Traffic Engineering (4th Edition) by Roger P. Roess, Elena S. Prassas, & William R. McShane
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Traffic Engineering, 4e, is ideal for a one/two-semester undergraduate survey, and/or for graduate courses on Traffic Engineering, Highway Capacity Analysis, and Traffic Control and Operations.This unique text focuses on the key engineering skills required to practice traffic engineering in a modern setting. It includes material on the latest standards and criteria of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (2003 Edition and forthcoming 2010 Edition), the Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2004 Edition), the Highway Capacity Manual (2000 Edition and forthcoming 2010 Edition), and other critical references. It also presents both fundamental theory and a broad range of applications to modern problems.
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Polytechnic Institute of New York University Elena S. Prassas, Ph.D. William R. McShane, Ph.D., P.E., P.T.O.E. President, KLD Engineering, PC. Professor Emeritus Polytechnic Institute of New York University PEARSON Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo 1 Marcia J. Horton Vice President, Production: Vince O'Brien Marketing Manager: Tim Galligan Marketing Assistant: Mack Patterson Senior Managing Editor: Scott Disanno Production Project Manager: Clare Romeo Senior Operations Specialist: Alan Fischer Operations Specialist: Lisa McDowell Art Director, Interior: Greg Dulles Art Director, Cover: Kristine Carney Cover Designer: Bruce Keneslaar Cover Illiistration/Photo(s): Shutterstock Manager, Rights and Permissions: Zina Arabia Manager, Visual Research: Beth Brenzel Image Permission Coordinator: Debbie Latronica Manager, Cover Visual Research & Permissions: Karen Sanatar Composition: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printer/Binder: Hamilton Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text. Copyright © 2011,2004, by Pearson Higher Education, Ino, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permissions should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, pholocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use materials from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Higher Education, Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These efforts include the development, research, and testing of theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The author and publisher make no warranty of any kindi expressed of implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation contained in this book. The author and publisher shall not . be liable in any event for incidental or consequential damages with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Roess, Roger P. Traffic engineering / Roger P. Roess, Elena S. Prassas, William R. McShane. - 4th ed. p. cm. HE355.M43 20H Profession 1 Function 3 United States 8 Engineering 12 1 Engineer 13 Standard References for the Traffic Engineer 14 Metric versus U.S. Units 15 Closing Comments 15 3 .1 Highway Functions and Classification 35 Design Elements 39 3 .6 Closing Comments 62 References 63 Problems 64 1 . 6 1 . 7 1 . 8 References 15 2 Road User and Vehicle Characteristics 17 Components 17 2 Applications 31 2 Problems 34 Devices 65 4 .5 Special Types of Control 93 4 .6 Summary and Conclusion 94 References 94 Problems 94 Speed, and Density 103 5 .4 Closing Comments 105 References 105 Problems 105 iv CONTENTS i i Theory 107 6 .1 Basic Models of Uninterrupted Flow 107 6 .2 Queueing Theory 112 6 .3 Shock-Wave Theory and Applications 117 6 .4 Characteristics of Interrupted Flow 119 6 .5 Closing Comments 119 References 120 Problems 120 7 .1 Overview of Probability Functions and Statistics 123 Applications 125 7 7 . 5 Addition of Random Variables 129 7 . 6 The Binomial Distribution Related to the Bernoulli and Normal Distributions 131 7 . 7 The Poisson Distribution 133 7 .8 Hypothesis Testing 134 7 .9 Summary and Closing Comments 144 References 146 Problems 146 Methodologies 148 8 .1 Applications of Traffic Data 148 8 .2 Types of Studies 149 83 Data Collection Methodologies 150 8 . 4 Data Reduction 159 8 .6 Aerial Photography and Digitizing Technology 159 8 References 163 Problems 163 9 . 9 . 3 Volume Characteristics 169 9 . 4 Intersection Volume Studies 174 c 9 . 5 Limited Network Volume Studies 176 9 .6 Statewide Counting Programs 184 9 .7 Specialized Counting Studies 189 9 .8 Closing Comments 195 References 195 Problems 195 10.1 Introduction 198 10.2 Spot Speed Studies 199 10.3 Travel-Time Studies 211 10.4 Intersection Delay Studies 218 10.5 Closing Comments 222 References 222 Problems 223 Statistics, and Programs 225 11.1 Introduction 225 11.2 Approaches to Highway Safety 227 11.3 Accident Data Collection and Record Systems 230 11.4 Accident Statistics 234 11.5 Site Analysis 240 1 * Problems 248 12 Parking 250 12.1 Introduction 250 12.2 Parking Generation and Supply Needs 250 12.3 Parking Studies and Characteristics 254 12.4 Design Aspects of Parking Facilities 263 12.5 Parking Programs 270 12.6 Closing Comments 271 References 272 Problems 272 13 Fundamental Concepts for Uninterrupted Flow Facilities 275 13.1 Types of Uninterrupted Flow Facilities 275 13.2 The Highway Capacity Manual 276 13.3 The Capacity Concept 277 13.4 The Level of Service Concept 278 13.5 Service Flow Rates and Service Volumes 281 13.6 The v/c Ratio and Its Use in Capacity Analysis 282 ONTENTS v 13.8 Closing Comments 283 References 283 Problems 284 14.1 Facility Types 285 14.2 Basic Freeway and Multilane Highway Characteristics 286 14.3 Analysis Methodologies for Basic Freeway Sections and Multilane Highways 291 . 