UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS MALAYSIA

CCB2012 Health, Safety & Environment

ASSIGNMENT #1

SEMESTER JANUARY 2014

Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Azmuddin Abdullah

NameIDCourse

Gajendran a/l Jeyaprakasam18768ME

Mohd Zakwan Bin Zakaria18769ME

Nik Nur Izzatul Ikmal Bt. Muhd Nor18699CE

Nur Zarifah Bt. Mohamed Salib18694PE

Syed Dzafeer Bin Syed Idrus18773PE

DUE DATE: 7th March 2014

AbstractThere have been myriads studies in pharmaceutical, petrochemical and also oil and gas field about health and safety environment. It is important for these fields to keep searching the best and efficient way to manufacture or produce their product which is safe for the environment. Although many studies have been done but there are still some toxicants released to the environment during the manufacturing process in these field. The principal objective of this paper is to describe briefly one example of toxicant from each oil and gas field, and petrochemical and two toxicants from pharmaceutical field. For oil and gas field, we choose hydrogen sulphide Next, we chose polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as toxic for petrochemical field.Lastly from pharmaceutical, we chose paraben and diethylamine (DEA) as toxicant. This thesis will also explain accurately about the nature of each toxicant such as its physical, chemical properties and why it is behave as toxic to the environment. The process of how each toxicant is released to the environment and how it will become toxic is included in this thesis. The last part to be explained is the method of prevention and method to reduce the amount of toxicant from each field. The dangers of the toxicant and its effect on the human body system are included in the last part of this thesis.From this thesis, we learnt that HSE is not about blaming others but we learn from the mistake that were made. Truly it is an eye opener for us basically to take care of ourselves as toxic and accident can be anywhere and everywhere.

ContentsChapter 1: Introduction41.1 Distillation41.2 How It works41.3 What is toxic51.4 Method of prevention6Chapter 2: Case Studies72.1 Case Study Oil & Gas- Hydrogen sulfide72.2 Case Study Petrochemical- Polyethylene Teraphthalate (PET)82.3 Case Study Pharmaceuticals- Paraben92.4 Case Study Pharmaceuticals- Dietyhylamine10Chapter 3: Literature Review113.1 Oil & Gas: Hydrogen Sulphide113.1.1 : The Nature of Hydrogen Sulphide113.1.2: Process of Hydrogen Sulphide133.1.3: Toxicant of Hydrogen Sulphide183.1.4: Method for Prevention/reduction of Hydrogen Sulphide203.2Petrochemical: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)253.2.1: The Nature of Polyethylene terephthalate(PET)253.2.2: Process of Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)293.2.3: Toxicant of Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)323.2.4: Method for Prevention/reduction of Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)333.3 Pharmaceutical: Paraben and Diethylamine393.3.1 Paraben413.3.1.1 The Nature of Paraben...413.3.1.2 Process of Paraben......433.3.1.3 Toxicant of Paraben..463.3.2 Diethylamine.483.3.2.1 The Nature of Diethylamine483.3.2.2 Process of Diethylamine.503.3.2.3 Toxicant of Diethylamine..52 3.3.3 Method for Prevention/reduction of Paraben & Diethylamine..53Conclusion56Appendix.58References59

Chapter 1:Introduction1.1 DistillationAccording to University of Colorado (2013), distillation is defined as the process of heating a particular liquid until it reaches it`s boiling point, condense it and then eventually collects the hot vapor product. As we all know, distillation is one of the earliest and widely used process originated from chemical technology and other branches of revolutionary industry incorporating separation of mixtures. History wise, ancient Arab chemist known as alchemist used this method of separating parts of liquids according to their respective boiling points in order to produce perfumes. Archeologists have identified that these alchemists used a vessel (dated back to 3500BC) which has a trough in order to collect the distillate called `diqarus`.However, in the modern organic chemistry world today, distillation process is not only preferred for its ability to separate a particular liquid, but is also used for both identification and purification of organic compounds. Practically, all natural and man-made substances or compounds produced in the chemical reactors are actually a mixture of simpler substances that do not have the necessary properties to satisfy man`s daily life needs.1.2 How It worksThe fundamentals in distillation of petroleum or any other mixture of liquids is it`s boiling point. The boiling point of an organic compound can give important information about its other physical properties. Basically, a liquid reaches its boiling point when it`s vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure. Meanwhile, vapor pressure is determined by the amount of kinetic energy present in the molecules of the liquid. The temperature, mass and velocity of molecules can also be related to kinetic energy. When the liquid reaches its boiling point, the average kinetic energy of the particles of the liquid gain sufficient energy to overcome the force of attraction that binds the molecules in liquid state. Thus, these molecules will break the bond from the liquid and forms into gas state.There are two types of distillation. They are fractional distillation and vacuum distillation. Hence, petroleum refining is the fractional distillation of petroleum into simpler forms of liquids such as gasoline, kerosene, lubricating oil, bitumen and many others.Figure 1.1: Fractional Distillation column

1.3 What is toxicAccording to Newyorkstate (2013), toxic substance is a substance that can be poisonous or effects peoples health. It can be found in the product that we use daily, such as gasoline, household cleaners, fuel oil and cosmetics and over counter drugs. With certain condition or requirement any chemical can be toxic. They can be dangerous when they came into contact or enter the body. There is three type of route exposure:I. InhalationII. Ingestion III. Direct contactThrough inhalation or breathing is the common route exposure for gases, vapors, dusts and mists. The substances can enter through nose, lungs and air passage. Next, they can become deposited in the airways and absorbed by the lungs into blood stream.Ingestion or swallowing of food, drink is another route of exposure. In this route, children are in greater risk because they like to put their finger or object in their mouth. For example, lead in the paint can be ingest and absorbed into blood then carry out to entire body.Direct contact or touching with the skin or eye can be absorbed into bloodstream. Substances enter the body easily when there is cut, broken skin. Figure 1.2: Route of exposure to toxic

1.4 Method of preventionThere are many ways to define prevention and also reduction. According to the journal of International Programme On Chemical Safety by World Health Organization (WHO) in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the International Labour Organization, prevention is defined as the promotion of health by the individual and the community, and includes identifying departures from good health and intervening to correct them or to minimize their effects. Meanwhile according to Concise Oxford English Dictionary (Eleventh Edition), reduction is an act of making something smaller or less in amount, degree or size.Avoiding chemicals of synthetic or natural in nature at the rate that can surpass tolerable level for a human is called prevention of toxic exposure. In additional to that, prevention of toxicants can also be related with analysing and identifying the source of poisonings, making a hypothesis about their number of contacts with humans and applying practice measures which are solely for mitigation or elimination purposes in order to reduce the severity of future health effects after the exposure.Chapter 2: Case Studies

2.1 Case Study Oil & Gas- Hydrogen sulfide

In the case of hydrogen sulfide in oil and gas industry, according to United States Department of Labor (2008) there are accident involving hydrogen sulfide at Gulf Services Industrial on 22 Oct 2007. The accident cause one employee dies because of overexposed to chemicals and the chemical is hydrogen sulphide. Initially the accident occurs when the employee parked vacuum truck at Reformer in refinery. The purpose of the truck is to vacuum liquids from Y-3 Acid Sump and skid. While they doing their job, suddenly one of employee smell a strong odor, concentrated vapors consisting of Hydrogen sulfide vented out by gooseneck vent pointing in a downward angle at the front portion of passenger side of the truck. The employee, who inhaled the chemical become wobble to other side plant road and died. The other side operator tried to help the employee but it was too late.

