Towards the Non-Traditional Security: Poverty and Human Security

Towards the Non-Traditional Towards the Non-Traditional Security:Security:

Poverty and Human SecurityPoverty and Human Security

Wenefrida D. WidyantiWenefrida D. WidyantiThe SMERU Research InstituteThe SMERU Research Institute

Jakarta – IndonesiaJakarta – Indonesiawww.smeru.or.id

Presented at the Non-Traditional Security Course for Indonesian Police Presented at the Non-Traditional Security Course for Indonesian Police Lecturers & Doctors and NGO Leaders, Consortium of Non-Traditional Lecturers & Doctors and NGO Leaders, Consortium of Non-Traditional Security Studies in Asia, RSIS - NTU, Singapore, 22-24 August 2007.Security Studies in Asia, RSIS - NTU, Singapore, 22-24 August 2007.

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Poverty: Concept – Measurement - StrategyPoverty: Concept – Measurement - Strategy

Concept

• Who are the poor?

• Why are the poor?

Measurement & analysis

• Dimension of measurement

• Unit of measurement

• Being used approach

Poverty reduction strategy

• Approach

• Target (including where are the poor?)

• The forms of intervention

Planning

Monitoring and Evaluation

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Overview: PovertyOverview: Poverty

Defining and measuring poverty is difficult because poverty is a complex issue, but it is essential for designing and implementing poverty programs.

Good and reliable definition and measurement of poverty helps the formulation and testing of hypotheses on the causes of poverty.

Good and reliable definition and measurement will also enables government, international community, and any other stakeholders to set itself measurable targets for judging actions.

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Concepts (1)Concepts (1)

The World Development Report 1990 of the World Bank focused on the issue of poverty. The World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty, once again focused on poverty, on the series of “Voices of the Poor” reports. Poverty is a situation in which a decent standard of

living is not achieved inadequate food, inadequate housing and clothing, inability to access medical treatment when sick, and low access to education.

Poverty has three dimensions: lack of income and assets, voiceless and powerlessness, and vulnerability.

Attacking poverty requires: expanding opportunities, promoting empowerment, and enhancing security “security” is interconnected with the concept of “vulnerability”.

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United Nations (1997 Report on the World Social Situation): Poverty is a condition related to the inability to fulfill

basic needs nutritional deficiency, illiteracy, bad health, improper housing and clothing, etc.

JICA’s definition of poverty: A condition in which “people deprived of opportunities

to develop capabilities (political, social, economic, human, and protective) required to lead a basic human life and are excluded from society and development processes”.

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Poverty is a multidimensional concept. It may include the economic, social, political, physical conditions and psychological aspects of human being.

Poverty is routinely defined as lack of what is necessary for material well-being -especially food, housing, land and other assets. Later definitions also reveal other aspects of poverty, such as lack of voice, power, and independence.

The poor rarely speak about income, but they do speak about assets that are important to sustain their daily activities. These assets include a broad range of tangible and potential resources, both material and social, such as:

physical capital (land & material belongings), human capital (health, education, training and labor power), social capital (social networks), environmental assets (grass, trees, water, and non-timber

products).

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From Consultations with the Poor

First: Housing conditions Education/Schooling Types of occupation Food securitySecond: Land ownership Income Access to medical treatment Sanitation & housing Ownership of basic durable

goods Clothing

Others: Ownership of other durable

goods Housing ownership Lack of basic necessities Family size Livestock ownership Social relations Children working Ability to work Level of education Health conditions Debt/borrowings Household conditions

Sources: Participatory Poverty Assessment Consolidation Work. SMERU 2004

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Who are the poor? (1)Who are the poor? (1)

• Low quality of housing

• Unhealthy housing (limited space, no specific room functioning).