14.4 Sample Problems 303 14.5 Calibration Speed-Flow-Density Curves 309 14.6 Calibrating Passenger-Car Equivalents 309 14.7 Calibrating the Driver Population Factor 312 14.8 Adjustment Factors to Free-Row Speed 313 14.9 Software 313 14.10 Source Documents 313 References 313 Problems 314 5 Weaving, Merging, and Diverging Movements on Freeways and Multilane Highways 316 15.1 Turbulence Areas on Freeways and Multilane Highways 316 15.2 Level-of-Service Criteria 317 15.6 Basic Characteristics of Merge and Diverge Segment Analysis 333 15.7 Computational Procedures for Merge and Diverge Segments 335 15.8 Sample Problems in Weaving, Merging, and Diverging Analysis 342 15.9 Analysis of Freeway Facilities 352 References 353 Problems 354 16.2 Design Standards 363 16.3 Passing Sight Distance on Two-Lane Highways 365 16.4 Capacity and Level-of-Service Analysis of Two-Lane Rural Highways 366 16.5 Sample Problems in Analysis of Rural Two-Lane Highways 37T 16.6 The Impact of Passing and Truck Climbing Lanes 384 16.7 Summary 387 References 387 Problems 387 17 Signing and Marking for Freeways and Rural Highways 389 17.1 Traffic Markings on Freeways and Rural Highways 389 1-7 .2 Establishing and Posting of Speed Limits 394 17.3 Guide Signing of Freeways and Rural Highways 396 17.4 Other Signs on Freeways and Rural Highways 404 References 405 Problems 407 Part 4 The Intersection 409 ( Ts ) The Hierarchy of Intersection ,v \ V9 v> Control 410 v-' L' 18.1 Level I Control: Basic Rules of the Road 411 Control 413 Control Signals 417 18.4 Closing Comments 432 References 432 Problems 432 19.1 Intersection Design Objectives and Considerations 437 19.2 A Basic Starting Point: Sizing the Intersection 438 19 3 Intersection Channelization 441 19.4 Special Situations at Intersections 443 19.5 Street Hardware for Signalized Intersections 454 Problems 459 v t Signalization 461 20.1 Terms and Definitions 461 20.2 Discharge Headways, Saturation Flow, Lost Times, and Capacity 465 20.3 The Critical-Lane and Time-Budget Concepts 469 20.4 The Concept of Left-Turn (and Right-Tum) Equivalency 474 20.5 Delay as a Measure of Effectiveness 476 20.6 Overview 485 References 486 Problems 486 Fundamentals of Signal Timing and Design: Pretimed Signals 489 21.1 Development of Signal Phase Plans 490 21.2 Determining Vehicular Signal Requirements 503 21.3 Determining Pedestrian Signal Requirements 508 21.4 Compound Signal Timing 511 21.5 Sample Signal Timing Applications 511 21.6 References 522 References 522 Problems 522 Fundamentals of Signal Timing: Actuated Signals 526 22.1 Types of Actuated Control 527 22.2 Detectors and Detection 528 22.3 Actuated Control Features and Operation 529 22.4 Actuated Signal Timing and Design 531 22.5 Examples in Actuated Signal Design and Timing 537 References 542 Problems 542 23 Critical Movement Analysis of Signalized Intersections 545 23.1 The TRB Circular 212 Methodology 546 23.2 A Critical Movement Approach to Signalized Intersection Analysis 546 23.3 Sample Problems Using Critical Movement Analysis 558 23.4 Closing Comments 570 References 570 Problems 571 24.3 The Basic Model 579 24.4 A "Simple" Sample Problem 598 24.5 Complexities 605 24.6 Calibration Issues 610 24.7 Summary 615 References 615 Problems 615 25 Intelligent Transportation Systems in Support of Traffic Management and Control 620 25.1 ITS Standards 621 25.3 ITS Organizations and Sources of Information 622 25,4 ITS-Related Commercial Routing and Delivery 623 25.5 Sensing Traffic by Virtual and Other Detectors 623 25.6 Traffic Control in an ITS Environment 624 25.7 How Fast Is Fast Enough? 629 25.8 Emerging Issues 630 25.9 Summary 631 Problems 631 26 Signal Coordination for Arterials and Networks: Undersatu rated Conditions 632 26.3 Bandwidth Concepts 636 26.4 The Effect of Queued Vehicles at Signals 638 26.5 Signal Progression for Two-Way Streets and Networks 640 26.6 Common Types of Progression 646 26.7 Software for Doing Signal Progression 650 26.8 Closing Comments 656 References 657 o Problems 658 ONTENTS vii Conditions 663 27.2 Root Causes of Congestion and Oversaturation 664 27.3 Overall Approaches to Address Oversaturation 665 27.4 Classification 666 27.5 Metering Plans 667 27.6 Signal Remedies 669 27.7 Variations in Demand and Capacity 673 27.8 Summary and Further Readings 676 References 677 28.1 Arterial Planning Issues and Approaches 678 28.2 Multimodal Performance Problems 684 29 Planning, Design, and Operation of Streets and Artenals 686 29.1 Kramer's Concept of an Ideal Suburban Arterial 687 29.2 Principles Guiding Local Streets 688 29.3 Access Management 688 29.4 Balanced Streets and Complete Streets 691 29.5 Traffic Calming 694 29.6 Roundabouts 698 29.7 Netwoik Issues 698 Problems 707 30 Traffic Impact Analysis 708 30.1 Scope of This Chapter 709 30.2 An Overview of the Process 709 30.3 Tools, Methods, and Metrics 712 30.4 Case