Figure 2.1: warning symbol of hydrogen sulfide

2.2 Case Study Petrochemical- Polyethylene Teraphthalate (PET)

Over the years, there has been controversy over whether the use of PET in our daily life such as containers, plastic or bottle water could be harmful to our health. There has been research about PET, that can disrupt the endocrine system, which is important for growth and development in human (Royte, 2008). There also some research suggested that PET can leach into water and be harmful to the environment and human.

Study 1: In 2006, William Shotyk, a geochemist at the University of Heidelberg, found antimony hat were used as a catalyst in the manufacture of PET, can leach into bottled water. When ingested in small amount, the antimony can cause dizziness and depression. While in large amount, it can cause serious nausea, vomiting, and even death.

Study 2: Additionally, two European studies researched the possibility of chemicals ending up in the beverages we drink. The studies found evidence of estrogenic activity in mineral water. Both studies had a focus on the estrogenic potential of mineral water that was bottled in Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) plastic (Barrett,2009).

Despite the research that has been conducted, Gleick presents that, PET is widely considered to be one of the safest forms of plastic for food packaging, and several studies have claimed to find a risk of leaching, (Gleick, 2010). Also, there is no previous studies could gives results and claimed there is a potential human health risk from drinking PET-bottled (Barrett, 2009).

Furthermore, the FDA insists that PET is safe, but only under normal conditions. Interestingly enough, the agency stops short of saying chemicals dont leach into food and water. Instead, it says levels of chemical migration from PET bottles are well within the margin of safety based on information available to the agency, (Royte, 2008). As with the inconsistent regulation of water, the inconsistent results of the effects of PET on human health could definitely cause major confusion for the pblic. One group says it is bad, while one says it is good, all while our health is on the line. Thus, the real effects of PET will not be known in the long term.

2.3 Case Study Pharmaceuticals- Paraben

Paraben is known as a non-toxic product. However, these past few years, the safety of this chemical content in most of pharmaceuticals product is questionable. Due to its ability to impersonate estrogen hormone in human which related to the development of breast cancer, this issue is brought forward by some agencies or individuals who propose to investigate the long and short effects of paraben. Even though the content of paraben in the pharmaceutical product is claimed to be in a very small amount by the companies who manufactured them, the prolonged used of it in most of pharmaceutical products could not be avoided. Although the small amount of paraben does not really count to cause cancer yet with such widespread in this field, it does matter when it penetrates the skin and accumulate in blood stream in a large amount when this substance from other products enters human body as well. Recent studies suggest that this chemical are able to perforate human skin, completely without breaking down. As reported by Gutierrez (2007) in Natural News, paraben was found in a blood samples of some healthy men once a paraben cream was applied on their back which approves the previous statement. This report urge us to do some further investigation in order to aware peoples the danger that public might suffer from this non-toxic pharmaceuticals substance

Figure 2.2: Medicine containing paraben2.4 Case Study Pharmaceuticals- Dietyhylamine

The uses of diethylamine in pharmaceutical fields is universal. DEA itself, if use in a limited quantity and time is not considered to be carcinogen to human health. However, there are several effects linked to prolonged exposure to DEA such as breathing difficulties and chronic irritation. The challenge regarding the uses of it limited quantity and time is that it is use in many pharmaceutical products. Hence, in any way the term limited is not applicable nowadays. On the other hand, the concern is on its reactivity with other chemicalsmight cause serious diseases. For an instance, the product of diethylamine and nitrites which is exposed to air that produce nitrosodiethanolamine was stated by International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) to be linked to liver cancer in animal and showed a carcinogen properties on human health. Since the effect is not expected to be well-known by public, we chose this chemical as our subject throughout this research as to give information as well as to increase awareness to not only for our own concern but also to gives benefit to the others.

Figure 2.3: Diethylamine in pain reliever products

Chapter 3: Literature Review

3.1 Oil & Gas: Hydrogen Sulphide

3.1.1: The Nature of Hydrogen Sulphide

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a colourless gas with a characteristic odour of rotten eggs which being denser than air. . It is formed when sulphur is removed from compounds of petroleum products in oil refineries. It is then either converted into Sulphur or Sulphuric Acid.

Due to the denser with the air, with low concentration of Hydrogen Sulphide it can be easily detectable even at low concentration. Even though it is easily detectable, with high concentration it may bring harmed to the environment and people. It is also highly flammable and it also slightly soluble as when it is reacts with water, it will form a weak acid.

Figure 3.1: hydrogen sulfide molecular structure

In some environments Hydrogen sulphide occurs naturally like in swamps area, salt marshes and sulphur springs are often associated with the decomposition of organic material. Besides that, human activities and industries that may also contribute in production of hydrogen sulphide such as piggeries treatment plants, tanneries and manure handling operations.

Chemical and Physical Properties

Chemical name Hydrogen sulphide

Synonyms/trade names Hydrosulfuric acid; hydrogen sulphide, sewer gas, stink damp; sulphur

hydride; sulfurated hydrogen; dihydrogenmonosulfide; dihydrogen

sulphide, sulfuretted hydrogen, hepatic acid, sour gas

Chemical formula H2S

Molecular weight 34.08

ColorColorless

Taste Sweetish taste

Physical state Gas (under normal ambient condition)

Melting point -85.49 C

Boiling point -60.33 C

Density in Air 1.19 (air=1.00)b

OdorRotten eggs

Uses of Hydrogen Sulphide

Hydrogen Sulphide is not produced for commercial sale. It is formed when sulphur is removed from compounds of petroleum products in oil refineries. It is then either converted into Sulphur or Sulphuric Acid. Sulphur is usually used to make fertilizer while Sulphuric Acid can be used for industrial purposes. In chemical industries, Hydrogen sulphide is used in the manufacture of sodium sulphide and thiophenes. It is used for iron or carbon steel protection against corrosion in processes by using salt. Meanwhile in laboratories and analysis Hydrogen sulphide is used to calibrate environmental emission monitoring, industrial hygiene monitors and trace impurity analyzers and as balance gas for some calibration mixtures.

