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MIS 300
100 Top Hits for Slides for the Course
With emphasis on the 2nd half
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Contents
• General Model of Problem Solving• MIS; DSS; GSS; ESS• Specialized Systems• Management Support Systems• Technological Leadership• System Development• Risk Management and Security• Computer Crime and Ethics
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Focus of the Course
First six weeks: Information technology and how it works, definitions, IT as a business enabler and platform
Last six weeks: What information technology can do for users; user roles; producing and managing information technology; effects of IT
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Decision Making as a Component of Problem Solving
Figure 6.1: How Decision Making Relates to Problem Solving
SEE THINK SAY DO LEARN
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Decision Making as a Component of Problem Solving (continued)
• Problem solving: a process that goes beyond decision making to include the implementation stage
• Implementation stage: a solution is put into effect
• Monitoring stage: decision makers evaluate the implementation
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Programmed Versus Nonprogrammed Decisions
• Programmed decisions– Decisions made using a rule, procedure,
or quantitative method
– Easy to computerize using traditional information systems
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Programmed Versus Nonprogrammed Decisions (continued)
• Nonprogrammed decisions– Decision that deals with unusual or
exceptional situations– Not easily quantifiable
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Optimization, Satisficing, and Heuristic Approaches
• Optimization model: a process that finds the best solution, usually the one that will best help the organization meet its goals
• Satisficing model: a process that finds a good—but not necessarily the best—problem solution
• Heuristics: commonly accepted guidelines or procedures that usually find a good solution
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An Overview of Management Information Systems: Management Information Systems in Perspective
• A management information system (MIS) provides managers with information that supports effective decision making and provides feedback on daily operations
• The use of MISs spans all levels of management
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Management Information Systems in
Perspective (continued)
Figure 6.3: Sources of Managerial Information
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Outputs of a Management Information System
• Scheduled report: produced periodically, or on a schedule
• Key-indicator report: summary of the previous day’s critical activities
• Demand report: developed to give certain information at someone’s request
• Exception report: automatically produced when a situation is unusual or requires management action
• Drill-down report: provides increasingly detailed data about a situation
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Functional Aspects of the MIS
• Most organizations are structured along functional lines or areas
• The MIS can be divided along functional lines to produce reports tailored to individual functions
• This tends to lead to fragmentation, the sort of effect that ERP is designed to counter!
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An Overview of Decision Support Systems
• A DSS is an organized collection of people, procedures, software, databases, and devices used to support problem-specific decision making and problem solving
• The focus of a DSS is on decision-making effectiveness when faced with unstructured or semistructured business problems
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Capabilities of a Decision Support System
• Support all problem-solving phases
• Support different decision frequencies
• Support different problem structures
• Support various decision-making levels
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Capabilities of a Decision Support System (continued)
Figure 6.10: Decision-Making Level
What else goes along with level? Why?
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Components of a DSS
• Model base: provides decision makers access to a variety of models and assists them in decision making
• Database• External database access• Access to the Internet and corporate intranet,
networks, and other computer systems• Dialogue manager: allows decision makers to
easily access and manipulate the DSS and to use common business terms and phrases
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Components of a DSS (continued)
Figure 6.11: Conceptual Model of a DSS
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Group Support Systems
• Group support system (GSS)– Consists of most elements in a DSS, plus
software to provide effective support in group decision making
– Also called group decision support system or computerized collaborative work system
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Group Support Systems (continued)
Figure 6.12: Configuration of a GSS (Cf. Figure 6.11)
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Characteristics of a GSS That Enhance Decision Making
• Special design• Ease of use• Flexibility• Decision-making support• Anonymous input• Reduction of negative group behavior• Parallel communication• Automated record keeping
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Executive Support Systems
• Executive support system (ESS): specialized DSS that includes all hardware, software, data, procedures, and people used to assist senior-level executives within the organization
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Executive Support Systems in Perspective
• Tailored to individual executives
• Easy to use
• Drill-down capable
• Support the need for external data
• Can help when uncertainty is high
• Future-oriented
• Linked to value-added processes
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Capabilities of Executive Support Systems
• Support for defining an overall vision
• Support for strategic planning
• Support for strategic organizing and staffing
• Support for strategic control
• Support for crisis management
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An Overview of Artificial Intelligence
• Artificial intelligence (AI): the ability of computers to mimic or duplicate the functions of the human brain
• Artificial intelligence systems: the people, procedures, hardware, software, data, and knowledge needed to develop computer systems and machines that demonstrate the characteristics of intelligence
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The Nature of Intelligence
• Learn from experiences and apply knowledge acquired from experience
• Handle complex situations• Solve problems when important information is
missing• Determine what is important• React quickly and correctly to a new situation• By definition, a computer is unintelligent• The hallmark of intelligence is generating
information out of experience.