Sliidy 1: Driveway Location 714 30.5 Case Study 2: Most Segments of a Traffic Impact Analysis 715 30.6 Summay 726 References 726 Problems 726 Index 728 ' s "lifeblood circulation system." Our complex system of roads and highways, railroads, airports and airlines, waterways, and urban transit systems provides for the movement of people and goods within and between our densest urban cities and the most remote outposts of the nation. Without the ability to travel and to transport goods, society must be stmctured around small self-sufficient communities, each of which produces food and material for all of its needs locally and disposes of its wastes in a similar manner. The benefits of economic specialization and mass production are possible only where transportation exists to move needed materials of production to centralized loca- tions, and finished products to widely dispersed consumers. Traffic engineering deals with one critical element of the transportation system: streets and highways, and their use by vehicles. This vast national system provides mobility and access for individuals in private autos and for goods in trucks of various sizes and forms, and facilitates public transport by supporting buses, bicycles, and pedestrians. Because the transportation system is such a critical part of our public infrastmcture, the traffic engineer is involved in a wide range of issues, often in a very public setting, and must bring a wide range of skills to the table to be effective. Traffic engineers must have an appreciation for and understanding of planning, design, management, construction, operation, control, and system optimization. All of these functions involve traffic engineers at some level. This text focuses on the key engineering skills required to practice traffic engineering in a modern setting. This is the fourth edition of this textbook. It includes material on the lat- est standards and criteria of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (2003 Edition and forthcoming 2010 Edition), the Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2004 Edition), the Highway Capacity Manual (2000 Edition and forthcoming 2010 Edition), and other critical references. It also presents both fundamental theory and a broad range of applications to modern problems. The text is organized in five major functional parts: . Part I-Traffic Components and Characteristics . Part 2-Traffic Studies and Programs . Part 3-Freeways and Rural Highways . Part 4-The Intersection . Part 5-Arterials , Networks, and Systems This text can be used for an undergraduate survey course, or for more detailed graduate courses. At Polytechnic Institute of " New York University, it is used for two undergraduate courses and a series of three graduate courses. As in previous editions, the text contains many sample problems and illustrations that can be used in conjunction with course material. A solutions manual is available . The authors hope that practicing professionals and students find this text useful and informative . What's New in This Edition This edition of the textbook adds a significant amount of material, including, but not limited to: 2 . New chapters on Traffic Flow Theory, Analysis of Arterials in a Multimodal Setting, Critical Movement Analysis of Signalized Intersections, and Traffic Impact Studies. 3 . Material from the latest editions of key traffic engi- neering references, including the Traffic Engineering Handbook, the Manual of Uniform Traffic Control 7 -I m Devices, the Traffic Signal Timing Handbook; and the Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. 4 . Substantial material from forthcoming new editions of the Highway Capacity Manual (2010) and Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (2010), which were obtained from research documents, draft materials, and other source documents has been included. Since some of this materia! has not yet been officially adopted, it provides a preview, but not final information on these standard documents. 5 . New material on actuated signal systems and timing. 6 . New material on coordination of signal systems. 7 . demonstration solutions using current software packages. Roger P. Roess Elena S. Prassas William R . McShane The Institute of Transportation Engineers defines traffic engineering as a subset of transportation engineering as follows []]: Transportation engineering is the application of tech- nology and scientific principles to the planning, func- tional design, operation, and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods. and: Traffic engineering is that phase of transportation engi- neering which deals with the planning, geometric design and traffic operations of roads, streets, and high- ways, their networks, terminals, abutting lands, and relationships with other modes of transportation. These definitions represent a broadening of the profession to include multimodal transportation systems and options, and to include a variety of objectives in addition to the traditional goals of safety and efficiency. 1 . 