3.1.2: Process of Hydrogen SulphideMichigan.gov stated that the Hydrogen Sulfide is a naturally occurring gas mixed with natural gas or dissolved in the oil or brine and released upon exposure to atmospheric conditions. Of the 10,652 producible oil wells in Michigan; 1,360 wells had H2S levels exceeding 300 ppm. It means that the gas is among vicious and very dangerous to the worker in oil and gas industry. It can be in the formation of drilling oil because of the gas is formed by decomposition of organic matter from a thousand years ago that containing sulfur.If we talked about manufacturing of hydrogen sulfide, it actually can be found in natural cycle of sulfur in the environment (inchem.org,n.d). The gases can be produced by bacterial action during decay of plant and animal protein and can be found in volcanic gases. In addition, it also can be produced through direct reduction of sulfate by bacteria.

Figure 3.2: The sulfur cycleFurthermore, whenever compounds that contain sulfur come into contact at high temperature with organic compounds, hydrogen sulfide can be formed. When it came to industry, the hydrogen sulfide is only unwanted by-product through some process which is: i. the production of coke from sulfur-containing coal, theii. refining of sulfur-containing crude oils, iii. the production of carbon disulfide, iv. the manufacture of viscose rayonOur main focus here is refining petroleum that contains sulphur. What is refining? According to United States Department of Labor(n.d), refining is the processing of complex mixture of hydrocarbon like a petroleum into a number of other or simpler mixtures of hydrocarbon. It require amount of knowledge, expertise and control to safely processing the crude oil into other flammable gases and liquids at high temperature using special equipment.

In earlier history of petroleum refining, kerosene is the most wanted product but as the world move towards future, the development of internal combustion engine, the demand for diesel and gasoline become higher. Today the refineries produce a variety of products that become raw material for the petrochemical industry. Among refining process that has been used is: Distillation process Thermal Cracking Process Catalytic processes Treatment processes Figure 3.3: History of refining (United States Department of Labor, n.d)

As you can see in the table there are three process refining that the by product is sulphur. There are sweetening, hydrogenation and hydrodesulfurization process. As we stated earlier in the manufacturing process, that sulphur is hazard and dangerous to human when combined with other elements. In addition to that, the basic component of crude oil contains about 85% carbon, 13% hydrogen, 1% to 3% sulfur, and other elements such as nitrogen, metal and oxygen.

Figure 3.4: Typical characterictics of crude oil (United States Department of Labor, n.d)

There are five basic areas of petroleum refining process and its follow according to the orders:1. Fractional distillation( separate crude oil according to boiling-point ranges)2. Conversion Process ( it change the structure and size of hydrocarbon molecules)3. Treatment process( it to prepare the finished product)4. Formulating and Blending( the process that combine and mixed together the hydrocarbon fraction)5. Other Refining process(light ends recovery or wastewater treatment)Our main point is the treatment process. This is where the sulphur will be removed. In the process of hydrocracking, the hydrogenation will convert the nitrogen and sulphur compounds to hydrogen sulphide and ammonia. Furthermore, catalytic hydrotreating is also use hydrogenation to remove about 89% contaminant such as sulphur, nitrogen from petroleum fraction. This is supported by inchem.org (n.d), they state that about 80 to 90% of sulphur compounds are converted to hydrogen sulphide. Thiopenes is an organosulfur compounds that can be found in petroleum and other products from fossil fuels (Fedorak, Kropp, 1998). These substances will interact with hydrogen to convert into hydrogen sulphide.

Figure 3.5: reaction of thiopenes with hydrogen

Another process that can give out hydrogen sulphide is catalytlichydrodesulfurization process. When we remove dulfur by hydrotreating it called hydrodesulfurization. The raw material is mixed with hydrogen in a fired heater (600-800 F) and under pressure (up to 1,000 psi) which then will flow through catalytic reactor. After the process, the raw material of petroleum such as sulphur and nitrogen are converted into hydrogen sulphide and ammonia. The product leaves the reactor after we cooled it to low temperature. The reaction products leave the reactor and after cooling to a low temperature. Then from the high-pressure separation, the hydrogen-rich gas will be recycled to be combine with the feedstock and from low-pressure gas stream that rich with hydrogen sulphide will be sent to gas treating unit in which it will be removed.

Figure 3.6: Process of refining (Inchem.org, n.d)

3.1.3: Toxicant of Hydrogen SulphideSulfur usually present in crude oil. When the amount of sulfur is high enough, the crude oil is called sour crude oil and it is processed into heavy oil to save processing cost. The sulfur atom is bonded to carbon atom as it is present in the hydrocarbon structure. Sour crude oil usually is toxic especially when hydrogen sulfite is present in the crude oil. This toxic compound will be released if the crude oil is processed through fractional distillation. Therefore, it can bring harm to the workers.As hydrogen sulfite is heavier than air, it travels along the ground and accumulated in poorly ventilated places such as sewer lines, manholes, basement etc. The easiest way of encountering this toxic is by inhalation. Skin absorption is minimal. If prolong exposed in low concentration, people will lose ability to smell hydrogen sulfiteeventhough it is there. It is because the olfactory gland is already damaged. Inhaled hydrogen sulfite will not accumulate in body but is metabolized in the liver and excreted in the urine instead (Health, 2009).

Figure 3.7: Hydrogen sulphite

Hydrogen sulfite can cause a wide range of health problem. The level of effect depends upon how much hydrogen sulfide we breath and how long. Table below shows the dangers of hydrogen sulfite according to the concentration present

Concentration(ppm)Symptoms/Effects

0.00011-0.00033Typical background concentrations

0.01-1.5Odor threshold (when rotten egg smell is first noticeable to some). Odor becomes more offensive at 3-5 ppm. Above 30 ppm, odor described as sweet or sickeningly sweet.

2-5Prolonged exposure may cause nausea, tearing of the eyes, headaches or loss of sleep. Airway problems (bronchial constriction) in some asthma patients.

20Possible fatigue, loss of appetite, headache, irritability, poor memory, dizziness.

50-100Slight conjunctivitis ("gas eye") and respiratory tract irritation after 1 hour. May cause digestive upset and loss of appetite.

100Coughing, eye irritation, loss of smell after 2-15 minutes (olfactory fatigue). Altered breathing, drowsiness after 15-30 minutes. Throat irritation after 1 hour. Gradual increase in severity of symptoms over several hours. Death may occur after 48 hours.

100-150Loss of smell (olfactory fatigue or paralysis).

200-300Marked conjunctivitis and respiratory tract irritation after 1 hour. Pulmonary edema may occur from prolonged exposure.

500-700Staggering, collapse in 5 minutes. Serious damage to the eyes in 30 minutes. Death after 30-60 minutes.

700-1000Rapid unconsciousness, "knockdown" or immediate collapse within 1 to 2 breaths, breathing stops, death within minutes.

