

Simulator Block 3: Manoeuvring and safety (hazard perception)

Items : * Driving in traffic (position on the road, scanning strategies,...), manoeuvres (changing direction, overtaking, intersection negotiation,...)

* Driving in traffic (more complex situations), interrelation with other road users (pedestrians, bicycle, ...), different type of road (highway, motorway, rural road, urban road,...)

Simulator Block 4: Particular situations with higher risk

Simulator Block 5: Particular situations: new technologies, personality aspects

Items : * Special conditions training (darkness, rain, fog, snow, low friction, driving on a hill,...)

* Conclusion, attitudes (concentration, attention, emotion, social driving), taking decisions in traffic.

Table 33: TRAINER proposed curriculum for practical drivers training.

In summary, the content of the new TRAINER-based curriculum involves all important elements needed to train safe driving (the ‘educable qualities’, see Lonero et al., 1998). Educable qualities include the information processing and vehicle handling skills that young novice drivers use while driving, as well as the enduring personal traits, such as knowledge, motives, and social influence.(Lonero et al., 1998)

4.3 Adaptation to each pilot site

In this part, each curriculum from a given driving school such as described in chapter 2, is completed with MMT and simulator sessions. The existing curricula are not modified but completed with the TRAINER tools. The MMT block corresponding to the lesson content is placed after the lesson in the theoretical curriculum, whereas the simulator block is placed before the lesson in the practical curriculum.


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These adapted curricula will be tested during the project pilots. In this way, a common ‘general’ training structure is retained, allowing comparison between experimental and control groups during the tests.

4.3.1 Belgium

4.3.1.1 Belgian adapted theoretical curriculum

Nr Belgium

Sessions of 60 minutes

1 How to get a driving licence Techniques and principles of defensive driving Accidents (what, types, consequences)

2 Types of license (validity) Special states (alcohol, drugs, medicines, stress, fatigue,…) Highway code Traffic rules

MMT block 1:Basic knowledge

3 Speed (what, following distance...) Speed limits Braking techniques Priorities

4 Manoeuvres (what, what to do,...) Road crossings Crossing Overtaking (what, how) Changing direction (what, when, how)

5 Particular situations: - Highway - Motorway - Residential area - Speed ramp - 30 kms speed limit zones

MMT block 2: Manoeuvring and safety

6 Reversing and parking (what, rules, signs and defensive aspects)

7 Traffic lights Use of the horn Safety belt and child protection

8 Behaviour towards other road users

9 Risks (passengers, load, caravans,...) Breakdown (precautions) Accident with physical injury (first aid) Accident with material damage

MMT block 3: Particular situations: special states

10 Traffic signs

11 Road markings

12 Heavy penalties Technical requirements (brakes, tyres, windscreen, car documents...)

MMT block 4: Particular situations: new technologies Table 34: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Belgian driving school, adapted to include

of TRAINER MMT.


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4.3.1.2 Belgian adapted practical curriculum

Nr Belgium

Sessions of 120 minutes (total duration: 20 hours)

Simulator block 1: Basic control Simulator block 0: Acquaintance with the simulator

1 Security (go in and go out of the car, rear view mirror, safety belt,...) Driving instruments (steering, starting, clutch, handling the gear box,..)

2 In the traffic (positioning on the road, vis ual scanning, curves, crossroads,...) Crossing (speed, direction, priorities,...)

Simulator block 2: Manoeuvring and safety (divided attention) Simulator block 3: Manoeuvring and safety (hazard perception)

3 Changing direction (speed, priorities, left or right turn...) Overtaking (visual techniques, …)

4 Highway (positioning on the road, changing lanes, speed,...) On the training ground (manoeuvres) In the traffic (parking, turning...)

5 In the traffic (defensive driving, visual scanning, signs...)

6 Crossing (defensive driving, visual scanning, signs,...) Changing direction (defensive driving, visual scanning, left or right turn,...)

Simulator block 4: Particular situations with higher risk Simulator block 5: Particular situations: new technologies, personality aspects

7 Overtaking + manoeuvres (defensive driving, visual scanning, positioning,...)

8 Recapitulation + Manoeuvres

9 Traffic notions (taking a decision, ...) Attitudes (concentration and attention, emotion, social driving)

10 Recapitulation and Synthesis

Table 35: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Belgian driving school, adapted to include use of TRAINER simulator.


