To Help Or Not To Help Darley, J.M., & Latene, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility

To Help Or Not To To Help Or Not To HelpHelp

Darley, J.M., & Latene, B. Darley, J.M., & Latene, B. (1968). Bystander (1968). Bystander

intervention in intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of emergencies: Diffusion of

responsibility. responsibility.

Background Background

A violent and tragic event in A violent and tragic event in New York City. In 1964, Kitty New York City. In 1964, Kitty

Genovese was returning to her Genovese was returning to her apartment in a quiet middle-apartment in a quiet middle-

class neighborhood in Queens class neighborhood in Queens after leaving work. after leaving work.

She was attacked while She was attacked while walking to her apartment by a walking to her apartment by a

man with a knife.man with a knife.

More More BackgroundBackground

The man stabbed her several times The man stabbed her several times as she screamed for help. as she screamed for help.

One neighbor had yelled out his One neighbor had yelled out his window for the man to “Leave That window for the man to “Leave That

Girl Alone” at which the attacker Girl Alone” at which the attacker began to walk away. began to walk away.

He quickly turned around and He quickly turned around and continued stabbing her continued stabbing her

More Background More Background

She continued to scream until She continued to scream until finally someone called the police.finally someone called the police.

The police arrived two minutes The police arrived two minutes after they were called, but after they were called, but Genovese was already dead and Genovese was already dead and her attacker had disappeared. her attacker had disappeared.

The attack had lasted 35 minutes. The attack had lasted 35 minutes.

More BackgroundMore Background

During police investigations, it was found During police investigations, it was found that 38 people in the surrounding that 38 people in the surrounding apartments had witnessed the attack, but apartments had witnessed the attack, but only one had eventually called the police. only one had eventually called the police.

One couple (who said they assumed the One couple (who said they assumed the police had been called by someone) had police had been called by someone) had moved 2 chairs next to their window in moved 2 chairs next to their window in order to watch the violence. The order to watch the violence. The murderer was never found.murderer was never found.

More Background More Background

If someone had acted sooner to If someone had acted sooner to help Genovese, she probably help Genovese, she probably would have survived.would have survived.

New York City and the nation were New York City and the nation were appalled by the seeming lack of appalled by the seeming lack of caring on the part of so many caring on the part of so many neighbors who had failed to try neighbors who had failed to try and stop this violent act. and stop this violent act.


Have you ever been faced with a Have you ever been faced with a true emergency? true emergency?

Society dictates that we take Society dictates that we take action to help in emergencies, but action to help in emergencies, but often as in the famous Genovese often as in the famous Genovese case, we do not. case, we do not.

Could it be because we have so Could it be because we have so little experience that we do not little experience that we do not know what to do? know what to do?


John Darley at New York University John Darley at New York University and Bibb Lantane at Columbia both and Bibb Lantane at Columbia both social psychologist, were among those social psychologist, were among those who wanted to examine these factors. who wanted to examine these factors.

They termed the behavior of helping They termed the behavior of helping in emergencies, in emergencies, bystander bystander intervention intervention (or in this case, (or in this case, nonintervention).nonintervention).


Following the Genovese murder, Darley Following the Genovese murder, Darley and Latene analyzed the bystanders’ and Latene analyzed the bystanders’ reactions. reactions.

They theorized that the large number of They theorized that the large number of people who witnessed the violent event, people who witnessed the violent event, decreased the willingness of individuals decreased the willingness of individuals to step in and help.to step in and help.

They decided to test their theory They decided to test their theory experimentally.experimentally.

Method Method

Darley and Latene told students in a Darley and Latene told students in a psychology class at New York University psychology class at New York University that they were interested in studying that they were interested in studying how students adjust to university life in how students adjust to university life in a highly competitive, urban a highly competitive, urban environment and what kinds of personal environment and what kinds of personal problems they were experiencing. problems they were experiencing.

The students would be separated into The students would be separated into groups and they would talk about their groups and they would talk about their problems over an intercom system.problems over an intercom system.

Method Cont.Method Cont.

They were asked to discuss their They were asked to discuss their problems honestly with other problems honestly with other students, but to avoid any discomfort students, but to avoid any discomfort or embarrassment. or embarrassment.

Each student would be given two Each student would be given two minutes, after which the microphone minutes, after which the microphone for the next student would be for the next student would be activated for two minutes, and so on. activated for two minutes, and so on.

Method Cont. Method Cont.

This was all a cover story designed This was all a cover story designed to obtain natural behavior from the to obtain natural behavior from the subjects and to hide the true subjects and to hide the true purpose of the experiment. purpose of the experiment.