1000-2000Nearly instant death

(Occupational Safety & Health Administration)3.1.4: Method for Prevention/reduction of Hydrogen SulphideToxicants from oil and gas industry are very harmful to human if left unattended as they contain some highly poisonous and lethal elements. One of them is hydrogen sulphide. As hydrogen sulphide is a colourless and poisonous flammable gas with a strong smell of rotten eggs, workers who are not equipped with necessary protective equipment should not try to rescue any victim who has suffered from inhaling the poisonous gas. In Alberta, the workers of oil and gas industry are exposed to hydrogen sulphide mostly during drilling and production of natural gas, crude oil and petroleum products. Hydrogen sulphide are also compressed in underground pockets and other workers such as well drillers, tunnel workers and miners may inhale this toxic gas.The necessary protective equipment to prevent workers from inhaling this poisonous gas is to supply them with a positive pressure supplied air respirator and other personal protective equipment relevant to the hazards that are present. Meanwhile, victims who have suffered from inhaling hydrogen sulphide must be resuscitated promptly and be provided with close supervision for at least 48 hours after exposure. There are other effective preventive measures too in order to avoid oneself from being exposed to this poisonous gas. They are:

Engineering ControlsThis method is used to eliminate or eradicate the exposure to a particular substance. In this case, engineering controls are utilized to eradicate the lethal hydrogen sulphide from air. In this way, a `barrier` is created between the worker and the substance. Examples of engineering controls used to prevent workers from being exposed towards hydrogen sulphide in oil and gas industry is:

a) FlaringFlaring is a method which is used to control the rate of combustion of natural gas in the course of daily oil and gas production operations. Combustion of fuel always occurs at the end of a flare stock or boom. Basically, a complete flare system comprised of flare stack or also boom and pipes. These components function to gather gases which need to be flared. The objective of having a flare tip at the end of stack or boom is to help the entrainment of air into the flare so that the efficiency of combustion can be increased drastically.In additional to that, the toxicant gas which is being flared can come from a number of sources too. The gas can be categorized as unburned process gas which is produced from processing facilities or also from vapours collected from the tops of the tanks as they are being filled. Sometimes, in order to reduce the high pressure which may lead to disastrous event, impermanent shutdown is done to a facility. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the combustion efficiencies for this method are usually more than 98%. However, flaring can contribute to the phenomena of global warming. This is because, hydrogen sulphide a greenhouse gas. Due to this, this method has become less convenient to be used to deal with waste gases in petroleum products.

b) VentingOn the other hand, venting is an effective method to reduce the toxic effect of hydrogen sulphide gas. Basically, it releases the gases into the atmosphere away from the course of oil and gas production operations. In order to achieve safe venting, the gas released into the atmosphere should be done at high pressure and has lower density than air. Usually this method is invisible. But it can produce unwanted noise pollution due to pressure and flow rate of the vented gases. This method is relatively better than flaring because sometimes there is high concentration of inert gases in the particular gas. Hence, inert gas causes the flaring method ineffective. Without the presence of sufficiently high hydrocarbon content, the gas will not be combusted. Hence, the process of purging with inert gas may tell us that venting is the safest method of disposal for toxic gases such as hydrogen sulphide gas in oil and gas industry.c) Chemical TreatmentBesides that, chemical treatment is also an alternative method to reduce or eliminate the percentage of hydrogen sulphide from crude oil, gas and water streams. Generally, hydrogen sulphide treatment for crude oil is used to decrease the level of overall sulphur element in the product. One of the mostly preferred methods is the Claus Process. In this case, hydrogen sulphide is isolated from the streams of gas by extraction. It is then made less harmful or less toxic using combustion and chemical reaction. Scrubbers and filters can be used, if hydrogen sulphide is present in off-gases which is due to wastewater treatment or other industrial processes.However, the treatment of hydrogen sulphide should be done with proper pH control. In other words, caution highly needed when a person is handling drilling fluid that has been exposed to hydrogen sulphide. The reason for this is because this toxicant can move from liquid into the vapour space of the storage tank. It will then immediately vaporized when the container is opened.

Administrative ControlsAdministrative controls involve implementing rules and regulations on everyone involved in the workplace. This is to reduce potential exposure to hydrogen sulphide. Among the effective administrative controls are:

Personal Protective Equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) should be used when engineering control or administrative control methods are not practicable or feasible. In this case, the workers should be provided or equipped with appropriate PPE relevant to their respective working conditions. For example, respiratory protective equipment functions to protect workers from inhaling airborne toxicants. Precaution needs to be taken for selecting the right equipment. For example, there are many types of respirators. Hence, it is important to select the right one for right workplace condition. Since hydrogen sulphide is irritating to the eyes of the victim, air-tight goggles or full-face respirator masks should be worn3.2 Petrochemical: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

3.2.1: The Nature of Polyethylene terephthalate(PET)

Petrochemical industry plays an important role in the economic growth and development of manufacturing sector. What is petrochemical? Petrochemicals are derived from various chemical compounds, mainly from hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons are derived from crude oil and natural gas. From the various fractions produced from the crude oil which are naphtha, kerosene, and gas oil are the main stocks in petrochemical industries. Besides that, Ethane, Propane and natural gas liquids which are obtained from natural gas are also another important feedstock used in these industries as well. Figure 3.8: source of petrochemical

Currently, oil and gas are the main sources of the raw materials because they are the least expensive, most readily available, and can be processed most easily into petrochemicals.

Today, petrochemical products have great impact on our daily use items and cover almost every aspects of our lifes such as like clothing, housing, construction, furniture, automobiles, household items, agriculture, horticulture, irrigation, packaging, medical appliances, electronics and electrical etc.

Thus, in our thesis, we decide to discuss more on Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) which also known as plastic bottles.

Plastic Bottle

Most plastic water bottles are made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a polymer derived from oil that adds flexibility, color, and strength to plastic (Royte, 2008). It is resistant to heat, mineral oils, solvents, and acids. It is impermeable to carbonation. It is strong, light, impact resistant, naturally transparent, and completely recyclable. And it doesnt impart a taste to its contents. As a result, PET is the most common plastic used for food packaging, (Gleick, 2010). Roughly 80% of the PET manufactured in the United States ends up in Nestl, Coke, or Pepsi containers (Soechtig, 2009). PET (Polyethylene terephthalate )starts from rawpetrochemicals: ethyleneand paraxylene. Derivatives of these two chemicals react together to produce PET resin. See Figure 2.Figure 3.9: PET formation

This was first developed in 1941 by John Rex Whinfield, James Tennant Dickson and their employer the Calico Printers Association of Manchester and originally used in synthetic fibres. It began to be used for packaging in the mid-1960s. In the early 1970s the technique for blowing bottles was developed commercially by Nathaniel Wyeth. This final product is a transparent, strong and lightweight bottle. PET bottles may contain soft drinks, juices, alchoholic drinks, water, edible oils, household cleaners and other food and non-food applications.Properties of PET:PET is commonly recycled and has the number 1 as its recycling symbol.