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4.3.2 Greece

4.3.2.1 Greek adapted theoretical curriculum

Nr Greece


1 Acquaintance with the car (driving instruments)

2 Acquaintance with the car Traffic signs, traffic lights, road signs, road crossing, priorities...

MMT block 1:Basic knowledge

3 Speed limits, safety distance, braking distance, stopping distance, vehicle positioning on the road.

4 Stop and parking on the road (traffic signs) Oncoming traffic Overtaking Driving in curves

5 Handling other road participants Handling road maps and definition of road Traffic signs in Highway - Motorway Highway driving Preparation of driver for longer trips


6 Driving under reduced visibility Driving under reduced friction Driving on rural roads Fatigue and hypovigilance


7 Behaviour in case of an accident Car insurance

8 Car maintenance Active and passive safety Economical driving Emergency situations, car malfunctions

MMT block 4: Particular situations: new technologies

9 Car documents Driving license categories Penalties Mechanical issues of cars Special rules for facilitation the transportation of people with special needs

10 Repetition

11 Repetition

12 Repetition

13 Repetition

Table 36: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Greek driving school, adapted to include use of TRAINER MMT.


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4.3.2.2 Greek adapted practical curriculum

Nr Greece

Sessions of 120 minutes (total duration: 20 hours)


1 Acquaintance with the car Driving in easy conditions

2 Driving towards a city peripheral road


3 Driving in urban area

4 Driving in urban area Reverse driving

5 Driving in urban area Reverse driving

6 Parking in the right side Reverse driving

7 Parking in the left side Reverse driving


8 Parking Reverse driving

9 Repetition

10 Repetition

Table 37: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Greek driving school, adapted to include use of TRAINER simulator.


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4.3.3 Spain

4.3.3.1 Spanish adapted theoretical curriculum

Nr Spain


1 Basic concepts

2 Administrative requirements to drive a car Factors which decrease the driving ability Other users

3 Drive controls and adjustments of the vehicle. Visibility: transparent elements of the car; light systems and optical signalling; other systems and signalling devices on vehicle. Number plates, signs and distinctive on vehicles. Tyre and adherence; brakes; passive safety.

MMT block 1: Basic knowledge

4 The road: fundamental notions; general rules about traffic signs; road marks; vertical signs; traffic lights; road work signs; signs and commands of police.

5 Normal Progression. Traffic Direction. Placement on the Road. Lane uses; speed; traffic incorporation and lateral displacements; overtaking; intersections. Overtaking; direction change. Reverse and stopping, parking. Car immobilization by police; road dangers: their signalling. Highway and main roads driving. Night and bad conditions with decreased visibility driving.


6 Transport of people and vehicle load

7 The special vehicles

8 Traffic accident factors. What to do in an accident.


9 Vehicle mechanics. Accessories, spares and tools. Periodic inspections.

10 Economical Driving, the Environment and Environmental Pollution


11 Preparation and Travel Planning

Table 38: Example of a theoretical driving curriculum used in a Spanish driving school, adapted to include use of TRAINER MMT.


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4.3.3.2 Spanish adapted practical curriculum

Nr Spain

Sessions of minimum 45 minutes (total duration: +/- 25 hours)


1 Learning with the vehicle stopped: Previous Checking. Vehicle Verification (What to be perform everyday; What to be performed periodically. Other things that the student has to know about the car) Before starting the vehicle engine (Adjustments and Regulations; Finding and knowledge about the vehicle controls. Start and stop the vehicle engine).

2 Learning to drive: Acquisition of the driving basic automatisms First step: Exercises to start to handle the vehicle controls

3 Learning to drive: Acquisition of the driving basic automatisms Second step: Exercises to complete the acquisition of the basic automatisms


4 Learning to drive: Improving and domain of the vehicle control handling Exerc ises to improve the gearshift handling Exercises to improve the steering wheel handling Exercises to improve the clutch handling Exercises to improve the brakes handling Exercises to learn reversing

5 Learning of specific traffic situations Training and practice with traffic in a normal progression and basic traffic manoeuvres (Normal progression. Incorporation to the traffic. Lateral displacement and lane changing. Stopping and parking. Overtaking. Intersections negotiation. Direction change).


6 Learning of specific traffic situations: Driving adaptation of the vehicle to special and/or particular conditions (Highway and main roads driving. Urban driving. Saturated roads. Adverse environmental conditions driving. Night driving. Driving on a hill).

