Towards A More Critical (And More Engaging?)

Science Education

Towards A More Critical (And More Engaging?)

Science Education

Jonathan OsborneStanford UniversityJonathan Osborne

Stanford University

Goals of Science EducationGoals of Science Education

Conceptual

Cognitive

Epistemic

Social

Conceptual

Cognitive

Epistemic

Social

A Vision of Science Education?

A Vision of Science Education?

•Any education in science must not only address what we know, but how we know and how that knowledge came to be

•and whether it can be trusted.

•Any education in science must not only address what we know, but how we know and how that knowledge came to be

•and whether it can be trusted.

The Activities of Authentic Science

The Activities of Authentic Science

Generating own research questionSelecting own variablesDeveloping controlsObserving variablesUsing analog modelsDeveloping theories about mechanismsWriting reportsReading scientific papers

Generating own research questionSelecting own variablesDeveloping controlsObserving variablesUsing analog modelsDeveloping theories about mechanismsWriting reportsReading scientific papers

Considering methodological flaws

Reviewing Papers

Debating Theoretical Perspectives

Multiple studies of different types

Studying expert research reports

Reading scientific papers

Considering methodological flaws

Reviewing Papers

Debating Theoretical Perspectives

Multiple studies of different types

Studying expert research reports

Reading scientific papers

ConstructionConstruction CritiqueCritique

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Goals of Science EducationGoals of Science Education

MINORITY

Producers of Scientific Knowledge

MAJORITY

Critical Consumers of Scientific Knowledge

MINORITY

Producers of Scientific Knowledge

MAJORITY

Critical Consumers of Scientific Knowledge

Being A Critical Consumer?Being A Critical Consumer?Climate Change

The Bell Curve Debate

Stem Cell Research

The Teaching of Evolution

Should I vaccinate my child?

Do Fish Oils make you more intelligent?

Climate Change

The Bell Curve Debate

Stem Cell Research

The Teaching of Evolution

Should I vaccinate my child?

Do Fish Oils make you more intelligent?

‘‘Ban Ban radioactiveradioactive TETRA masts – TETRA masts – Caroline [the green party Euro MP] has Caroline [the green party Euro MP] has called for a region wide moratorium on called for a region wide moratorium on building ‘Tetra Masts’ until questions building ‘Tetra Masts’ until questions about the safety of their radiation about the safety of their radiation emissions have been answered’.emissions have been answered’.

-15 -10 -5 0 +5-15 -10 -5 0 +5

BostonBoston

CincinattiCincinatti

Port PiriePort Pirie

SydneySydney

CombinedCombined

Estimated Mean Change in IQ

Estimated mean change in IQ for an Estimated mean change in IQ for an increase in blood lead level from 0.48 to increase in blood lead level from 0.48 to

0.96 µmol/litre 0.96 µmol/litre (10 to 20 µg/dl)(10 to 20 µg/dl)

Uncertain Science -The Case of Saccharin

Uncertain Science -The Case of Saccharin

US National Academy of Sciences Panel

Does of 120 milligrams of saccharin daily

No fewer than 0.22 extra deaths from bladder cancer

No more than 1,144,000 extra deaths per year

Judgements are not so much false as poorly warranted.

US National Academy of Sciences Panel

Does of 120 milligrams of saccharin daily

No fewer than 0.22 extra deaths from bladder cancer

No more than 1,144,000 extra deaths per year

Judgements are not so much false as poorly warranted.

Why Argument? Contextual FactorsWhy Argument? Contextual Factors

The rising importance of science in the cultural context

personal and ethical decisions about a range of socio-scientific issues

political and moral dilemmas of the next century will be scientific

new developments require critical evaluation of scientific argument

whether the argument is sound

distinguish correlations from causes

Can young pupil’s ability to recognize, use and criticize argument within a scientific context be improved?

The rising importance of science in the cultural context

personal and ethical decisions about a range of socio-scientific issues

political and moral dilemmas of the next century will be scientific

new developments require critical evaluation of scientific argument

whether the argument is sound

distinguish correlations from causes

Can young pupil’s ability to recognize, use and criticize argument within a scientific context be improved?

Bao, L., Cai, T., Koenig, K., Fang, K., Han, J., Wang, J., et al. (2009). Learning and Scientific Reasoning. Science, 323(5914), 586-587.

Within school, it is possible that the academic experience encourages the attitude that assertions need to be justified and alternatives considered. But whatever these benefits, they are conferred early, certainly by the end of junior high school, and we see no further development in these respects.....On the positive side is the message that school environment makes a difference; on the negative side, however, is the disheartening finding that school makes no further difference beyond the junior high school years, at least with respect to the kind of cognitive skills of interest here.'

Kuhn, D. (1992). Thinking as Argument. Harvard Educational Review, 62(2), 155-178.