Young's modulus (E)2800-3100 Mpa

Tensile strength (o)55-75 Mpa

Elastic limit50-150%

notch test3.6 kJ/m2

Glass temperature 75 C

Vicat B170 C

linear expansion coefficient (a)7x10^-5/K

Water absorption (ASTM)0.16

Table PET properties

PET can be semi rigid to rigid depending on its thickness and it very lightweight. It makes a good gas and fair barrier. It is strong and impact resistant. It is naturally colorless with high transparency.

Uses of PET:Crystal Clear - Products look good, pure and healthy. PET bottles attention.Good Barrier - Low permeability of PET to oxygen, carbon dioxide and water means that it protects and maintains the good life. It has good chemical resistance.Lightweight & No LeakageDesign Flexibility - It can be design of all shapes, sizes and colors.Recyclable Good Resistance - PET offers resistance which used in packaging in today world.

3.2.2: Process of Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)Polymer Polymers are macromolecules that contain a basic building block which we called as monomers. Polymer is produced through a process called polymerization. In polymerization process, the presence of double bond in the molecules is important so that the valence electron from the double bond can be shared with the other double bond of other molecule so that polymerization can occur. Nevertheless if double bond is not present in the molecule, polymerization is still possible if there are functional group that can be bonded together.There are two types of polymerization in which polymers are made:1. Addition polymerization2. Condensation polymerization

In addition polymerization or known as chain-growth polymerization, a double bond molecule is added to themselves forming a long molecular chain. The double bond molecule is called the repeating unit (monomer) in the chain. The chain itself is polymer. This process is illustrated below in Figure 2.1 (Facer, 2009).

Figure 3.10: addition polymerizationIn condensation polymerization the fusion of two monomers will release a tiny molecule which is usually water. This process requires monomers that possess two or more kind of functional groups that are able to react with each other to release water. Example of polymer that is produced using this method is polyester. In its process of formation, two monomers add together and formed an ester link while water molecule is being removed. This process is illustrated in Figure 2.2. Note that there are two different monomers in this process (Facer, 2009).

Figure 3.11: condensation polymerization

In our thesis, for the petrochemical part, we focused on plastic. Plastic is also a polymer which undergoes polymerization. We specified our plastic to polyethylene terephthalate (PET). PET is a derivation of polyethylene. So, it is considered as a polymer.It is one of the most produced polymers worldwide. PET consist of chain of polyester which is formed through condensation polymerization process which involved alcohol molecule and acid molecule, ethylene glycol (EG) and purified terephthalic acid (TPA).As mention above, polymerization of PET will releases molecules of water. Around 1.9kg of crude oil is needed to produce 1kg of PET. Production of PET consumes approximately 23kWh/kg PET. All process used to produce PET is roughly the same which involved esterification of EG and TPA at high temperature (220-260C) under moderate pressure (2.7-5.5 bar). Production process of PET is described below in Figure 2.3 (Vest, 2003)

Figure 3.12: (K-patents, 2005)The process of manufacturing PET bottles is done in two steps.1.

Moulding of preforms is injected using standard types of injection moulding machines.2.

Stretch the preform by blowing it to form bottle. (Vest, 2003)3.2.3: Toxicant of Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)PET is safe to use as long as it is not reuse again. However, if this plastic bottle is reuse several times, it may leach some kind of chemical product which is considered to be toxic to us. One of the leach chemical product is antimony trioxide. If we are exposed prolong to this chemical, our respiratory canal and skin will experience irritation. For female, menstrual problem will increase and also contribute to miscarriage (Life Without Plastic)PET also contain Bisphenol-a or known as BPA. As PET is reused frequently, BPA will get released and dissolved in the drinks that it contain. Not only that, some baby bottles, water bottles, and other clear plastic containers are made of polycarbonate plastic, a polymer made with the chemical bisphenol A (BPA). It is also released when PET is filled with hot water. BPA is known as endocrine system disruptors or artificial estrogen. So if it is consumed in the human body, it will disrupt hormone and will cause reproductive abnormalities such as abnormal menstrual cycle for female consumer Unbalanced hormone between male and female hormone as lower sperm counts enlarged prostate glands abnormalities in the number of chromosomes in eggs pre-cancerous changes in the breast and prostate obesity and insulin resistanceTests have shown that more than 93 percent of the general population has some BPA in their bodies. Exposure on par with the amount of BPA most of us now have in our bodies has been shown to cause health abnormalities. Although we dont yet know whether BPA causes exactly the same health problems in humans, the serious health effects and the weight of the scientific evidence mean that we should be thoroughly testing and regulating this potentially dangerous chemical. (Wagner & Oehlmann, 2009).

Bottle water can potentially contain toxic ingredient, the byproducts of PET plastic manufacturing. PET is a polymer, it is hard to unchain the polymer bond. So, it is not biodegradable. It will not decompose. As its quantity is increasing over the years, it will fill the land. Animal will choke if they consume it. Therefore, it is considered toxic to living organism on earth. (Jewell, 2010).But as a consumer, we should know wheter the plastic that are we using in daily life are safe or not. Refer to figure below:

3.2.4: Method for Prevention/reduction of Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

Nowadays, the usage of petrochemical-based products are very common to an extent that it has become a major part in our daily life. The usage of petrochemical-based products are at an alarming rate especially in developed countries and also rapidly developing countries such as America, Europe countries, China, Japan and many others. Why has petrochemical products have become so important? This is because of their important uses in man`s daily life. For example, natural gas and crude distillates such as naphtha from petroleum refining are utilized as feedstocks to manufacture a wide variety of petrochemicals that are in turn used in the manufacture a lot of consumer goods.

The basic processes used to manufacture petrochemical products are cracking, reforming and other processes include olefins which is aimed at polyethylene terephthalate (PET), ethylene, propylene, butylene and butadiene. Meanwhile the base petrochemical products are processed further to produce raw products such as resins and plastics such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE), synthetic fibres such as polyester and acrylic, engineering polymers such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and rubbers (polybutadiene rubber, PBR).

Figure 3.13: product of petrochemical industryLike any other industry, this petrochemical industry has its own hazards and risks. The release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into our breathing air depends on the products beind handles at the working site. VOCs released may be harmful for human health or can bring permanent side effects. In additional to that, petrochemical plants generate solid wastes and sludges. Some of this wastes are considered to be toxic because of the presence of the toxic organics and also heavy metals. Examples of petrochemical wastes that are harmful to humans are benzyl chloride, acetaldehyde, acetonitrile, carbon tetrachloride, cumene, toluene diisocynate, vinyl chloride and many other wastes. In order to prevent or reduce these wastes from damaging human health, pollution prevention or source reduction methods need to be known.Administrative Controla) Reducing usage of plastic bottles In this context, we will first focus on methods to reduce and prevent polyethylene terephthalate (PET) toxicant. One of the main use of PET is in the production of plastic water bottles. One method to reduce the wastage of PET which will lead to reduced amount of PET toxicant is by recycling it. Recycling PET plastic bottles are more convenient than other plastic products. The reason is because high value of resin and also the high usage as water bottles and carbonated soft drinks. Most of PET plastic water bottles have resin identification code of 1.