Table 39: Example of a practical driving curriculum used in a Spanish driving school, adapted to include use of TRAINER simulator.


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4.3.4 Sweden

4.3.4.1 Swedish adapted theoretical and practical curriculum

Nr Sweden


1 Vehicle knowledge To provide knowledge about vehicle construction and maintenance and to enlighten the environmental and economical factors that are related to road traffic. (function and maintenance of engine, electrical system, steering, brakes, wheels/tyres, 2-/4- wheel drive; how load the car; influence of trailer on driving; fuel consumption; pollution)


1’ The vehicle Provide skills in detecting errors and wear, to repair minor errors, and to load the car in a safe way. (Perform controls and detect errors on steering, brakes, wheels, tyres, lights, electrical system, exhaust system. Change bulbs, fuses, wipers and wheels. Check fuel, oil, brake fluid, battery fluid, cooling fluid etc. Perform safety control. Load the car safely.)

2 Traffic rules To provide knowledge about the traffic rules, which is a necessary precondition for cooperation between road users. (the learner is expected to know all traffic rules).

MMT Block 1: Basic knowledge


2’ Manoeuvring Provide a high level of skills concerning choice of measure, co-ordination, quickness and carefulness concerning manoeuvring of the car. (Posture, controls, mirrors, safety belts, start, stop, slow driving, steering, precision driving, reversing, start in sloops, gear shift, braking, turning, parking, co-ordination of tasks.)

3 Unexpected situations in traffic Provide larger risk awareness through knowledge about the risks that are present in the traffic. To show hidden hazards and provide awareness of small safety margins. (typical accidents, accident development and distributions, accident causes, consequences, and countermeasures).


3’ Driving in traffic (defensive driving) Provide such knowledge, skills and attitudes that the learner reaches a clear willingness to carefulness and consideration towards other road users. Use and realise the advantages with a defensive driving style and chose the correct speed in different traffic situations. (Starting from the road side, positioning, speed choice, meeting, platoons, lane shifting, car following, parallel driving, junctions, roundabouts, one-way streets, zebra crossings, bicycle paths, turning, stopping, parking, overtaking, motorways and highways, railway crossings, road works, unprotected road users, animals, emergency vehicles, attention, risk awareness.)

4 Human limitations Provide better self-assessment through knowledge about human limitations, overestimation and by pointing out that a good driver is recognised by personal maturity and respect towards other people. (Prediction, rules, moral, human capacity, interpretation, decision making, locomotion, maturity, personality, social aspects, disabilities, fatigue, alcohol, drugs, learning principles.)



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4’ Driving in special conditions Provide knowledge, skills and attitudes concerning driving in low visibility, darkness and low friction. (Fog, rain, snow, darkness, low friction.)

5 Others aspects and application of certain regulations Provide knowledge about rules and driving in certain environments such as city traffic, rural roads, driving in darkness, low friction. Provide knowledge about important regulations concerning load, driving license and violations. (stopping distance, special rules and demands for driving in cities, motorways, highways. Shift ing beams, visibility darkness, risks and demands for driving in low friction, winter equipment, winter tyres. License regulations, rules for practising, mandatory car controls, control sticker. Passengers and load, safety belts, use of trailers. Measures at accident site, first aid. Responsibility rules in traffic. Insurance, car registration…)


5’ Skid course (4 hours)

Table 40: Example of a driving curriculum used in a Swedish driving school, adapted to include use of TRAINER tools.


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5 CONCLUSIONS

The over- involvement of young novice drivers in road accidents is a well-established international phenomenon (Drummond, 1989). Both age and experience are interacting variables that can explain this fact. While hazard control skills are still developing, the progressive automatization of car control skills makes young novice drivers overconfident in their own abilities (Summala, 1987). At the same time, young drivers have a tendency to also use the car for extra-motives (e.g., sensation seeking while driving), so that they drive faster and, as a consequence, the driving task may become so difficult that the demands exceed the young novice drivers’ capabilities.