Why Ideas, Evidence & Argument?Why Ideas, Evidence & Argument?

Argument is the means of epistemic justification

Uncertainty is an inherent feature of science-in-the-making

Science is about inventing theories.

Shows that science is more complex than ‘doing experiments and finding patterns’

Argument is the means of epistemic justification

Uncertainty is an inherent feature of science-in-the-making

Science is about inventing theories.

Shows that science is more complex than ‘doing experiments and finding patterns’

The Argument for ArgumentThe Argument for Argument

•Argument provides:

•‘some insight into its epistemology, the practices and methods of science, and its nature as a social practice through studies of science-in-the-making, whether historical or in contemporary practice.

•Argument provides:

•‘some insight into its epistemology, the practices and methods of science, and its nature as a social practice through studies of science-in-the-making, whether historical or in contemporary practice. Driver, R., Newton, P., & Osborne, J. F. (2000). Establishing the norms of scientific argumentation in classrooms.

Science Education, 84(3), 287-312.

Ohlsson: Epistemic ActsOhlsson: Epistemic Acts

DescribingDescribing

ArguingArguing

PredictingPredicting

CritiquingCritiquingExplainingExplaining

ExplicatingExplicating

DefiningDefining

Ohlsson, S. (1996). Learning to do and learning to understand? A lesson and a challenge for cognitive modelling. In P. Reimann & H. Spada (Eds.), Learning in Humans and Machines (pp. 37-62). Oxford: Elsevier.

Formal Education: Epistemic Acts

Formal Education: Epistemic Acts

DescribingDescribing

ArguingArguing

PredictingPredicting

CritiquingCritiquing

ExplainingExplaining

ExplicatingExplicating

DefiningDefining

Ohlsson, S. (1996). Learning to do and learning to understand? A lesson and a challenge for cognitive modelling. In P. Reimann & H. Spada (Eds.), Learning in Humans and Machines (pp. 37-62). Oxford: Elsevier.

Why Knowing Why the Wrong Answer is Wrong Matters

Why Knowing Why the Wrong Answer is Wrong Matters

Activation Group Non-Activation Group

Free RecallPostTest

True/FalsePostest

Free RecallPostTest

True/FalsePostest

Refutation Text

50% 47% 67% 63%

Non-Refutatio

n Text14% 41% 25% 44%

Hynd, C., & Alvermann, D. E. (1986). The Role of Refutation Text in Overcoming Difficulty with Science Concepts. Journal of Reading, 29(5), 440-446.

38% can explain why the 38% can explain why the evidence supports the evidence supports the theorytheory

12% can explain why 12% can explain why the evidence does NOT the evidence does NOT support the theorysupport the theory

• The shape of the West coast of Africa matches the East Coast of South America

• Similar fossils, plants, marsupials and types of rock are found in South America and Africa

• There is no known force which can move a whole continent

• Not all of the Earth is wrinkled - there are mountains in some places and in other places it is very flat

• Even hard layers of rock can be seen to have been folded or bent

• Bones of mammoths and dinosaurs can be found in the North Sea

24% can explain why 24% can explain why Ben is rightBen is right

18% can explain why 18% can explain why the others are wrongthe others are wrong

How do we Know?How do we Know?•That Day and Night are caused by a spinning Earth

•Arguments Against:

1. The Sun moves

2. If you jumped up you would not land in the same spot

3. If the Earth was spinning at that rate, the speed at the equator is over a 1000 mph and you should be flung off.

4. There should be an enormous wind as the atmosphere lags behind.

•That Day and Night are caused by a spinning Earth

•Arguments Against:

1. The Sun moves

2. If you jumped up you would not land in the same spot

3. If the Earth was spinning at that rate, the speed at the equator is over a 1000 mph and you should be flung off.

4. There should be an enormous wind as the atmosphere lags behind.

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Why we believe the Earth spins?

Why we believe the Earth spins?

The Moral Case?The Moral Case?

'To ask of other human beings that they accept and memorize what the science teacher says, without any concern for the meaning and justification of what is said, is to treat those human beings with disrespect and is to show insufficient care for their welfare. It treats them with a disrespect, because students exist on a moral par with their teachers, and therefore have a right to expect from their teachers reasons for what the teachers wish them to believe. It shows insufficient care for the welfare of students, because possessing beliefs that one is unable to justify is poor currency when one needs beliefs that can reliably guide action.Norris, S. (1997). Intellectual Independence for Nonscientists and Other

Content-Transcendent Goals of Science Education. Science Education, 81(2), 239-258.

Exemplary TeachingExemplary Teaching

• ‘Anne says ‘I think it is soot from the flame’.

• ‘Good idea’. I write on the board ‘Anne’s theory – the black stuff is soot’. ‘She may be right’, I say. ‘Any other ideas?’