Figure 3.14: growth in the amount of used PET bottles selectively collected in Europe (Source: PETCORE)

Besides that, PET can also be disposed thermally. This is termed as incineration. It is suitable to incinerate PET because it has components of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with trace amounts catalytic elements. There is no sulphur in PET. However, before recycling PET, factor such as one wants to retain it`s polymer structure or not should be taken into account. There are two types of recycling methods:

Now we will look into other administrative methods to reduce and prevent the toxicants from petrochemical industry.b) Reduction of Air Emissions

1. First prevention method that is very important in this petrochemical industry is to minimize the leakage of volatile organic compounds such as benzene, vinyl chloride and ethylene oxide which is sourced from valves, pump glands, flanges, and other process equipment. This can be done by following good design practices and equipment maintenance procedures.2. Utilize mechanical seals where it is required.3. Reduce losses from storage tanks, product transfer areas and other process areas in petrochemical plants. The method to do this is to adopt vapour recovery system and double seals which is especially for floating roof tanks.4. Recover catalysts which have been used in reaction processes and reduce particulate emissions5. Reduce nitrogen oxide emission by using low NOx burners. In this way, fuel usage can also be optimized.Meanwhile, petrochemical wastes which cannot be recovered are effectively destroyed by using flaring method and other combustion devices.c) Recycling and Reuse Petrochemical WastesMany of us might think what is there in the petrochemical waste to recycle and reuse it. But there are 2 ways in which we recycle and reuse the wastes from petrochemical processes in order to reduce the amount of toxicants from this industry. Firsly way is to recycle cooling water and treat wastewater to the extent that it becomes feasible. Secondly is to recover and reuse spent solvents and other chemicals until they become feasible.

d) Improved Operating ProceduresBy improving the operating procedures, we can also reduce the number of wastes being produced in petrochemical plants. And by doing so, amount of toxicants can be reduced. One of the commonly used method is to segregate process wastewaters from stormwater systems. Besides that, the frequency of storage tanks and equipment cleaning should be optimized in order to reduce the toxicity of petrochemical wastes. Responsible authority in petrochemical plants should monitor and prevent solids and oily wastes from entering the drainage system. This is becaue, once the chemicals enter the drainage system, it will be very hard to contain and eliminate the toxicants. In additional to that, petrochemical plant maintainance authority should establish an emergency preparedness and response plan.

3.3 Pharmaceutical: Paraben and Diethylamine

Pharmaceuticals industry is basically, dealing with health product like medicine and beauty product. All the experts in the industry had done researches to improve peoples life and their works include the testing, and patenting. In addition, they also have to ensure the safety of the product as well as the marketability of the invention. There are various laws that need to be obeyed by those who work in this industry as they are dealing with peoples life when it comes to the use of chemicals in the production of pharmaceutical products. However, there are some aspects that need to be seriously taken care off such as the chemical composition of the substance, and physical properties. Any chemical used in any product must go through several test in order to ensure their safetiness and must consider possible reaction in each aspects including reaction to skin, eyes, organ and anything that related to human health. To add to that, not only toxic which had been proved harmful should be avoided, the plus factor which could induce the risk of getting specific diseases should also take into consideration.In a survey named Kaiser Health Tracking Poll which was conducted by Kaiser Family Foundation on June 2013, we can conclude that majority of the respondents who took part in the poll, believe that health is important as many of them vote for the necessity of health insurance despite of some of other factors.Back in the year 2004, due to some irresponsible officer in-charge who gave counterfeit iron supplement to patients, several women died in Argentina as being reported by International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers and Associations. Basically, iron supplement does not seem to be harmful but due to improper act of person in charge as well as the lack of knowledge about the medication, it leads to unacceptable impact as it cost humans life and surprisingly, the number of incident reported is increasing every year. This should be a leading factor for the consumer to get enough information regarding the product that they consumed from even the tiniest product of pharmaceutical to the biggest one.

Figure 3.16: General chemical structure of Diethyl amineFigure 3.15: General chemical structure of Paraben

Indeed, not all chemicals are toxic and causes serious effect but, each of the chemicals has their own properties and it is important to at least, know which one could be dangerous to ones health so that precaution steps can be taken. In this section, two toxic products from pharmaceutical industry will be discussed in details which are paraben and diethyl amine.

3.3.1 Paraben3.3.1.1 The Nature of Paraben

Paraben is widely used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic product as a preservative to increase the shelf-life of the products. It is term to describe the series of parahydroxybenzoate, an aromatic carboxylic acid which consists of carboxyl group attached to hydroxyl group at forth carbon and benzene ring. Some of commonly paraben found in pharmaceutical field are butyl paraben and methyl paraben. Those parabens that are being used commercially either in pharmaceutical or cosmetic industry ismostly produced synthetically which involves the esterification process of para-hydro benzoic acid with alcohol. Paraben can also been obtained from plant such as blueberry.

Figure 3.17: chemical structure of series of parabenOur daily products such as shampoos, makeup, moisturizers, medicine and even toothpaste contain paraben. Due to its bactericidal and fungicidal capabilities which prevents the infection by promoting the growth of microorganism and can actually destroys fungi together with the affordable cost, it is explainable why is this compound are commonly found in this industry. It is a non-toxic substance. However, these past few years, some researchers proposed that, paraben might increase the risk of breast cancer as it can mimic the estrogen, a hormone which plays a role in breast cancer development. A study conducted by Japanese suggests that products that contain methyl paraben, when being exposed to ultra violet ray can damage DNA and skin. In addition, a study on Urinary concentrations of parabens and serum hormone levels, semen quality parameters, and sperm DNA damage by Meeker, Yang, Ye, Calafat and Hauser (2010) found that more sperm with damage DNA in higher butylparaben content.

Table 2: Comparison of propyl paraben specification from different sourcesLead content in propyl paraben can causes learning and behavior problem as it is known carcinogen and neurotoxin. When the lead is absorbed by the skin onto the body and accumulates in large amount, it can lead to depression, muscle weakness and numbness. Luckily, paraben only consist small amount of arsenic. Those who are exposed to high level of arsenic can suffer from sore throat and lung irritation, or even worse, it can cause death. Residue on ignition percentage is the amount of inorganic impurities in organic compounds. Despite of these effects on human based on its properties, methyl paraben and propyl paraben had been decided by the Ophthalmic Drug Panel of Food and Drug Association as unsuitable to be used in pharmaceutical products as it will cause irritation to eyes if used in concentration effective against microorganism.