As a first step in the TRAINER project, the specific driving situations where young novice drivers have some particular difficulties have been reviewed (Hoeschen and Bekiaris, 2001). Then, existing training methodologies in Europe have been analysed (Groot et al., 2001) and opinions of experts (professional instructors) has been collected (CIECA and TRAINER driving school questionnaires, see D1.2). All data allowed to put in evidence the discrepancies existing between what young novice drivers should learn during their training period and what is actually taught by existing training curricula, confirming there is a real need to improve current training practices. The aim of this TRAINER deliverable was to propose a new driver training methodology and to explain its development steps. The new methodology is a combination of current training practices with the use of an original interactive Multi-Media Tool (MMT) and a Low and/or a Mean Cost Simulator (LCS/MCS). The way these tools have been designed in the framework of the project was to provide support to traditional theoretical and practical driver training and thus compensate some of their reported weaknesses.

It seems clear that current training methods are essentially based on ‘knowledge’ and ‘skills’ (Lefebvre, 2001). They don’t deal enough with higher- level behaviours, like attitudes. Introduce attitudes (representation, motivation, emotion) in driving training and focus on anticipative or preventive driving rather than on defensive driving should thus be helpful in reducing the young novice driver problem. But it seems difficult to provide young novice drivers with the experience they need to learn safe driving, while saving them from exposure to real hazards (Summala, 1987). Simulators are thus increasingly deployed as training devices for complex tasks, such as flying and driving because training on real situations can be too dangerous and too costly (van Emmerik and Van Rooij, 1999). Moreover in a simulator, trainees can be confronted with rare and critical driving tasks and they can thus learn how to cope with and anticipate them (Heinrich, 1996).


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In order to allow that all ‘educable qualities’ (Lonero et al., 1998) are taken into account and to meet the 'safety' objective of driver education, the TRAINER training methodology integrates new technologies, i.e. a MMT and two simulators.

The MMT scenarios (Roskam et al., 2001) and simulator scenarios (Gregersen and Falkmer, 2001) which have been designed allow to confront novice drivers with the specific driving situations which are particularly problematic for them, as reported in the TRAINER deliverable 2.1. For example, the use of new car control aids (ABS, ACC, etc.) is a topic, which is often missing in common driver trainings. In order to fill this gap, a specific MMT block deals with the theme ‘new technologies’. Regarding the use of a simulator for training purposes, the efficacy depends not only on the technical characteristics of the system, but also on the scenarios presented to the subjects. In TRAINER emphasis has thus been done on the theoretical relevance of the scenarios.

The TRAINER MMT must be considered as a complementary training tool to the traditional theory lessons. It supports theoretical training on the strategic and tactical/manoeuvring level (risk awareness, hazard perception, self-perception, etc.). In the new TRAINER-based curriculum, all scenarios have been grouped into blocks dealing with a specific theme, so that they can easily be integrated in any traditional theoretical curriculum. The different blocks are ‘Basic Knowledge’, ‘Manoeuvring and Safety’, ‘Particular Situations (special states)’ and ‘Particular Situations (new technologies)’. Inside the new TRAINER-based theoretical curriculum, it is proposed that each standard theoretical lesson is followed by the corresponding MMT-based lesson (dealing with the same theme), so that the trainee can immediately put the matter previously seen into practice.

In the same way, the developed TRAINER simulator scenarios have also been grouped into blocks and can be used as a complementary tool to traditional practical driving lessons. Though simulators are an efficient way to improve driving training (Allen, 2001; Awane, 1999), they are not sufficient to form a safe driver. For example, communication between road users is very important in traffic but it is difficult to simulate. In addition, trainees can loose their motivation when they are trained using a simulator if they directly want to drive a car! Thus, it is clear that driving a real car in real situations will always be needed. The low cost simulator can be helpful in training and assessment of manoeuvring and control tasks, while the mean cost simulator can additionally support specific needs of selected driver cohorts. The different simulator scenario blocks, which have been designed, are ‘Basic knowledge’, ‘Manoeuvring and Safety (divided attention)’, ‘Manoeuvring and Safety (hazard perception)’, ‘Particular Situations with higher risk’, and ‘Particular Situations: new technology (personality aspects)’. As for the theoretical TRAINER curriculum, simulator scenarios can easily been embedded into traditional driving curricula. In the new practical TRAINER-based curriculum, simulator blocks precede the corresponding practical lessons since using the simulator for teaching basic handling skills before moving up to practice with real vehicles is particularly indicated with inexperienced drivers (Awane, 1999).