• Less educated

• Unemployed

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Lack of access to safe water

Lack of access to sanitation

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• Living in unhealthy environment that will affect the quality of living

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Why are they poor? (1)Why are they poor? (1)

The root causes of poverty: an example from one of regression analysis At the household level (using household survey data),

poverty is related to, among others: Low education Female headed household Unemployment Working in agricultural sector No access to safe drinking water No access to electricity

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Why are they poor? (2) Why are they poor? (2)

From Consultations with the Poor: Rural-Urban

Rural Urban

Powerlessness:Causes: God’s will/divine decree; lack of

employment opportunities; low prices of agriculture produce

Exclusion:Causes: lack of education; lack of skills;

lack of transportation infrastructure Material poverty:Causes: lack of capital; landlessness; low

level of income Vulnerability:Causes: production/harvest failures;

employment uncertainty; natural disasters

Attitudes:Causes: lack of achievement

Powerlessness:Causes: lack of employment opportunities;

high cost of living; God’s will Exclusion:Causes: lack of education; lack of skills Material poverty:Causes: lack of capital; low level of income;

extended family Vulnerability:Causes: Layoffs/business closure;

employment uncertainty Attitudes:Causes: lack of achievement

Sources: Participatory Poverty Assessment Consolidation Work. SMERU 2004

The root causes of poverty: an example from the PPA resultsThe root causes of poverty: an example from the PPA results

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Where are the poor?Where are the poor?

Geographical dimensions of poverty: Where do the poor live (pockets of poverty)? Especially relevant

under regional autonomy poverty map is one of the tools.

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Higher resolution poverty mapsHigher resolution poverty maps

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Small area poverty Small area poverty maps maps going down to going down to village levelvillage level

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Example: Poverty distribution in JakartaExample: Poverty distribution in Jakarta

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Furthermore, how can we identify the poor?Furthermore, how can we identify the poor?

Community Based Monitoring System (CBMS) is one of the tools. It can identify local-specific poverty conditions. Village (or other geographical administrative unit) specific

poverty criteria is determined after data collection using Principal Components Analysis (PCA).

The poverty criteria can be used to identify “relatively” poor families that require government assistance (targeting purpose).

Since the criteria are generated by the data itself, they are not known prior to data collection (difficult to be tampered).

Provide results of rank welfare level of every family in a location (NOT to calculate poverty rate).

CBMS data also permits calculation of other welfare indicators, including monitoring of MDGs at local level.

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CBMS and Localized MDG MonitoringCBMS and Localized MDG Monitoring

Education Health

Enrollment Rate (%) Maternal Health (%) Child Immunization (%)

Elementary Junior Secondary

Senior Secondary

Antenatal Care

Postnatal Care BCG Polio MMR Complete

Immunization

Hamlet 1 83.3 100.0 66.7 100.0 76.2 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Hamlet 2 92.0 100.0 37.5 89.5 0.0 94.7 94.7 94.7 94.7

Hamlet 3 78.4 85.7 44.4 100.0 95.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Hamlet 4 68.0 66.7 14.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 46.2 38.5 30.8

Hamlet 5 100.0 69.2 30.0 66.7 66.7 55.6 55.6 48.1 48.1

Hamlet 6 100.0 78.6 25.0 92.0 92.0 92.0 88.0 80.0 72.0

Hamlet 7 96.2 64.3 20.0 85.7 71.4 71.4 42.9 57.1 14.3

Hamlet 8 100.0 76.9 22.2 52.9 35.3 35.3 47.1 17.6 5.9

Hamlet 9 92.5 44.4 13.3 85.7 89.3 50.0 46.4 14.3 14.3

Example: Selected education and health indicators as proxy for MDGs achievements, at hamlet level, from a CBMS village.

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Measuring poverty (1)Measuring poverty (1)

Poverty is multidimensional: Income/consumption Health conditions Educational attainment Housing, sanitation, and clothing Social & political participation Other dimensions

Some approaches to measure poverty: Money-metric utility (income or consumption poverty, e.g.

World Bank $1 or $2 PPP per day), is still the most widely used single measure of poverty.

Composite index, built from chosen aspects/determinants of poverty (economics, health, education, social, political, etc). Human Development Index (HDI) of the UNDP is an example. PCA (Principle Component Analysis) and MCA (Multivariate Correspondence Analysis) are some ways/methods to assign non-arbitrary weight of variables for the composite index.

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The multidimensionality of poverty has to be taken into account in its measuring: what dimensions should be included? how should each dimension be measured? how to define poverty?

all dimensions any dimension indexation utility function

Qualitative and quantitative poverty analysis are complements, not substitutes.