1 .1 Safety: The Primary Objective The principal goal of the traffic engineer remains the provision of a safe system for highway traffic. This is no small concern. In recent years, fatalities on U.S. highways have ranged between 40,000 and 43,000 per year. Although this is a reduction from the highs experienced in the 1970s, when highway fatalities reached more than 55,000 per year, it continues to represent a staggering number. Rising fuel prices in 2008 and 2009 have had an impact on both fatalities and vehicle-miles travelled. In 2008, fatalities were reduced to 37,261, the first time the number dipped below 40,000 in many years. Some of this was due to a reduction in vehicle-miles travelled, which dipped under 3 .0 trillion miles after two years over this level. It remains to be seen whether this reduction is sustainable or whether fatalities will rise once again when (and if) the fuel cost issues are resolved. One point, however, remains: More Americans have been killed on U.S. highways than in all of the wars in which the nation has participated, including the Civil War. Although total highway fatalities per year have remained relatively stable over the past two decades, accident rates based on vehicle-miles traveled have consistently declined. That is because U.S. motorists continue to drive more miles each year. With a stable total number of fatalities, the increasing number of annual vehicle-miles traveled pro- duces a declining fatality rate. This trend will also be affected by the decrease in vehicle use in 2008 and 2009. 1 ;;r- 2 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC ENGINEERING Improvements in fatality rates reflect a number of trends, many of which traffic engineers have been instrumental in implementing. Stronger efforts to remove dangerous drivers from the road have yielded significant dividends in safety. Driving under the influence (DUI) and driving while intoxicated (DWI) offenses are more strictly enforced, and licenses are suspended or revoked more easily as a result of DUI/DWI convictions, poor accident record, and/or poor violations record. Vehicle design has greatly improved (encouraged by several acts of Congress requiring certain improvements). Today 's vehicles feature padded dashboards, collapsible steering columns, seat belts with shoulder harnesses, air bags (some vehicles now have as many as eight), and antilock braking systems. Highway design has improved through the development and use of advanced barrier systems for medians and roadside areas. Traffic control systems communicate better and faster, and surveillance systems can alert authorities to accidents and break- downs in the system. Despite this, however, approximately 40,000 people per year still die in traffic accidents. The objective of safe travel is always number one and is never finished for the traffic engineer. 1 . 1 The definitions of transportation and traffic engineering high- light additional objectives: . Speed . Comfort . Convenience . Economy . Environmental compatibility Most of these are self-evident desires of the traveler. Most of us want our trips to be fast, comfortable, convenient, cheap, and in harmony with the environment. All of these objectives are also relative and must be balanced against each other and against the primary objective of safety. Although speed of travel is much to be desired, it is limited by transportation technology, human characteristics, and the need to provide safety. Comfort and convenience are generic terms and mean different things to different people. Comfort involves the physical characteristics of vehicles and roadways, and it is influenced by our perception of safety. Convenience relates more to the ease with which trips are made and the ability of transport systems to accommodate all of our travel needs at appropriate times. Economy is also relative. There is little in modem transportation systems that can be termed "cheap. " which are provided through general and user taxes and fees . Nevertheless, every engineer, regardless of discipline, is called on to provide the best possible systems for the money. Harmony with the environment is a complex issue that has become more important over time. All transportation systems have some negative impacts on the environment . All produce air and noise pollution in some forms, and all utilize valuable land resources. In many modem cities , transportation systems use as much as 25% of the total land area . "Harmony" is achieved when transportation systems are designed to minimize negative environmental impacts, and where system architecture provides for aesthetically pleasing facilities that "fit in" with their surroundings. The traffic engineer is tasked with all of these goals and objectives and with making the appropriate trade-offs to opti- mize both the transportation systems and the use of public funds to build, maintain, and operate them. 1 . 1 Responsibility, Ethics, and Liability in Traffic Engineering The traffic engineer has a very special relationship with the public at large. Perhaps more than any other type of engineer, the traffic engineer deals with the daily safety of a large seg- ment of the public. Although i t can be argued that any engineer who designs a product has this responsibility, few engineers have so many people using their product so routinely and frequently and depending on it so totally. Therefore, the traffic engineer also has a special obligation…
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