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The main advantage of the new TRAINER-based curriculum (both theoretical and practical parts) is to present the flexibility needed to be adaptable as a function of the national legislative requirements of each country regarding driving curricula. Another advantage relates to the user-friendly environment of the new TRAINER MMT and MCS/ LCS tools. They are interactive so that the trainee (or the instructor) can choose a particular theme according to his/her specific needs. A training and a test mode are available both with the MMT and the simulators. Self-assessment is given through the feedback provided each time a given scenario is completed and after a whole block. Finally, an original scoring system has been designed in order to provide each trainee with a single score after the completion of the MMT or the simulator test mode.

In order to test the new TRAINER methodology a series of experiments will be carried out in four pilot sites, namely in Belgium, Greece, Spain, and Sweden. Tests will allow to compare performance in the theoretical and practical driving tests of young novice drivers, trained with the new methodology against the performance of young novice drivers undergoing a traditional driving course. In previous published simulator studies, the exact effect of the use of a simulator during training was difficult to establish, given the differences in the way groups of subjects were treated (Van Emmerik and van Rooij, 1999). Thus, it is planned in TRAINER to expose all subjects (experimental vs. control group) to the same ‘general’ training, the difference being the simple addition of Multi-Media and simulator sessions. The pilot results will be published in the next TRAINER deliverable 6.2. As part of the TRAINER project, an assessment of the traffic safety impact of the TRAINER tool should also be performed by comparing actual driver behaviour of an experimental group (learner drivers educated with the TRAINER tools) and a matched control group. Drivers’ behaviour being influenced by the hazard perceptual abilities of the driver, hazard perception will be assessed through the assessment of visual search strategies during actual driving.


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6 REFERENCES

Allen, R. Wade, Harmsen, A., Markham, S. (2001). A novice driver training experiment using low-cost PC simulation technology. Communication presented in “International driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design”, Aspen, Augustus 14-17, 2001.

Awane, T. (1999). Integrating simulators in motorcycle safety education. “IATSS Research”, 23(1), pp 26-36.

Brookhuis, K.A., De Waard, D, & Fairclough, S.H. (submitted) Criteria for driver impairment.

Christ, R., Delhomme, P., Kaba, A., Mäkinen, T., Sagberg, F., Schulze, H., Siegrist, S. (2000). GADGET Final Report: Investigations on influences upon driver behaviour – safety approaches in comparison and combination. Kuratorium für verkehrssicherheit, Vienna.

Deery, H.A. (1999). Hazard perception among young novice drivers. Journal of Safety Research, 30 (4), 225-236.

Drummond, A. E. (1995) An overview of novice driver performance issues - a literature review - executive summary, www.general.monash.edu.au/muarc/rptsum/es09.htm.

Elander, J., West, R. & French, D. (1993). Behavioral correlates of individual differences in road-traffic crash risk: an examination of methods and findings. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 279-294.

Farmer, Rooj, Riemersma, Jornaa & Moraal (1999). Handbook of Simulator-Based Training. Aldershot, Brookfield, Singapore, Sydney: Ashgate.

Finn, P. & Bragg, B.W.E. (1986). Perception of the risk of an accident by young and older drivers. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 18, 289-298.

Gieseler, T., Baten, G. (2001). General rules for the training in the TRAINER simulators. TRAINER internal report.

Gregersen & Falkmer (2001). Full description of 31 scenarios for simulator. TRAINER internal report.

Gregersen, N.P., Falkmer, T., Dols, J., Pardo, J. (2001). Driving simulator scenarios and requirements. TRAINER Deliverable (D4.1).

Gregersen, N.P., Falkmer, T. (2001). Pilot plans. TRAINER Deliverable (D6.1).

Groot, H.A.M., Vandenberghe, D., Van Aerschot, G., Bekiaris, E. (2001). Survey of existing training methodologies and driving instructor’ needs. TRAINER Deliverable (D1.2).

Hatakka, M., Keskinen, E., Gregersen, N. P., & Glad, A. (1999). Theories and aims of educational and training measures. In S. Siegrist (Ed.), Driver training, testing and licensing - toward theory-based management of young drivers’ injury risk in road traffic. Results of EU-Project GADGET (Vol. bfu-Report 40). Berne: Schweizerische Beratungsstelle für Unfallverhutung (bfu).

Heinrich, H.C. (1996). Driver training and the evaluation of driving simulators. Paper presented at the international conference “Road safety in Europe”, Birmingham, 9-11 september 1996.