Figure 3.18: Addition information on Paraben3.3.1.2: Process of Paraben

Paraben or well known as preservatives for pharmaceutical and cosmetics products can be manufactured by methanol esterification of p-hydroxybenzoic acid with the presence sulfuric acid that followed by subsequent distillation.Sulfuric acid is the catalyst. Then the acid is neutralized with caustic soda and the products are crystallized by cooling, neutralize, centrifuged and blended (pubchem compound). According to Arthur Rich, Ph.d, a cosmetic chemist in Chestnut Ridge, New York, there is about 85% of cosmetic contain paraben. Furthermore, it is much cheaper and effective (Gage, n.d).

Figure 3.19: basic molecular structure of Paraben (Pubchem.ncbi, n.d)Methyl paraben and propyl paraben are widely used in cosmetics as preservatives (Berke et al. , 1982). It have been first employed as preservatives for pharmaceutical in the mid-1920(Sabalitschka, 1930) and have been used as pills, syrup eyewashes, anesthetics, injectable solutions and contraceptives. Paraben are esters. How does esterification process occur? Chemically ester is a compound that formed from alcohol and carboxylic acid. Carboxylic acid contain COOH group and in the esterification process the hydrogen will be replace by other hydrocarbon. In the esterification process, the carboxylic acid are heated with alcohols in the presence of acid catalyst. (Clark, 2003). Figure 6 show the basic reaction of esterification.

Figure 3.20: Basic reaction of esterification( Clark, 2003)As stated earlier, the process use acid as catalyst and the name of mechanism is Fischer esterification. The esterification mechanism begin with protonation of carbonyl group of carboxylic acid , then it will be attacked by alcohol. The final step which is deprotonian will provide ester product but before that oxonium ion intermediate will occur by proton transfer and subsewuent release of water (Fischer,1895).

Figure 7 Fischer Esterification Mechanisms (name-reaction, n.d)Moreover, the simple illustration below will make better understanding.

Figure 3.21: simple illustration of esterification mechanismFurthermore,in order to produce p-hydroxybenzoic acid the Kolbe-Schmidt reaction will be done first. It is an organic reaction which convert phenol into salicylic acid using carbon dioxide gas, a base and acid work up(chem.ucla, n.d).

Figure 3.22: Kolbe-Schmitt reaction (chem-ucla, n.d)

Figure 3.24: Mechanism of Kolbe-Schmitt reaction(Tutor-vista.com, n.d) Different paraben can be obtained when the acid which esterification process occur is different. The length of carbon chain will affect the chemical and metabolic properties which will improves the lipohilic properties and the ability to penetrate membrane.Figure 3.25: Molecular structures of separated compound3.3.1.3: Toxicant of Paraben

How it affects human?Paraben is beneficial in the industries as the substance prevent the growth of microorganism. The medium which paraben can enters our body are skin, food, and air. The risk of consumer being exposed to this toxic is inevitable because it is widely known that instead of pharmaceutical industry and cosmetic products, some food also contains paraben which acts as a preservative to ensure longer shelf-life of the food.This chemical enters the body through food ingestion. It is also been proved that this chemical can penetrate human body by skin absorption when the products containing paraben is applied to the skin such as skin moisturizers and pain reliever. The third possible route for paraben to affect humans health is by air inhalation where surrounding air and house dust containing some amount of the paraben which is due to its existence in household merchandise.

Table 3: Common allergens found in the moisturizers

Diseases related to paraben: Allergic symptom increase the risk of breast cancer Damage DNA sperm Skin irritation Contact dermatitis

Table 4: Products that contain paraben

3.3.2 Diethylamine

3.3.2.1 : The Nature of Diethylamine

Diethyl amine (DEA) is the secondary amine produced from ethanol and ammonia. It is used in basic chemical products and pharmaceuticals specifically in pain reliever medication. Due to its impurities,it appears brown instead of colourless. Another properties of diethyl amine is thatithas a strong ammoniacal odor and has low melting and boiling point as well as low vapor pressure. In addition, DEA also soluble in organic solvent and water as well as a strong alkaly. However it is not suitable in a process which involves strong oxidisers. Basedona journal Recommendation from the Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits for diethylamine(2002), it had been found that within 15 minutes of diethylamine exposure to subjects (human), no effects was recorded. However, exposure of DEA over 60 minutes showed uncomfortable condition experienced by subject which are nose and skin vexation despite of smell disturbance. Based on New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet, DEA or CH3CH2NHCH2CH3 is classified as a hazardous substance as it can several harmful effects. It is an erosive chemicals that can lead to skin irritation and burn if in contact due to high vapor concentration in DEA.

According to International Agency for Research on Cancer, nitrosamines, a product of reaction between nitrites in cosmetics and DEA is considered as possible chemicals that can cause cancer which is also been found in smokeless tobacco. According to National Cancer Institute (2010), nitrosamines is the most carcinogen chemical found in smokeless tobacco and had been linked directly to cancer by scientist. An investigation on nitrosamines exposure by Straif, Weiland, Bungers, Holthenrich, Taeger, Yi and Keil found that nitrosamines exposure results in significant increase of oesophagus and prostate cancer despite of some other adverse effects.

Figure 3.26: Chemical formula of nitrosamine

To add to that, DEA also endanger marine life due to its toxicity as being claimed by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency. The short effects of overexposure to diethyl amine including breathing difficulties and chest pain while prolonged exposure of it will results in chronic irritation and foggy vision.

. Figure 3.27: Chemical properties of DEA

3.3.2.2: Process of Diethylamine

Diethylamine is an aliphatic hydrocarbon which is in the group of amine. Compound is classified as amine when it contain NH2 functional group in the long chain of hydrocarbon. There are a lot of ways to produce amine. These are the methods of producing amine.

1. From haloalkanes

This method will tend to produce tertiary amine if quantity of ammonia used is excessive (Facer, 2009).

2. From nitriles.Nitrile is reduced by hydrogen gas with presence of nickel catalyst to produce amine (Facer, 2009).

There are three types of amines which are primary, secondary and tertiary amine. Primary amine is classified if one of the three hydrogen atoms in ammonia is replaced by alkyl group. Secondary amine is classified when two of the hydrogen atom in ammonia is replaced with alkyl group each. Amine is classified as tertiary amine if all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic substituents (Facer, 2009).

Primary amineSecondary amineTertiary Amine

Diethylamine which has a formula of CH3CH2NHCH2CH3, is a secondary amine. One of the ways for producing diethylamine, secondary amine is by method 1 which is from haloalkane.

The haloalkane, usually 1-bromoethane, is heated with concentrated ammonia dissolve in ethanol. A salt, ethylammonium bromide is formed. After that, primary amine will form. Then, if ammonium and haloalkane is mixed in 1:2 proportions, the primary amine will react with excess primary amine forming secondary amine which is diethyamine (Facer, 2009).

