Traces of Grammar Traces of Grammar EvolutionEvolution

Protoconstructions, Patches and Protoconstructions, Patches and Mismatch EffectsMismatch Effects

Laura A. MichaelisLaura A. MichaelisDepartment of Linguistics & Institute of Cognitive Science Department of Linguistics & Institute of Cognitive Science

University of Colorado at Boulder University of Colorado at Boulder

July 17, 2007July 17, 2007

STATPHYS 2007STATPHYS 2007

EriceErice

Overview: Grammar DilemmasOverview: Grammar Dilemmas

Within any given speech community, some people Within any given speech community, some people have different linguistic generalizations from others. have different linguistic generalizations from others.

For example, some people would say (a), others (b):For example, some people would say (a), others (b):(a)(a) It is you who It is you who areare confused. confused.(b) (b) It is you who It is you who isis confused. confused.

A language critic could say that (b) is the wrong A language critic could say that (b) is the wrong generalization: it fails to take into account that generalization: it fails to take into account that youyou is is a second-person pronoun, and therefore selects a second-person pronoun, and therefore selects areare..

Another could say that (a) is the wrong Another could say that (a) is the wrong generalization: the subject of the second verb is not generalization: the subject of the second verb is not youyou but but whowho, a third-person singular., a third-person singular.

Overview: Grammar DilemmasOverview: Grammar Dilemmas

In fact, it is the cleft construction that is at fault: In fact, it is the cleft construction that is at fault: isis and and areare are equally valid solutions. are equally valid solutions.

This is why both solutions are attested:This is why both solutions are attested: It is you who are displaying distinct Talibanistic It is you who are displaying distinct Talibanistic

characteristics. characteristics. (tenets.zoroastrianism.com)(tenets.zoroastrianism.com) You are wrong, Mr. Blair: It is you who is prejudiced about You are wrong, Mr. Blair: It is you who is prejudiced about

science. science. (newstatesman.com)(newstatesman.com) When one solution gets adopted, we could say that When one solution gets adopted, we could say that

grammar has changed, but it’s more accurate to say that a grammar has changed, but it’s more accurate to say that a construction has changed.construction has changed.

Grammar change occurs on a construction-by-Grammar change occurs on a construction-by-construction basis.construction basis.

Grammar by IncrementsGrammar by Increments

The view that grammatical generalizations are The view that grammatical generalizations are construction-bound accords with Jackendoff’s claim construction-bound accords with Jackendoff’s claim thatthatgrammar is not a single unified system, but a collection of grammar is not a single unified system, but a collection of simpler systems. […] Hence the evolution of the language simpler systems. […] Hence the evolution of the language capacity can be seen as deeply incremental.capacity can be seen as deeply incremental. (2002: 264) (2002: 264)

Incremental development results in layers, which Incremental development results in layers, which contain patterns I will call protoconstructions.contain patterns I will call protoconstructions.

Protoconstructions resemble early strategies in Protoconstructions resemble early strategies in language development: they lack inflection and language development: they lack inflection and hierarchical structure and have context-dependent hierarchical structure and have context-dependent meanings (Bickerton 1990, Jackendoff 1999).meanings (Bickerton 1990, Jackendoff 1999).

ProtoconstructionsProtoconstructions

Protoconstructions can combine with sentence-Protoconstructions can combine with sentence-building constructions, but when they do, the building constructions, but when they do, the components that they add are (1) on the margins of components that they add are (1) on the margins of the clause, (2) dispensable and (3) intonationally the clause, (2) dispensable and (3) intonationally separate:separate: Vocatives: Vocatives: Sandy, your pizza’s ready. Your pizza’s ready, Sandy, your pizza’s ready. Your pizza’s ready,

SandySandy.. Interjections: Interjections: Wow, are Wow, are YOUYOU in trouble in trouble. . GODGOD it’s hot it’s hot.. Detached topics (Lambrecht 1994, 2001, Deulofeu Detached topics (Lambrecht 1994, 2001, Deulofeu

forthcoming): forthcoming): Moi, ma mère, le salon, c’est de la moquette, Moi, ma mère, le salon, c’est de la moquette, le sol. le sol. ‘Me, my mother, the parlor, it’s carpet, the floor.’‘Me, my mother, the parlor, it’s carpet, the floor.’

Problem SolvingProblem Solving

Protoconstructions are not adaptations per se; they are Protoconstructions are not adaptations per se; they are the vestigial organs of the grammar.the vestigial organs of the grammar.