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Hendrix, M., Groot, H. and Vandenberghe, D. (2001). Guide on Driver Licensing, CIECA, Brussels 2001.

Hoeschen, A. & Bekiaris, E. (2001) Inventory of driver training needs and major gaps in the relevant training procedures. TRAINER Deliverable (D2.1).

Ivancic, K., Hesketh, B. (2000). Learning errors in a driving simulation: effects on driving skill and self-confidence. Ergonomics, 43 (12), 1966-1984.

Jamson, H. (1999) Curve Negotiation in the Leeds Driving Simulator: The Role of Driver Experience. In Harris, D. (ed.) Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics Vol. 3. Aldershot, Brookfield, Singapore, Sydney: Ashgate

Katila, A., Keskinen, E., Hatakka, M. (1996). Conflicting goals of skid training. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 28(6), 785-789.

Keskinen, E., Hatakka, M., Katila, A., Laapotti, S., Peräaho, M. (1999). Driver training in Finland. . “IATSS Research”, 23(1), pp 78-84.

Lefebvre, C. (2001). Vers une formation à la conduite automobile intégrant des connaissances conceptuelles et des métaconnaissances. Recherche Transport Sécurité, 70, 16-37.

Lewin, I. (1982). Driver training: a perceptual-motor skill approach. Ergonomics, 25 (10), 917-924.

Lonero, L., Clinton, K., Brock, J., Wilde, G., Laurie, I., Black, D. (1998). Novice driver education: model curriculum outline. AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, Washington D.C.

Lonero, L.P. (2001). Driver education content. In Driver Education at the Crossroads, Transportation Research E-CIRCULAR, Washington DC.

Maycock, G., Lockwood, C.R. & Lester, J.F. (1991). The accident liability of car drivers. TRL Research Report 315. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.

Mc Kenna, F.P. (1998). Future directions for driver testing and training. Driving Magazine, 1, 24.

Mc Kenna, F.P., Horswill, M.S. (1999). Hazard perception and its relevance for driver licensing. “IATSS Research”, 23(1), pp 36-41.

Michon, John A. (1985) A critical view of driver behavior models: what do we know, what should we do? In: Evans, L. & Schwing, R.C. (eds), Human Behavior and Traffic Safety, 485-520.

Pirenne, D., Arno, P., Baten, G. (2001) Simulator Scenario Clustering. TRAINER internal report.

Ponsford, J. (1990). The use of computers in the rehabilitation of attention disorders. In Wood, R.L., Fussey, I. (Eds.) Cognitive rehabilitation in perspective. Taylor & Francis, London


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Reed, M.P., Green, P.A. (1999). Comparison of driving performance on-road and in a low-cost simulator using a concurrent telephone dialling task. Ergonomics, 42(8), 1015-1037.

Regan, M.A., Deery, H.A., Triggs, T.J. (1998). A technique for enhancing risk perception in novice car drivers. In the proceedings of the Road Safety Research, Policing, Education Conference. Wellington, New Zealand, November 16-17, 1998, Vol. 1, 51-56.

Reichart, G. (2000) Menschliche Zuverlässigkeit beim Führen von Kraftfahrzeugen (Human Reliability in Driving Road Vehicles). Ph. D. Thesis, University of Munich, Germany.

Roskam, A-J, de Waard, D. (2001) Descriptions of Multi-Media scenarios. TRAINER internal report RUG 3_1_2.doc.

Summala, H. (1987). Young driver accidents: Risk taking or failure of skill. Alcohol, Drugs and Driving, 3 (3-4), 79-91.

Summala, H. (2000) Brake Reaction Times and Driver Behavior Analysis. Transportation Human Factors, 2, 217 – 226.

Taieb-Maimon M. & Shinar D. (2001) Minimum and Comfortable Driving Headways: Reality versus Perception. Human Factors, 43, 159 – 172.

Van Emmerik, M. L., van Rooij, J. (1999) Efficient Simulator Training: Beyond Fidelity, Proceedings of the 10th International Training & Education Conference, (1999).

West, R., Hall, J. (1997). The role of personality and attitudes in traffic accident risk. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46 (3), 253-264.