3.3.2.3: Toxicant of Diethylamine

Diethylamine is considered toxic because it releases ammonia, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon dioxide gas upon burning which is hazardous to human. It is very dangerous to human as carbon monoxide is poisonous and can cause death if inhaled prolong. It is flammable which can cause eye and skin burns. Very harmful if inhaled. It is also very easily absorbed by skin which can cause severe respiratory tract irritation. DEA is also corrosive. If it is repeatedly expose to skin, dermatitis and skin destruction will occur which can then damage organ (Material Safety Data Sheet, 2006). The dangers of diethylamine are as below:i) Eyes irritationii) Mucous membraneiii) Lung, liver, and kidney failureiv) Cellular infiltrationv) Bronchopneumoniavi) Parenchymatous degenerationvii) Nephritis (Dikshith, 2013)Diethylamine also present in pharmaceutical product such as drugs and medicine. It also has several side effect if used excessively. Example of medicine that used DEA is diethylamine salicyclate. It is used to treat muscular aches, sprains and strains. AS it contains DEA, excessive used will caue all of the above listed hazards of DEA which are skin irritaion, rashes, redness, burning or discomfort.

DiethylamineSalicyclate3.3.3: Method for Prevention/reduction of Paraben&Diethylamine

Chemicals such paraben and diethylamine are used widely in cosmetic products, healthcare products and bodycare products. Products such as shampoos, lotions and makeup have been determined by scientist around the world that they contain toxins such as paraben and diethylamine. These toxins can disrupt the normal function of body hormones and can cause cancers.Administrative ControlThere are several ways in which toxic chemicals like paraben and diethylamine can be prevented or reduced to ensure our safety. Since these chemicals can be found in labelled cosmetic products, healthcare products and bodycare products, hence it is advised to read the labels before using these products. In other words, when shopping for cosmetics and personal-care products, read the ingredient labels. We should avoid anything that has parabens and diethylamine as it`s ingredients. For your information, methylparaben is the most common type of paraben which is used food products. But, it has now been banned in Denmark as it is unsuitable for children`s usage. Always choose products which are paraben free. Hence reading the label of the product us very essential in order to prevent one from getting negative side effects of this chemical.Meanwhile, diethylamine is on the Hazardous Substance List because it is being monitored and regulated by Occupational Safety And Health Administration (OSHA). The reason this pharmaceutical chemical is on the Special Health Hazard Substance List is because it is flammable and corrosive. Since diethylamine can affect a person through respiratory system and also by skin, proper safety methods can be taken in order to prevent oneself from getting into contact with the chemical.1. Use local exhaust ventilation at the working place where diethylamine is present. If there is no local exhaust ventilation, then respirator should be utilized.2. Protective clothing should be worn whenever dealing with diethylamine.3. If the person got into contact with this chemical, then he or she should wash the contacted area with lots of water.4. Good work ethics can also reduce or prevent hazardous exposure. 5. Clothes which were contaminated by diethylamine should be put in laundry and washed properly.6. Meanwhile at the workplace involving diethylamine, eye wash fountains should be prepared for emergency use in case one`s eye gets in contact with the chemical.7. Since this chemical can easily enter into our respiratory system, eating, drinking or smoking is strictly prohibited in these areas.Personal Protective EquipmentAs the saying goes, prevention is better than cure. Workplace controls are better than personal protective equipment (PPE). However for some work which requires human to do job in hazardous conditions and areas, PPE maybe appropriate. OSHA 1910.132 demands employers of workplace to identify the fitting PPE for each hazard present in the pharmaceutical workplace. Besides that, they should also train employee on how and when to use the PPE. Examples of PPEs are goggles, eye protection, gloves, respirator and many others.Since, diethylamine is vaporous, one may need to have a combination of filters, prefilters or cartridges to protect against this toxicant. If in case, that particular person inhaled paraben or diethylamine toxicant accidentally, that person should be removed from the exposure immediately. He or she should be provided with respiratory assistance and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR). According to National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, the recommended airborne exposure limit for an employee is 10ppm averaged over a 10-hour workshift.

General Ways of Preventing And Reducing Toxicants Post hazard and warning signs in the workplace that can easily be read by everyone in that particular area. Communicate and spread the information on health and safety hazards of the particular toxicants to potentially exposed employees. Label all chemicals with necessary information such as their scientific names, hazards and precautions. The New Jersey Right to Know Act demands that most employers and authorities to label every chemicals in the workplace. Besides that, they are also required to provide information and proper adequate training regarding chemical hazards and controls. As mentioned earlier, engineering controls are the most effective method to reduce exposure from any harmful toxicants. In order for it to be highly effective, the following steps need to be taken:

All protective clothing such as suits, gloves, footwear, and headgears should be clean, available each day and put on before work. Basic safety instructions such be briefed to all employees before they start to work and also be updated from time to time. Examples of basic safety instructions are:

ConclusionIn first chapter, we had discussed on the basic process of how the toxic had been produced and the history that contribute to modern day technology advancement which is the distillation process. From crude oil, it had been processed to produce several by product that are beneficial to human civilization that covers all aspect of life including social, economy and environment. In order to separate the products of crude oil, the properties of each product should be considered such as the boiling point, vapour pressure and density of compounds. In spite of that, we go into details on the definition of the term toxic as the subtopic under the introduction part so as to make it clearer how a substance can be considered as carcinogen or toxicant that affect humans health. All aspects regarding the toxic were well presented in this subtopic including the possible routes for toxic to be in contact with human. For safety purposes, general precaution steps to reduce or prevent any unexpected event regardless of any chemical that could bring harm to human was also provided in this chapter.

Our further research in chapter two are related to the case studies or accidents related to toxicants discussed in chapter three. Nowadays, peoples tend to overlooked on the main causes of accidents and missed the bigger picture or reason behind those accidents. Our approach is to investigate on how a simple, non-toxic chemicals can actually affects an individual as well as to increase awareness of consumer to product that they used. In any way possible, to make readers take some times to think and later, gather useful information about the chemicals listed on the product packaging right after they realize how important the information could be to ensure their safetiness.

In short, chapter three explained the nature, processes and the method of prevention of the toxic we had chosen based on the case studies in chapter two. The nature includes the chemical and physical properties of each toxic to relate the substance and how they could have the toxic properties based on the reactivity, the content of the chemicals, as well as the temperature and any other possible properties that could give bad impact to a person. Despite of the nature of those toxicant, this chapter also covers the process of hydrogen sulphide, polyethylene teraphthalate (PET), paraben and diethylamine formation. To add to that, specific method of prevention for each toxicant used in our study is also provided as a guideline to readers or consumers.

In conclusion, the consumer should be aware of the side effects that could be face by them regardless of any chemicals they used as it deals with their life as well as peoples that surrounds them. Get the right prescription and information on how to handle the chemicals precisely in the exact way as prescribed or it could be harmful if it is not being handle with care despite of its uses in daily life which is unavoidable. Again, it is better safe than sorry.

Appendix

Figure 4:Poll on Young Adults who Wants and Value Health Insurance

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