• ‘Yes, sir’ says Jamie, ‘I think it’s an impurity driven out of the copper by heat.’

• So Jamie’s theory goes on the board too.

• ‘I know what it is’, says Bryan whose older brother is in Grade 10

• ‘If you know, you will have to prove you are right – we’ll add it to our theories.’ Bryan’s theory: ‘the black stuff is formed by the air acting on the copper’.

• ‘How shall we decide who is right?, I ask.

• I get them to suggest three experiments to test the three theories.

• ‘Anne says ‘I think it is soot from the flame’.

• ‘Good idea’. I write on the board ‘Anne’s theory – the black stuff is soot’. ‘She may be right’, I say. ‘Any other ideas?’

• ‘Yes, sir’ says Jamie, ‘I think it’s an impurity driven out of the copper by heat.’

• So Jamie’s theory goes on the board too.

• ‘I know what it is’, says Bryan whose older brother is in Grade 10

• ‘If you know, you will have to prove you are right – we’ll add it to our theories.’ Bryan’s theory: ‘the black stuff is formed by the air acting on the copper’.

• ‘How shall we decide who is right?, I ask.

• I get them to suggest three experiments to test the three theories.

Student TalkStudent Talk

• ‘In the process of clarifying and reorganizing the material, the helper may discover gaps in his or her own understanding or discrepancies with others’ work or previous work. To resolve those discrepancies, the helper may search for new information and subsequently resolve those inconsistencies, thereby learning the material better than before…Furthermore, when an explanation given to a team-mate is not successful, the helper is forced to formulate the explanation in new or different ways.’

• ‘In the process of clarifying and reorganizing the material, the helper may discover gaps in his or her own understanding or discrepancies with others’ work or previous work. To resolve those discrepancies, the helper may search for new information and subsequently resolve those inconsistencies, thereby learning the material better than before…Furthermore, when an explanation given to a team-mate is not successful, the helper is forced to formulate the explanation in new or different ways.’

Webb, N. M. (1989). Peer interaction and learning in small groups. International Journal of Education Research, 13, 21-39.

4 More Successful

82% correct in post-test

15.3 self-explanations per example

4 More Successful

82% correct in post-test

15.3 self-explanations per example

Chi, M., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989). Self-explanations: how students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science, 13, 145-182.

4 Less Successful

46% correct in post-test

2.8 self-explanations per example

4 Less Successful

46% correct in post-test

2.8 self-explanations per example

The Effect of Argument on Conceptual GoalsThe Effect of Argument on Conceptual Goals

1.Fewer students used biological knowledge in their arguments was higher in the comparison group (30.4% vs. 11.3%);

2.Inappropriate use of biological knowledge was higher (16.1% vs. 4.8%);

3.Correct use specific biological knowledge was higher in the experimental group (53.2% vs. 8.9%,)

•‘integrating explicit teaching of argumentation into the teaching of dilemmas in human genetics enhances performance in both biological knowledge and argumentation’

1.Fewer students used biological knowledge in their arguments was higher in the comparison group (30.4% vs. 11.3%);

2.Inappropriate use of biological knowledge was higher (16.1% vs. 4.8%);

3.Correct use specific biological knowledge was higher in the experimental group (53.2% vs. 8.9%,)

•‘integrating explicit teaching of argumentation into the teaching of dilemmas in human genetics enhances performance in both biological knowledge and argumentation’

Zohar, A., & Nemet, F. (2002). Fostering Students' Knowledge and Argumentation Skills Through Dilemmas in Human Genetics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(1), 35-62.

Chin, C., & Osborne, J. ((in press)). Supporting Students' Argumentation Through Students' Questions: Case Studies in Science Classrooms. Journal of the Learning Sciences.

The CPD PackThe CPD Pack

1. Introducing Argument

2. Managing Small Group Discussion

3. Teaching Argumentation

4. Resources for Argumentation

5. Evaluating Argument

6. Modeling Argument

• & 28 Video Clips

1. Introducing Argument

2. Managing Small Group Discussion

3. Teaching Argumentation

4. Resources for Argumentation

5. Evaluating Argument

6. Modeling Argument

• & 28 Video Clips

Teachers Knowledge and Understanding of the Nature of Science

Teacher is anxious about their understanding of NoS

Confident that they have a sufficient understand of NoS

Teacher’s Conceptions of Their Own Role

Dispenser of knowledge Facilitator of learning

Teachers’ Use of Discourse

Closed and authoritative Open and dialogic

Teachers’ Conception of Learning goals

Limited to knowledge gains

Includes the development of reasoning skills

The Nature of Classroom Activities

Student activities are contrived & inauthentic

Activities are owned by students and authentic

5 Dimensions of Practice5 Dimensions of Practice

Bartholomew, H., Osborne, J. F., & Ratcliffe, M. (2004). Teaching Students ‘Ideas-About-Science’: Five Dimensions of Effective Practice. Science Education, 88(6), 655-682.