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The Nature of Intelligence (continued)
• Understand visual images
• Process and manipulate symbols
• Be creative and imaginative
• Use heuristics
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The Difference Between Natural and Artificial Intelligence
Table 7.1: A Comparison of Natural and Artificial Intelligence
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Expert Systems
• Hardware and software that stores knowledge and makes inferences, similar to a human expert
• Used in many business applications
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Robotics
• Mechanical or computer devices that perform tasks that either require a high degree of precision or are tedious or hazardous for humans
• Contemporary robotics combines high-precision machine capabilities with sophisticated controlling software
• Many applications of robotics exist today• Research into robots is continuing
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Vision Systems
• The hardware and software that permit computers to capture, store, and manipulate visual images and pictures
• Used by the U.S. Justice Department to perform fingerprint analysis
• Used for identifying people based on facial features
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Natural Language Processing
• Processing that allows the computer to understand and react to statements and commands made in a “natural” language, such as English
• Three levels of voice recognition– Command: recognition of dozens to hundreds of
words– Discrete: recognition of dictated speech with
pauses between words– Continuous: recognition of natural speech
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An Overview of Expert Systems: Characteristics and Limitations of an Expert
System
• Can explain its reasoning or suggested decisions
• Can display “intelligent” behavior
• Can draw conclusions from complex relationships
• Can provide portable knowledge
• Can deal with uncertainty
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Characteristics and Limitations of an Expert System (continued)
• Not widely used or tested• Difficult to use• Limited to relatively narrow problems• Cannot readily deal with “mixed” knowledge• Possibility of error• Cannot refine its own knowledge• Difficult to maintain• May have high development costs• Raises legal and ethical concerns
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When to Use Expert Systems
• Provide a high potential payoff or significantly reduce downside risk
• Capture and preserve irreplaceable human expertise
• Solve a problem that is not easily solved using traditional programming techniques
• Develop a system more consistent than human experts
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When to Use Expert Systems (continued)
• Provide expertise needed at a number of locations at the same time or in a hostile environment that is dangerous to human health
• Provide expertise that is expensive or rare• Develop a solution faster than human experts
can• Provide expertise needed for training and
development to share the wisdom and experience of human experts with a large number of people Do you see a
potential problem here?
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Components of Expert Systems
Figure 7.2: Components of an Expert System
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The Explanation Facility
• Allows a user or decision maker to understand how the expert system arrived at certain conclusions or results
• For example: it allows a doctor to find out the logic or rationale of the diagnosis made by a medical expert system
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The Knowledge Acquisition Facility
• Provides convenient and efficient means of capturing and storing all the components of the knowledge base
• Acts as an interface between experts and the knowledge base
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Participants in Developing and Using Expert Systems
• Domain expert: individual or group that has the expertise or knowledge one is trying to capture in the expert system
• Knowledge engineer: an individual who has training or experience in the design, development, implementation, and maintenance of an expert system
• Knowledge user: individual or group that uses and benefits from the expert system
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Applications of Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence
• Credit granting and loan analysis• Catching cheats and terrorists• Information management and retrieval• AI and expert systems embedded in products• Plant layout and manufacturing• Hospitals and medical facilities• Help desks and assistance• Employee performance evaluations
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What Is SUPPORTED?
• Managers are employed to create conclusions, to make things happen
• Thus, any support they receive can be only of two types:– To make it easier to make things happen or– To make others think things have happened
(i.e., to increase the perception of things happening)
Tools for bringing things to conclusion
Tools for helping others see that things have happened
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What Is a Conclusion?
• A Decision
• Agreement or consensus
• Realization of a model or plan
• Addition to knowledge
• Increase in confidence
• Any (presumed positive) change in resources (such as cash, staff, customers, etc.)
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What is the Support in Management Support Systems ?