But adaptations can be seen in the (re)use of old But adaptations can be seen in the (re)use of old forms to solve current communicative problems.forms to solve current communicative problems.

The demands of speech production require speakers The demands of speech production require speakers to use or adapt established routines wherever possible to use or adapt established routines wherever possible (Bolinger 1976).(Bolinger 1976).

The recycling strategy is seen in The recycling strategy is seen in grammaticalizationgrammaticalization, , the creation of a grammatical marker from a word the creation of a grammatical marker from a word (Hurford 2003, Heine & Kuteva 2002), e.g., the (Hurford 2003, Heine & Kuteva 2002), e.g., the English English likelike quotative. quotative.

Problem SolvingProblem Solving

The recycling strategy is also seen in certain syntactic The recycling strategy is also seen in certain syntactic innovations, which I will refer to as innovations, which I will refer to as patchespatches..

I will focus on two kinds of patches:I will focus on two kinds of patches: AmalgamsAmalgams. . Nonstandard grammatical patterns that contain Nonstandard grammatical patterns that contain

two contiguous or overlapping syntactic units that cannot two contiguous or overlapping syntactic units that cannot otherwise be combined. otherwise be combined.

Example: Example: Ample negativesAmple negatives (Lawler 1974). (Lawler 1974). Not in Not in MYMY backyard you won’t. Not backyard you won’t. Not THISTHIS time you won’t. time you won’t.

Mismatch effectsMismatch effects. Constructions that are used without . Constructions that are used without their originally associated meanings. their originally associated meanings.

Example: Clausal complements with Example: Clausal complements with I thinkI think (Thompson (Thompson & Mulac 1991). & Mulac 1991). I think it’s working, isn’t it/*don’t I? I think it’s working, isn’t it/*don’t I?

Problem SolvingProblem Solving

What kinds of communicative problems are What kinds of communicative problems are speakers using patches to resolve?speakers using patches to resolve?

I will discuss three such problems:I will discuss three such problems: Signaling a shift to a new topic while avoiding Signaling a shift to a new topic while avoiding

prolixity (Lambrecht 1994, Michaelis & Francis prolixity (Lambrecht 1994, Michaelis & Francis 2007).2007).

Keeping intonation breaks (pauses) aligned with Keeping intonation breaks (pauses) aligned with the edges of grammatical units (Croft 1995).the edges of grammatical units (Croft 1995).

Making optimal use of a construction when it has Making optimal use of a construction when it has narrow combinatoric potential.narrow combinatoric potential.

Topic ShiftingTopic Shifting The sentence topic is the predictable participant in the The sentence topic is the predictable participant in the

predication; as such it is expressed by a pronoun or a zero:predication; as such it is expressed by a pronoun or a zero: HeHe never meows. never meows. HeHe he doesn’t have any front claws. he doesn’t have any front claws. II had had himhim declawed but declawed but hehe doesn’t bite anybody. doesn’t bite anybody. HeHe’s just he’s just kind of there—real friendly and ’s just he’s just kind of there—real friendly and dociledocile. (Swbd). (Swbd)

Topics can be direct objects, but they are far more likely to be Topics can be direct objects, but they are far more likely to be subjects: 91% of subjects in English conversation are pronouns subjects: 91% of subjects in English conversation are pronouns while only 34% of objects are (Michaelis & Francis 2007).while only 34% of objects are (Michaelis & Francis 2007).

Subjects are “grammaticized clause topics” (Mithun 1991: 160).Subjects are “grammaticized clause topics” (Mithun 1991: 160). A topic tends to persist over several predications, but speakers A topic tends to persist over several predications, but speakers

must also occasionally introduce a new topic (Walker & Prince must also occasionally introduce a new topic (Walker & Prince 1996). How?1996). How?

Topic ShiftingTopic Shifting The simplest strategy is to introduce the new topic in subject The simplest strategy is to introduce the new topic in subject

position:position:

A: A: Wh[en]—when I got older I liked things likeWh[en]—when I got older I liked things like Caesar’s Caesar’s Palace. You know, that’s where I like to stay and andPalace. You know, that’s where I like to stay and and

B: B: Oh yeah and oh okay you can’t you’re gonna camp out at Oh yeah and oh okay you can’t you’re gonna camp out at Caesar’s Palace huh Caesar’s Palace huh

A: A: Uh right exactly so this summer um Uh right exactly so this summer um my boyfriendmy boyfriend lives in lives in California California

B:B: Alright.Alright.A: A: and he loves to go camping and he s[aid]: “Let’s goand he loves to go camping and he s[aid]: “Let’s go

camping”, and I went. camping”, and I went. (Swbd)(Swbd) But this practice runs afoul of Lambrecht’s Principle of But this practice runs afoul of Lambrecht’s Principle of

Separation of Reference and Role (1994: 146): “Do not Separation of Reference and Role (1994: 146): “Do not introduce a referent and talk about it in the same clause”.introduce a referent and talk about it in the same clause”.