Talking to Learn, Learning to Talk in Secondary Science

Talking to Learn, Learning to Talk in Secondary Science

•1. Does a cycle of reflective professional development, based on the use of argumentation, enable science teachers to change their pedagogic practice to one that is more dialogic?

•2. Does engaging in argumentation lead to an improvement in students’ conceptual learning?

•3. What effect does argumentation have on students’ understanding of the nature of science?

•4. What effect does a more discursive pedagogy have on students’ engagement with school science?

•1. Does a cycle of reflective professional development, based on the use of argumentation, enable science teachers to change their pedagogic practice to one that is more dialogic?

•2. Does engaging in argumentation lead to an improvement in students’ conceptual learning?

•3. What effect does argumentation have on students’ understanding of the nature of science?

•4. What effect does a more discursive pedagogy have on students’ engagement with school science?

MethodsMethods

Working with 4 school Science Departments

Two teachers as key teachers

Training them in the use of a more dialogic pedagogy using the IDEAS pack

All teachers are expected to participate

4 Control Schools as a comparison.

Working with Yr 7-9 and Year 9-11

Working with 4 school Science Departments

Two teachers as key teachers

Training them in the use of a more dialogic pedagogy using the IDEAS pack

All teachers are expected to participate

4 Control Schools as a comparison.

Working with Yr 7-9 and Year 9-11

Model of Professional Development

Model of Professional Development

A more complex view of professional learning i(Fullan, 2001; Hoban, 2002; Bell and Gilbert, 1996; Spillane, 1999; Loucks-Horsely, 2003; Adey, 2003).

Teaching as a dynamic relationship with students and with other teachers where change involves:

uncertainty; room for reflection in order to understand the emerging patterns of change; a sense of purpose that fosters the desire to change; a community to share experiences; opportunities for action to test what works conceptual inputs to extend teachers’ knowledge and sufficient time to adjust to the changes made.

A more complex view of professional learning i(Fullan, 2001; Hoban, 2002; Bell and Gilbert, 1996; Spillane, 1999; Loucks-Horsely, 2003; Adey, 2003).

Teaching as a dynamic relationship with students and with other teachers where change involves:

uncertainty; room for reflection in order to understand the emerging patterns of change; a sense of purpose that fosters the desire to change; a community to share experiences; opportunities for action to test what works conceptual inputs to extend teachers’ knowledge and sufficient time to adjust to the changes made.

The Lack of DiscussionThe Lack of Discussion•Like this morning were talking about genetic engineering and Miss told us about this article, about how they’re going to make clones of each baby that gets born. They’re going to make a clone of it – so say if it needs a transplant, kidney transplant or whatever he could get if from his clone. And she didn’t want to let us discuss it further. I mean science- okay – you can accept the facts, but is it right, are we allowed to do this to human beings, to hear that it is wrong. She didn’t want to know our opinions and I don’t reckon that the curriculum lets her. I mean science - ok - you can accept the facts, but is it right? Are we allowed to do this to human beings?

•Like this morning were talking about genetic engineering and Miss told us about this article, about how they’re going to make clones of each baby that gets born. They’re going to make a clone of it – so say if it needs a transplant, kidney transplant or whatever he could get if from his clone. And she didn’t want to let us discuss it further. I mean science- okay – you can accept the facts, but is it right, are we allowed to do this to human beings, to hear that it is wrong. She didn’t want to know our opinions and I don’t reckon that the curriculum lets her. I mean science - ok - you can accept the facts, but is it right? Are we allowed to do this to human beings?

Osborne, J. F., & Collins, S. (2001). Pupils' views of the role and value of the Osborne, J. F., & Collins, S. (2001). Pupils' views of the role and value of the science curriculum: a focus-group study. International Journal of Science science curriculum: a focus-group study. International Journal of Science Education, 23(5), 441-468.Education, 23(5), 441-468.

Improved Satisfaction with Learning

Improved Satisfaction with Learning

•‘It is clear from these data in these classrooms where students perceive their science teacher as interested in student understanding and independent thinking, rather than in the speedy recitation of correct answers, students are more likely to have productive and satisfying learning experiences.

•Nolen, S. B. (2003). Learning Environment, Motivation and Achievement in High School Science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching(40), 4.

•

•‘It is clear from these data in these classrooms where students perceive their science teacher as interested in student understanding and independent thinking, rather than in the speedy recitation of correct answers, students are more likely to have productive and satisfying learning experiences.

•Nolen, S. B. (2003). Learning Environment, Motivation and Achievement in High School Science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching(40), 4.

•

S2: This is one of the best experiments I’ve ever done.

S1: Where we actually think! (Students laughed.)