SEE THINK SAY DO LEARN
Gather Access, Analyze Display, Communicate Remember better Knowledge Array, Compare Debate Archive Data Compute
WHAT A MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEM CAN DO FOR MANAGERS TO INCREASE CONFIDENCE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF PROBLEM-SOLVING
Manage this Process
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What Kinds of Tools Are There
• Display and Data Formatting (Presentation)
• Data Search and Processing (MIS)
• Suggested Action (Consulting)
• Evaluation of Action (DSS)
• Logical Conclusion (Expert System)
• Action (Operational System)
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How These Tools Differ
• Each one incorporates more “knowledge” than those above.
• The value of the knowledge is higher and the knowledge is more specific.
• Each removes some of the burden from the problem solver in generating and evaluating solutions
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Manager in Need of Support
Structure of a Management Support System
MODELCAPTURE
MODELBASE
DIALOGMANAGER
ADVICE
Knowledgeable Advisor
This takes place continually, refining theQuality and relevance of the stored data
LEARNING
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System Management
Model Usage
Model Management
Manager in Need of Support
Structure of a Management Support System
MODELCAPTURE
MODELBASE
DIALOGMANAGER
ADVICE
Knowledgeable Advisor
LEARNING
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General Model of a Management Support System
KnowledgeEngineering
Know-ledgeBase
Advisors
LEARNINGFeedback
Advice
AdvisingSystem
Interface
Managers ProblemDescription
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Who Is a Technology Leader?
• Technology developers
• Technology commercializers
• Technology stewards
Those who specify and build the systems
Those who figure out how to make a profit
Those who get the systems built and
employed
Project Process ProductUSE
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Who Is a Technology Leader?
• Technology stewards– User management– Project managers & clients– Process managers– Product owners
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Technology Leadership
• Three components:– Assessment– Forecasting– Management– Transfer
• A technological leader fosters technological innovation, and understands the technology life cycle.
• Such a leader initiates and steers commercialization of technological advances, links business and technology strategies, manages technology R&D and understands technological revolutions.
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Technology Management Components
• Technology Assessment– Evaluating technologies as they are created– To make wise investments, understand the true
costs, improve existing technologies, and develop ways of employing technologies
• Technology Forecasting– Predicting what technologies are going to be
available– To strategize technology use, second-guess the
competition, stay on top of the technology wave
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Technology Management Components
• Technology Management– Developing and using appropriate technologies– To lead the technology, employ it in the best
way, and to profit from technology use.
• Technology Transfer– Helping others learn the benefits and uses of
appropriate technologies– Making technologies available to others
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Technology Transfer
Rest of Organization
Technology Innovation
Source
Infusion
Adaptation
Innovation
Dilution
Evolution
Commercialization
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Technology Management Process(Pre-implementation)
PlanDevelop the technology plan
ResearchFind out what is needed, forecast technologies, assess technology menu
Procure or Develop
Find out what is available, developing acquisition and finance strategies
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Technology Management Process (Post-implementation)
ImproveMonitor use, develop improvement strategies, adhere to technology plan
ControlCommercialize, transfer, plan for obsolescence, train,
manage culture clashDispose
Scrap, reinvoke management cycle
PlanDevelop the technology plan
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Technology Life Cycle
Time
Market penetration,
Use, Acceptance,
Volume, etc.
Development
Application Launch
Application Growth
Mature Technology Substitution
and Obsolescence
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Commercialization and Marketing of Technology
Time
Sales Profit
Break-even
Are all internally developed systems “loss leaders”?
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An Overview of Systems Development: Participants in Systems Development
• Development team– Responsible for determining the objectives of
the information system and delivering a system that meets these objectives
– Usually consists of stakeholders, users, managers, systems development specialists, and various support personnel
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Systems Development Methods
• The systems development process is also called a systems development life cycle (SDLC)
• Traditional systems development life cycle
• Prototyping
• Rapid application development (RAD)
• End-user development
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The Traditional Systems Development Life Cycle
Figure 8.4: The Traditional Systems Development Life Cycle
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The Traditional Systems Development Life Cycle
(continued)• Systems investigation: problems and
opportunities are identified and considered in light of the goals of the business
• Systems analysis: study of existing systems and work processes to identify strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities for improvement
• Systems design: defines how the information system will do what it must do to obtain the problem’s solution
These two often take place at the
same time.