The most important contributions of qualitative analysis (such as Poverty Participatory Assessment/PPA) are in providing causality (what causes what) and in verifying findings made from quantitative analysis.

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Measuring one-dimensional poverty: income/expenditure poverty Distribution of household income or expenditure (Data from

household survey, e.g. National Socio-economic Survey/Susenas)

Poverty line (Food poverty line + Non-food poverty line) Reference group

Measuring multidimensional poverty Examples: Men of Sumba, East Nusa Tenggara, 1999: A rich

man has (among other things), “10-50 livestock and 2-3 wives”; a middle-class man has “5-10 livestock and up to 2 wives”; whereas a poor man has only “1-5 pigs and sometimes not even 1 wife” (because he can not afford the bride price) (Indonesia: Consultations with the Poor. World Bank, 1999).

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Multidimensional poverty measuresMultidimensional poverty measures

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0

Household without access to safe water

Household without access to sanitation

Household with children aged 13-15 notenrolled in junior high school

Household with birth attended bytraditional paramedics

%

Poor Non-Poor

Source: Susenas 2004

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Poverty comparison: Consumption based Poverty comparison: Consumption based povertypoverty

Across areas Over time to measure progress, need a consistent standard

Poverty Line, Percentage, and Number of Poor People in Indonesia, 1996-Poverty Line, Percentage, and Number of Poor People in Indonesia, 1996-20072007

Year

Poverty Line(Rp/capita/month)

% of poor peopleNumber of poor people

(million people)

Urban Rural Urban Rural U + R Urban Rural U + R

1996 42 032 31 366 13.39 19.78 17.47 9,42 24,59 34,01

1999 92 409 74 272 19.41 26.03 23.43 15,64 32,33 47,97

2000 1 91 632 73 648 14.60 22.38 19.14 12,30 26,40 38,70

2001 2 100 011 80 382 9.76 24.84 18.41 8,60 29,30 37,90

2002 3 130 499 96 512 14.46 21.10 18.20 13,30 25,10 38,40

2003 138 803 105 888 13.57 20.23 17.42 12,20 25,10 37,30

2004 143 455 108 725 12.13 20.11 16.66 11,30 24,80 36,10

2005 4 150 799 117 259 11.68 19.98 15.97 12,40 22,70 35,10

2006 2,5 174 290 130 584 13.47 21.81 17.75 14,49 24,81 39,30

2007 6 187 942 146 837 12.52 20.37 16.58 13,56 23,61 37,17

Source: BPSNote: 1 Estimation result including Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam dan Maluku. 2 Estimation result including Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam. 3 Including estimation for 4 provinces (Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, Maluku, Maluku Utara, and Papua), in which the

Susenas Consumption Module 2002 was not held. 4 Susenas Consumption Module for panel households (10,000 households), February 2005, 5 Susenas Consumption Module for panel households (10,000 households), March 2006. 6 Susenas Consumption Module for panel households (10,000 out of 68,000 households), March 2007.

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HDI across Asian countriesHDI across Asian countries

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.55

0.6

0.65

0.7

0.75

0.8

0.85

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003

Malaysia

Thailand

Philipines

China

Vietnam

Indonesia

India

Myanmar

Cambodia

Lao PDR

Timor Leste

The Human Development Index (HDI) measures the average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living.

Comparison across countries Over time to measure progress, need a consistent standard

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Inequality is another problem related to Inequality is another problem related to poverty (1)poverty (1)

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Risks and Vulnerability (1)Risks and Vulnerability (1)

Risks may affect individuals differently (Amartya Sen: entitlements differ for each person).

Vulnerable is a situation with a substantial downturn in the well-being of people or substantial threatening of their daily lives because of their inability or lack to deal with risks when they face threats.

The vulnerable are those who cannot cope with risks, they are deprived of entitlements and fall into destitution. Therefore, priority should be given to ensure human security for those who are the most vulnerable.

Individuals who are vulnerable to poverty include those with insufficient income & assets, the socially excluded, and the socially disadvantaged such as the elderly, women, children, and disabled. Vulnerable people are also defined as those who are unable to cope with risks by themselves.

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Risks and Vulnerability (2)Risks and Vulnerability (2)

Vulnerability can be defined as a function of the magnitude of risks and the ability to cope with risks. Vulnerability also means the probability of being exposed to a number of risks.