Topic-Shifting PatchesTopic-Shifting Patches

An alternative strategy is: introduce a new entity in direct-object An alternative strategy is: introduce a new entity in direct-object position, then comment about that entity in later clauses:position, then comment about that entity in later clauses:

Like I saw Like I saw someone at a Halloween partysomeone at a Halloween party. This lady was from . This lady was from Turkey, and she’d been belly dancing since she was four years Turkey, and she’d been belly dancing since she was four years old. old. (Swbd)(Swbd)

But effort conservation disfavors such explicit strategies, and But effort conservation disfavors such explicit strategies, and favors patches, including favors patches, including left dislocationleft dislocation (Prince 1984): (Prince 1984):

I mean, if it was really a deterrent, I mean, I think, like, I mean, if it was really a deterrent, I mean, I think, like, horse horse thieves in the old Westthieves in the old West, you know, they saw other horse thieves , you know, they saw other horse thieves hanging by their necks.hanging by their necks. (Swbd) (Swbd)

All topic-shifting patches prevent a new participant from being All topic-shifting patches prevent a new participant from being sentence subject, including those patches that are amalgams.sentence subject, including those patches that are amalgams.

Topic-Shifting AmalgamsTopic-Shifting Amalgams

English:English:There was There was a ball of firea ball of fire shot up through the seats in front of me. shot up through the seats in front of me. (Lambrecht 1988: 319(Lambrecht 1988: 319))Or, you know, I have Or, you know, I have a friend of mine a friend of mine that he hasn’t seen one of that he hasn’t seen one of his cats for, you know, like going on six weeks now. his cats for, you know, like going on six weeks now. (Fisher)(Fisher)

French (Lambrecht 2000):French (Lambrecht 2000): J’ai eu mon beau-frère qui a fait Paris-Nice. ‘My brother-in-law J’ai eu mon beau-frère qui a fait Paris-Nice. ‘My brother-in-law did Paris-Nice.’ did Paris-Nice.’ (lit. ‘I had my brother-in-law who did P-N.’)(lit. ‘I had my brother-in-law who did P-N.’)Y a le téléphone qui sonneY a le téléphone qui sonne.‘The phone’s ringing.’ (lit. ‘There’s .‘The phone’s ringing.’ (lit. ‘There’s the phone which is ringing.’)the phone which is ringing.’)Je vois le facteur qui arriveJe vois le facteur qui arrive.‘I see the mailman coming.’.‘I see the mailman coming.’

Aligning Grammatical and Aligning Grammatical and Prosodic UnitsProsodic Units

A common conversational strategy is to introduce a A common conversational strategy is to introduce a forthcoming assertion by means of a forthcoming assertion by means of a set-up clauseset-up clause (Massam 1999):(Massam 1999):Yeah, well, Yeah, well, that’s another problemthat’s another problem: I think to really correct : I think to really correct the judicial system you have to get the lawyers out of it.the judicial system you have to get the lawyers out of it.

That’s the problemThat’s the problem is that they all ask for so much up front. is that they all ask for so much up front. Well, the problem is uh minimum wage is not enough to live Well, the problem is uh minimum wage is not enough to live on. on.

The last strategy is the simplest, but it is problematic The last strategy is the simplest, but it is problematic for speakers.for speakers.

Why?Why?

Aligning Grammatical and Aligning Grammatical and Prosodic UnitsProsodic Units

The construction in question is Simplex Apposition The construction in question is Simplex Apposition (Brenier & Michaelis 2005); its structural properties (Brenier & Michaelis 2005); its structural properties are as follows:are as follows:

ButBut[[NPNPthe thingthe thing]] [[VPVP ISIS [break][break] I always carry it with my I always carry it with my checkbookcheckbook]]. .

SimplexSimplex violates the strong tendency for intonational violates the strong tendency for intonational breaks to align with the edges of syntactic constituents breaks to align with the edges of syntactic constituents (Croft 1995, Watson & Gibson 2003).(Croft 1995, Watson & Gibson 2003).