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ANNEX: THE GADGET-MATRIX: HIERARCHICAL LEVELS OF DRIVING BEHAVIOUR

The GADGET-matrix conceptualises the driving task as a hierarchy. The approach was elaborated by the EU-project GADGET (Hatakka et al. 1999). It assumes that higher level driving skills and personal motives influence lower levels of driving behaviour. The hierarchy shows many similarities with the division of the driving task into a strategical, a tactical and a control level as proposed by Michon (1985). The critical difference between the Michon model and the GADGET approach is the addition of a fourth level related to interindividual differences and ambitions in life in general into the GADGET matrix. Such personal variables influence the driving style and have therefore a mediating effect on road safety. The GADGET approach distinguishes between the following four levels.

• Fourth level: Goals for life and skills for living • Third level: Goals and context of driving • Second level: Mastering traffic situations • First level: Vehicle manoeuvring

The highest level refers to personal motives and individual tendencies in general. Sociological and psychological variables like economical status, gender, age and other related individual preconditions have an influence on personal attitudes of the driver, and, thus, effect driving behaviour and accident involvement.

On the third level, the focus is on the intentions of the driver in a specific context. Emphasis is on the why, where, when and with whom the driving task is carried out. Examples for questions to be solved on this level are the choice between car or public transport, time to travel, the route to take and so on.

The second level is about actual driving in traffic. A driver must be able to manoeuvre her/his car in interaction with a constantly changing traffic environment. Identification of potential hazards is one of the most important skills on this level.

The lowest level is focusing on car control and operating the vehicle in general. Basic skills like starting the car, shifting gears, steering and braking belong to this level.

Table 1 (next page, adapted from TRAINER Deliverable D2.1) describes in more detail the meaning of the four levels of the driving task, and the correspondence between the GADGET approach and the Michon model. Each level of the driving task is further divided into three columns: knowledge and skills which are required at the level in question, factors related to this level which are associated with a higher risk potential, and self-evaluation / self-awareness aspects of each level.


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Level of the driving task

Knowledge and skills

Risk-increasing factors

Self- evaluation

Goals for life and skills for

living (general)

Knowledge about/ control over how life -goals and personal tendencies affect driving behaviour

• lifestyle/life situation • peer group norms • motives • self-control, other

characteristics • personal values

...

Risky tendencies • acceptance of risks • self-enhancement through

driving • high level of sensation

seeking • complying with social

pressure • use of alcohol and drugs • values, attitudes towards

society...

Self-evaluation/ awareness of

• personal skills for impulse control

• risky tendencies • safety -negative motives • personal risky habits

...

Driving goals and context (trip-related)

Knowledge and skills concerning

• effects of journey goals on driving

• planning and choosing routes

• evaluation of requested driving time

• effects of social pressure inside the car

• evaluation of necessity of the journey...

Risks connected with • driver’s condition (mood,

BAC, etc.) • purpose of driving • driving environment

(rural/urban) • social context and

company • additional motives

(competitive, etc.) ...


• personal planning skills • typical driving goals • typical risky driving

motives ...

Mastery of traffic situations


• traffic regulations • observation/selection of

signals • anticipation of the

development of situations • speed adjustment • communication • driving path • driving order • distance to others/safety

margins ...

Risks caused by • wrong expectations • risk-increasing driving

style (e. g. aggressive) • unsuitable speed

adjustment • vulnerable road-users • not obeying regulations/

unpredictable behaviour • information overload • difficult conditions

(darkness, etc.) • insufficient automatism or

skills...


• strong and weak points of basic traffic skills

• personal driving style • personal safety margins • strong and weak points for

hazard situations • realistic self-evaluation

...

Hie

rarc

hic

al le

vels

of

dri

vin

g b

ehav

iou

r

Vehicle manoeuvring


• control of direction and position

• tyre grip and friction • vehicle properties • physical phenomena

...

Risks connected with • insufficient automatism or

skills • unsuitable speed

adjustment • difficult conditions (low

friction, etc.) ...

Awareness of • strong and weak points of

basic manoeuvring skills • strong and weak points of

skills for hazard situations • realistic self-evaluation...

Table 41: TRAINER adaptation of the GADGET matrix.

Documents

TRAINER assessment criteria and methodology · Partner: IAT C. Knoll, H. Widlroither Partner: FOERST K. Foerst Partner: AUTH E. Bekiaris Project Co-ordinator: Mr. Guido BATEN BIVV/CARA