Identification of risk & vulnerability factors accurately and integrating those analyses into poverty analysis are important.

Moreover, it is important to reduce the risks faced by the poor, so that they can cope with vulnerability.

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Who are the most vulnerable?Who are the most vulnerable?

ElderlyWomen

& children

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Economic crisis, poverty, and its Economic crisis, poverty, and its consequencesconsequences

The severe economic downturns in Asia due to the crisis in the late of 1990s created a pervasive sense of insecurity with a wide range of political, economic, social, and cultural dimensions.

Increasing poverty as a result of the fall of real incomes which led to food shortages, malnutrition, declining health and education, intensifying crimes, and lack of confidence in existing political systems has gone beyond the state’s capacity to resolve through the use of traditional security instruments.

The economic crisis also hit public and private corporations, which then led to a pervasive unemployment due to the lay-off and bankruptcy. As a result people faced a serious decline in real income.

The poor population who are already losing their purchasing power have become more exposed to extreme poverty, malnutrition, and serious illnesses.

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The dynamics of povertyThe dynamics of poverty

The poor people are vulnerable, also those who are near poor. Therefore, poverty is dynamics. Poverty (in this term, is the consumption based) can be categorized into “chronic poverty” and “transient poverty”.

Transition Matrix of Poverty Status, March 2006-March 2007(million people)

March 2006

March 2007

Poor Nearly poorNearly non-

poorNon-poor

Total

Poor 18.6 8.1 5.8 6.8 39.3

Nearly poor 6.6 5.6 5.8 10.1 28.0

Nearly non-poor 4.6 4.0 6.5 14.1 29.3

Non-poor 7.4 9.0 14.8 96.5 127.6

Total 37.2 26.7 33.0 127.4 224.2

Note:Poor: < Poverty Line (PL)Nearly poor: 1.00 - 1.25 PLNearly non-poor: 1.25 - 1.50 PLNon-poor: > 1,5 PLSource: BPS, 2007

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Overview: Security (1)Overview: Security (1)

Security concept has become increasingly expanded in the past few years: Richard Ullman:

extend the security concept to include a wide range of issues from natural disasters & diseases to environmental degradation.

Buzan et.al.: in conceptual term, securitization can be perceived as

the classification of and consensus about a non-traditional framework of understanding of security concept that moves beyond the state and beyond military threats.

The Copenhagen School: proposed five extended of security: military,

environmental, economic, societal, and political security (traditional + non-traditional).

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Overview: Security (2)Overview: Security (2)

Security concept has become increasingly expanded in the past few years: Robert McNamara

began to recognize that environmental degradation & natural disasters (e.g. epidemics, floods, earthquakes, and drought) are important threats to security as much as human-made military disasters The security studies have then shifting from traditional to non-traditional approach such as non-military threats.

The Consortium of Non-Traditional Security Studies in Asia (NTS-Asia):

promote a focus on the security of individuals, societies and groups, and to encompass the chronic and complex insecurities confronting Asia. The concerns of the growing trends in the region to all non-military threats (non-traditional security threats) such as environmental degradation, infectious diseases, and illegal migration.

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Matrix of security studiesMatrix of security studies

What is the source of the security What is the source of the security threat?threat?

MilitaryMilitary, Non-military,

or Both

States National security Redefined security

Security for Security for whomwhom?

(Conventional realist approach to security

studies)

(e.g. environmental and economic [cooperative

or comprehensive] security)

Societies, groups, and individuals

Intrastate security Human security

(e.g. civil war, ethnic conflict, and democide)

(e.g. environmental and economic threats to survival of societies,

groups, and individuals)

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Concept of human securityConcept of human security

The particular phrase of “human security” is most associated with the UNDP “1994 Human Development Report” on Human Security.

The definition in the report was rather ambitious. Human security was defined as the summation of seven distinct dimensions of security, which include:

Economic security (unemployment, insecure jobs, inequalities, poverty, homelessness)

Food security (inadequacies in terms of food availabilities and food entitlements)

Health security (infectious and parasitic disease, new viruses, respiratory infections)

Environmental security (degradation of air, water, soil, and forests) Personal security (discrimination, exploitation, crimes, terrorism) Community security (ethnic & communal conflicts) Political security (violation of human rights).