Simplex has an intonation unit that is not a Simplex has an intonation unit that is not a grammatical unit (the set up) and it breaks the VP by grammatical unit (the set up) and it breaks the VP by putting a pause in it.putting a pause in it.

Aligning Grammatical and Aligning Grammatical and Prosodic UnitsProsodic Units

There is another respect in which Simplex is weird prosodically: its finite verb is a prosodic peak, but not for the usual reason, accent deflection (Ladd 1996: ch. 5).

In accent deflection, prominence shifts to the verb just in case its complement denotes a topical entity:A: I found an article for you in a German journal.A: I found an article for you in a German journal.B: I don’t B: I don’t READREAD German. German. (Ladd 1996: 175) (Ladd 1996: 175)

Simplex marks is as prominent, but this can’t be explained by deflection: the clausal complement is not topical but focal.

Patching an Alignment ProblemPatching an Alignment Problem

The problems with Simplex comes from the dual function that the verb be is forced to perform: Syntactic: the verb be introduces a complement clause,

e.g., I always carry it with my checkbook. Discourse-pragmatic: the verb be is a focus marker,

signaling forthcoming propositional content. Speakers have created a nonstandard pattern to fix the

Simplex defects; I will call this pattern ISIS.

Patching an Alignment ProblemPatching an Alignment Problem

ISIS is an amalgam: ISIS is an amalgam: Right uh but Right uh but [[S?S? the thing the thing ISIS] [] [VP VP that that POWERPOWER involves controlling involves controlling

the resources for the resources for OTHEROTHER people people].]. See I- I See I- I AGREEAGREE with that, but with that, but MYMY whole problem whole problem ISIS is that I really is that I really

don’t like don’t like BUSHBUSH.. ISIS contains the front end of Simplex and the back end of ISIS contains the front end of Simplex and the back end of

an ordinary subject-predicate construction:an ordinary subject-predicate construction: ISIS solves Simplex problems: ISIS has an unbroken VP ISIS solves Simplex problems: ISIS has an unbroken VP

and an accentless and an accentless isis.. But it creates another: what is the syntactic category of the But it creates another: what is the syntactic category of the

‘set up’ clause?‘set up’ clause? The moral of the story: patches aren’t perfect.The moral of the story: patches aren’t perfect.

Expanding Combinatoric Expanding Combinatoric PotentialPotential

Constructions call for specific semantic and syntactic Constructions call for specific semantic and syntactic types, e,g., the English indefinite article seeks a count types, e,g., the English indefinite article seeks a count entity: *entity: *a foliagea foliage, *, *a furniturea furniture, *, *aa mudmud. .

Speakers may intentionally violate these restrictions Speakers may intentionally violate these restrictions in order to create new semantic types (Jackendoff in order to create new semantic types (Jackendoff 1997, De Swart 1998). 1997, De Swart 1998).

Examples include: Examples include: a strip of towela strip of towel, , some pillowsome pillow, , a a ketchupketchup, , Suddenly, I knew the answerSuddenly, I knew the answer, , I’m loving itI’m loving it. .

Such mismatch effects are patches because they solve Such mismatch effects are patches because they solve a communicative problem by leveraging existing a communicative problem by leveraging existing resources. resources.

ConclusionsConclusions

Under a construction-based view of grammar, Under a construction-based view of grammar, grammar is a set of patterns, of varying degrees of grammar is a set of patterns, of varying degrees of internal complexity, that people use to do things.internal complexity, that people use to do things.

Old patterns exist alongside newer ones.Old patterns exist alongside newer ones. Talking is hard, and part of the problem is caused by Talking is hard, and part of the problem is caused by

constraints on the constructions at hand.constraints on the constructions at hand. The easiest solution to a communicative problem is to The easiest solution to a communicative problem is to

create a new construction from old ones.create a new construction from old ones.

ConclusionsConclusions

The prevalence of the patching strategy illustrates The prevalence of the patching strategy illustrates Slobin’s (1992) point about children, adults and Slobin’s (1992) point about children, adults and syntactic change: syntactic change:

Adults are the major drivers of syntactic change Adults are the major drivers of syntactic change because they know the grammar better and therefore because they know the grammar better and therefore know best how to extend its potential.know best how to extend its potential.

If we want to examine grammar change, we should If we want to examine grammar change, we should look at the strategies that speakers use in look at the strategies that speakers use in conversational speech.conversational speech.