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The Traditional Systems Development Life Cycle
(continued)• Systems implementation: the creation or
acquiring of various system components detailed in the systems design, assembling them, and placing the new or modified system into operation
• Systems maintenance and review: ensures that the system operates, and modifies the system so that it continues to meet changing business needs
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The Major Phases of System Development
ReviewEvaluation
MainenanceAnalysis
Implemen-tation
Design
Focus onReal Systems Models of Systems
Focus on Users
Systems
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Prototyping
Figure 8.5: Prototyping Is
an Iterative Approach to
Systems Development
ExpertImple-menta-
tion
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The End-User Systems Development Life Cycle
• Any systems development project in which the primary effort is undertaken by a combination of business managers and users
• End-user-developed systems can be structured as complementary to, rather than in conflict with, existing and emerging information systems
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Outsourcing and On Demand Computing
• An outside consulting firm or computer company that specializes in systems development can be hired to take over some or all of the development and operations activities
• Outsourcing can involve a large number of countries and companies in bringing new products and services to market
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Systems Investigation
• What primary problems might a new or enhanced system solve?
• What opportunities might a new or enhanced system provide?
• What new hardware, software, databases, telecommunications, personnel, or procedures will improve an existing system or are required in a new system?
• What are the potential costs (variable and fixed)?
• What are the associated risks?
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Feasibility Analysis
• Technical feasibility
• Economic feasibility
• Schedule feasibility
• Legal feasibility
• Operational feasibility
Is there a workable technology?
Can we afford the potential
implementations?
Can we do it in time?
These two types of feasibility are often joined with othersinto a set of criteria termed
“organizational will”. Do we have the courage and
culture tocarry out the implementation?
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The Systems Investigation Report
• Summarizes the results of systems investigation and the process of feasibility analysis
• Recommends a course of action: continue on into systems analysis, modify the project in some manner, or drop it
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Systems Analysis
• Answers the question “What must the information system do to solve the problem?”
• Primary outcome: a prioritized list of system requirements
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Data Analysis
• A set of diagramming techniques• Data modeling
– Entity-relationship (ER) diagrams– Relatively easy to understand; a narrative of
what entities (actors, objects) produce or use what information
• Activity modeling– Data-flow diagrams (DFDs)– Conceptual, intuitive, should be shared with
potential users for verification
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The Systems Analysis Report
• The systems analysis report should cover:– The strengths and weaknesses of the existing
system from a stakeholder’s perspective– The user/stakeholder requirements for the new
system (also called the functional requirements)– The organizational requirements for the new
system– A description of what the new information
system should do to solve the problem
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Systems Design
• Answers the question “How will the information system do what it must do to solve a problem?”
• Has two dimensions: logical and physical• Logical design: description of the functional
requirements of a system: a model of the user• Physical design: specification of the
characteristics of the system components necessary to put the logical design into action: a model of the system
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Systems Implementation: User Roles
Figure 8.18: Typical Steps in Systems Implementation
Heavy user involvement
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Personnel: Hiring and Training
• IS manager
• Systems analysts
• Computer programmers
• Data-entry operators
• Hiring users: describe the job; match the skills
• Users may take up to three months to learn the new jobs.
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Data Preparation
• Also called data conversion
• Ensuring all files and databases are ready to be used with new computer software and systems
• With mission-critical data, generally a really expensive proposition
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Testing
• Unit testing: testing of individual programs• System testing: testing the entire system of
programs• Volume testing: testing the application with
a large amount of data• Integration testing: testing all related
systems together• Acceptance testing: conducting any
tests required by the user
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Installation
• The process of physically placing the computer equipment on the site and making it operational
• Normally the manufacturer is responsible for installing computer equipment
• Someone from the organization (usually the IS manager) should oversee the process
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Start-Up
• The process of making the final tested information system fully operational
• Direct conversion (also called plunge or direct cutover – “Black Monday” effect)
• Phase-in approach (function by function; perhaps department by department)
• Pilot start-up (a test area, function or department)• Parallel start-up (where mission critical information
is required or involved, where absolutely reliable service is needed)
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User Acceptance
• User-acceptance document: formal agreement signed by the user that states that a phase of the installation or the complete system is approved
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Systems Operation and Maintenance
• Systems operation: use of a new or modified system
• Systems maintenance: checking, changing, and enhancing the system to make it more useful in achieving user and organizational goals
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Systems Review
• Process of analyzing systems to make sure that they are operating as intended
• Often compares the performance and benefits of the system as it was designed with the actual performance and benefits of the system in operation
• Event-driven review: review triggered by a problem or opportunity, such as an error, a corporate merger, or a new market for products
• Time-driven review: review performed after a specified amount of time
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General Risk Model
Threat
Awareness,Assessment
Avoidance, Deterence
Threat haseffects
Defence
Effects haveImplications
Detection, Recovery
Reassessment(Retaliation)
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Risk Management Components
• Assessment/Awareness• Avoidance• Deterence/Deflection• Defence• Audit/Detection• Recovery• Retaliation• Reassessment/Learning
Costs rise rapidly as risk manage-ment tactics evolve in time by powers of 2 to 10
$1
$2-10
$4-100
$8-1000
$16-10000
$32-100000
$64-1000000
Priceless!