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Core of the human security concept

According to Amartya Sen the following distinct elements lie at the core of the human security concept: A clear focus on individual human lives An appreciation of the role of society and social

arrangements in making human lives more secure in a constructive way

A reasoned concentration on the downside risks to human lives

A choice to focus on the ‘downside’ – emphasizing the more basic human rights.

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Rethinking human securityRethinking human security

GARY KING & CHISTOPHER J.L. MURRAY:“Many attempts to ensure the territorial security of nation-states through military power have failed to improve their total human condition. In response, the international community has moved to combine economic development with military security and other basic human rights to form a new concept of ‘human security’. Unfortunately, by common assent the concept lacks either a clear definition or any agreed upon measure of it.”

(Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 116(4), 2001-02)

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Characteristics of human securityCharacteristics of human security

Four essential characteristics of human security: Universal concern

It is relevant to people everywhere, in rich nations and poor.

Interdependence The components of human security are

interdependent. Prevention

Human security is easier to ensure through early prevention than later intervention.

People-centeredness It is concerned with how people live in a society, how

freely they exercise their choices, how much access they have to market and social opportunities, and whether they live in conflict or in peace.

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Incorporating concepts of human security in Incorporating concepts of human security in the official foreign policiesthe official foreign policies

Canada: defines human security as “safety for people from both violent and non-violent threats”, a more conservative and narrower focus than the UNDP version.

Japan: their definition of human security is more inclusive than Canada’s. Human security comprehensively covers all the menaces that threaten human survival, daily life, and dignity (e.g. environmental degradation, violations of human rights, transnational organized crime, illicit drugs, refugees, poverty, anti-personnel landmines and other infectious diseases).

Norway: focuses on the freedom from fear aspects of human security and identifies a core agenda of preventive action, small arms and light weapons control, and peace operation, which its emphasis on protecting individual. They thus founded the Human Security Network (13 countries) and have mobilized around practical responses to humans security threats.

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Case: JICA’s principles to implement human Case: JICA’s principles to implement human securitysecurity

Seven principles to integrate the concept of human security into its activities: Reaching those in need through a human-centered

approach Empowering people as well as protecting them Focusing on the most vulnerable people, whose survival,

livelihood, and dignity at risk Comprehensively addressing both “freedom from want”

and “freedom from fear” Responding to people’s needs by assessing and

addressing threats through flexible and intersectoral approaches

Working with both governments & local communities to realize sustainable development

Strengthening partnership with various actors to achieve higher impact from assistance.

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Human security and risksHuman security and risks

Relationship between downside risks and poverty: Human security deliberately focuses on “downside risks”

and takes into account a variety of elements that inhibit human development.

The idea of security contains two key elements: An orientation to future risks A focus on risks of falling below some critical threshold of

deprivation. People suffering from deprivation (the chronic poor)

are always exposed to the risks of poverty. In order to protect people’s lives from threats and

risks, it is important to combine the two approaches: Efforts to empower people Protection by governments and the international

community.

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Types of threats that damage human securityTypes of threats that damage human security

Type of Risks

Extraordinary Major Threats (External Shocks)

Threats Embedded in Daily Life

Violent conflict Endemic disease/illness

Pandemic disease Accident/injury

Natural disaster Daily violence

Economic shock Social exclusion

Extensive environmental damage

Unhealthy living conditions

Old age

Crop failure due to bad weatherRisk:Risk: probability of degradation/ aggravation in the future well-being of people caused by various threats.

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The perspective of human security and The perspective of human security and povertypoverty

The human security framework analyzes poverty by focusing on the risks and vulnerabilities faced by an individual. It is, therefore, important to identify risk and vulnerability factors accurately.

Human security emphasizes two important aspects of poverty reduction: First, it addresses the significance of risk management by

focusing on factors that inhibit development and aggravate poverty, as well as risks towards human insecurity and vulnerability. The chronic poor are most seriously affected by risks. Therefore, it is necessary to prevent/mitigate risks or enhance their capacity to deal with risks.

Second, human security stresses the individuality of people and communities. This concept emphasizes individual features of fear and want in term of region, class, age, and gender.

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Human security and poverty reductionHuman security and poverty reduction

The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) was adopted at the joint meeting of the IMF and the World Bank in 1999. This was followed by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000. Poverty reduction is the most important issue, which can be seen from the goals: Eradicating extreme poverty & hunger Achieving universal primary education Promoting gender equality and empowering women Reducing child mortality Improving maternal health Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases Ensuring environmental sustainability Developing a global partnership for development.

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Integrating the human security perspective into a Integrating the human security perspective into a poverty reduction strategy/programpoverty reduction strategy/program

A poverty reduction strategy based on a human security perspective should include three dimensions of risk managements: Preventative & mitigating measures against risks (to avoid

disaster/risk) Protecting or coping measures when human security is

threatened by increases risks (to cope with disaster/risk), and Promoting measures to enhance social opportunities or

human capabilities of the poor to fight chronic poverty over the medium and long term (to enhance human capabilities/social opportunity).

From those three dimensions, promoting measure to enhance social opportunities and human capabilities work most effectively towards the prevention of risks.

The suggested actions of poverty reduction strategy are: “protection” and “empowerment”.

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Grand design of a human security oriented Grand design of a human security oriented poverty reduction strategypoverty reduction strategy

Freedom from large external shocks is a preconditioned for securing human security. The first and foremost task of human security is to prevent threats such as violent conflicts and macro-economic instability, environmental degradation, natural disasters and pandemic diseases.

Strengthening governance and government capabilities.

Safety net programs, such as emergency funds and food-for-work programs that are adopted when people face risks.

Sustainable social protection programs, particularly for those who are poor and vulnerable.

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Case: Considering human security into poverty Case: Considering human security into poverty reduction strategy in Indonesiareduction strategy in Indonesia

Improvement of poverty reduction program design: Schemes:

BLT (Unconditional Cash Transfer/UCT) program for the poor & near poor has been replaced by the Program Keluarga Harapan/PKH (Conditional Cash Transfer), in which require certain criteria related to the human well-being (ensure the education access for children, health care services for children and women, and nutritional improvement). This program prioritizes particularly the chronic poor as the beneficiaries.

Scaling up the Kecamatan Development Program (KDP) and Urban Poverty Program (UPP) programs towards Program Nasional Pemberdayaan Masyarakat/PNPM (National Community Empowerment Program) which aimed to reduce unemployment and poverty and empower the community.

State budget: significant increase of the state budget plan for 2008 particularly for the sectors highly related to basic public services (e.g. health, education, agriculture, energy, transportation, and public work).

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Future considerations (1)Future considerations (1)

Poverty and human security is becoming more crucial and part of global issues. Knowledge and awareness of those, therefore, are absolutely important and it should be taken into consideration in the policy making.

The traditional security concept has been transforming into the non-traditional security one, many aspects/component of human lives are included in the latter concept.

It is an obligation of the regional and international communities to promote the human security issues into policies and actions of each country.

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Future considerations (2)Future considerations (2)

Since the idea of human security is to improve the lives of people rather than improve the security of national borders and key issues cross these borders, coordinated action by the international and regional community seems essential.

Continued linkage and cooperation among governments, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, and other parts of civil society will also be important.

Building the capacity in data bases and methods to undertake better risk assessment should be an essential component of human security-focused foreign policy.

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ReferencesReferences

Alkire, Sabina (2003). A Conceptual Framework for Human Security, CRISE – Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford working paper.

Commision on Human Security (2003). Human Security Now, Commision on Human Security report, New York.

Hadiwinata, Bob (2004). Securitizing Poverty: the Role of NGOs in the Protection of Human Security in Indonesia, presented paper.

Hussein, Karim, Donata Gnisci and Julia Wanjiru (2004). Security and Human Security: An Overview of Concepts and Initiatives What Implications for West Africa? OECD Issues Paper.

IFIC JICA (2006). Poverty Reduction and Human Security, study report. King, Gary and Christopher J.L. Murray (2001). Rethinking Human

Security, Political Science Quarterly Volume 116 Number 4, 2001-02. Suryadarma, Daniel et.al (2006). From Access to Income: Regional

and Ethnic Inequality in Indonesia, SMERU Working Paper.

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Documents

Towards the Non-Traditional Security: Poverty and Human Security