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Cost/Benefit Tradeoff
Benefits (lowered risk, damage)
Cost (money, effort, exposure)
Because loss is highest for late actions, there is a rapid increase in value of expense
At some point tactics are complex themselves and expose actor to further risk
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Computer Waste and Mistakes
• Computer waste– The inappropriate use of computer technology
and resources
• Computer-related mistakes– Errors, failures, and other computer problems
that make computer output incorrect or not useful
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Computer Waste
• Discarding of technology• Unused systems• Personal use of corporate time and
technology• Spam• Poorly designed systems• Unintelligent system use
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Computer-Related Mistakes
• Mistakes can be caused by unclear expectations and a lack of feedback
• A systems analyst might specify a system that is not what is needed or wanted
• A programmer might develop a program that contains errors
• Users might accept a system that is not what is needed or what is wanted
• A data-entry clerk might enter the wrong data
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Computer Crime
• Often defies detection
• The amount stolen or diverted can be substantial
• The crime is “clean” and nonviolent (so far!)
• The number of IT-related security incidents is increasing dramatically
• Computer crime is now global
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The Computer as a Tool to Commit Crime
• Criminals need two capabilities to commit most computer crimes:– Knowing how to gain access to the computer
system– Knowing how to manipulate the system to
produce the desired result
• Social engineering
• Dumpster diving
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Identity Theft
• An imposter obtains key pieces of personal identification information, such as Social Security or driver’s license numbers, in order to impersonate someone else
• The information is then used to obtain credit, merchandise, and services in the name of the victim or to provide the thief with false credentials
• Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act of 1998
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Data Alteration and Destruction
• Virus: a computer program capable of attaching to disks or other files and replicating itself repeatedly, typically without the user’s knowledge or permission
• Worm: an independent program that replicates its own program files until it interrupts the operation of networks and computer systems
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Data Alteration and Destruction – 2
• Trojan horse: a program that appears to be useful but actually masks a destructive program
• Logic bomb: an application or system virus designed to “explode” or execute at a specified time and date
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Using Antivirus Programs
• Antivirus program: program or utility that prevents viruses and recovers from them if they infect a computer
• An antivirus software should be run and updated often
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Privacy Issues
• With information systems, privacy deals with the collection and use or misuse of data
• Privacy and the federal government
• Privacy at work: you don’t have any
• E-mail privacy: doesn’t exist
• Privacy and the Internet: caveat emptor
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Privacy: The Basic Issue
• Information about the individual may or may not “belong” to the individual as “property”
• English common law, the basis of our general law, recognizes property rights as inherent and inviolable (in general)
• Intellectual assets differ in many ways from physical property– Eg. Copyable without damage– Eg. Valuable only for brief period of time– Eg. Can cause damage as well as be an asset
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Information about Oneself
• In general this does NOT belong to the individual• Example: “public figure”• Example: customer records• Example: Employee records• Example: One’s image (visual or audio)• Information in general is inherent in an activity
and belongs to that activity; the owner of the activity is the owner of the information.
• This is not a well-developed field with clear-cut principles that juries and judges adhere to.
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Corporate Privacy Policies
• Should address a customer’s knowledge, control, notice, and consent over the storage and use of information
• May cover who has access to private data and when it may be used
• A good database design practice is to assign a single unique identifier to each customer
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Individual Efforts to Protect Privacy
• Find out what is stored about you in existing databases
• Be careful when you share information about yourself
• Be proactive to protect your privacy• When purchasing anything from a Web site,
make sure that you safeguard your credit card numbers, passwords, and personal information
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Foreign Language Guide Book
• “It’s cute but it doesn’t do what it’s supposed to do.”
• “I know YOU think it’s great technology, but it doesn’t meet my needs.”
• “Wow! This is really going to make me look good on the job!”
• “IT DOESN’T WORK!”
• “I DON’T WANT IT!”
• “THANKS!”
What you want to express What to say in ITish