The most important part of this The most important part of this cover story was the way the cover story was the way the students were divided into three students were divided into three different experimental conditions. different experimental conditions.


The subjects in group 1 believed that The subjects in group 1 believed that they would be talking with only one they would be talking with only one other person; those in group 2 believed other person; those in group 2 believed there would be two other people on the there would be two other people on the intercom; and the group 3 subjects were intercom; and the group 3 subjects were told that there were five people on the told that there were five people on the line. line.

In reality, each subject was alone and In reality, each subject was alone and all the other voices were on tape. all the other voices were on tape.


Now that the size of the groups Now that the size of the groups were varied, some sort of were varied, some sort of emergency had to be created. emergency had to be created.

The researchers decided that a The researchers decided that a very realistically acted epileptic very realistically acted epileptic seizure would be interpreted by seizure would be interpreted by more people as an emergency. more people as an emergency.


Over the intercom system between the Over the intercom system between the subjects and the other “students” began, subjects and the other “students” began, subjects heard the first student, a male, subjects heard the first student, a male, tell his difficulties concentrating on his tell his difficulties concentrating on his studies and problems adjusting to life to studies and problems adjusting to life to New York City. New York City.

He then added, with some He then added, with some embarrassment, that he sometimes had embarrassment, that he sometimes had severe seizures, especially when under a severe seizures, especially when under a lot of stress. lot of stress.


In Group 1, the actual subject’s turn came In Group 1, the actual subject’s turn came next, whereas in the other two conditions, next, whereas in the other two conditions, the subject heard one or more other the subject heard one or more other students speak before his or her turn. students speak before his or her turn.

This is when the emergency occurred.This is when the emergency occurred. The first student spoke normally as The first student spoke normally as

before, but then began to have a seizure before, but then began to have a seizure (remember, this was all on tape). (remember, this was all on tape).


Latene and Darley quote the seizure in Latene and Darley quote the seizure in detail in a later report as follows:detail in a later report as follows:

I-er-um-I think I-I need-er-if could er-er I-er-um-I think I-I need-er-if could er-er somebody er-er-er-er-er-er give me a somebody er-er-er-er-er-er give me a little-er-give me a little help here little-er-give me a little help here because-er-I-er-I’m-er-h-h-having a-a-a because-er-I-er-I’m-er-h-h-having a-a-a real problem-er right now and I-er-if real problem-er right now and I-er-if somebody could help me out it would-it somebody could help me out it would-it would-er-er s-s-sure be good…because-would-er-er s-s-sure be good…because-er-there-er-ag cause I er-I-uh-I’ve got one er-there-er-ag cause I er-I-uh-I’ve got one of the-er-sei—er-er-things of the-er-sei—er-er-things


Coming on and-and-and I could Coming on and-and-and I could really use some help so if really use some help so if somebody would-er give me a little somebody would-er give me a little h-help-uh-er-er-er-er could h-help-uh-er-er-er-er could somebody-er er-help-er-uh-uh-uh somebody-er er-help-er-uh-uh-uh [choking sounds]…I’m gonna die-[choking sounds]…I’m gonna die-er-er…help-er-er-seizure [chokes, er-er…help-er-er-seizure [chokes, then quiet]then quiet]


To the subjects, this was clearly an To the subjects, this was clearly an emergency. emergency.

There was no question that the “student” There was no question that the “student” was in trouble and needed help was in trouble and needed help immediately. immediately.

In order to analyze the responses to the In order to analyze the responses to the subjects, Darley and Latane measured the subjects, Darley and Latane measured the percentage of subjects in each condition percentage of subjects in each condition who helped the student in trouble.who helped the student in trouble.


They also measured the amount of They also measured the amount of time it took subjects to respond to time it took subjects to respond to the emergency and try to help.the emergency and try to help.

Subjects were given four minutes Subjects were given four minutes to respond, after which the to respond, after which the experiment was terminated.experiment was terminated.

Results Results

The findings from the study offered strong The findings from the study offered strong support for the researchers’ hypothesis. support for the researchers’ hypothesis.

As subjects believed there were a greater As subjects believed there were a greater number of others present, the percentage number of others present, the percentage who reported the seizure quickly, that is, who reported the seizure quickly, that is, as the attack was occurring, decreased as the attack was occurring, decreased dramatically.dramatically.

Among those who eventually helped, the Among those who eventually helped, the amount of delay in helping was greater amount of delay in helping was greater when more bystanders were present.when more bystanders were present.

Results-ChartResults-Chart

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20

40

60

80

100

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Group 1Group 2Group 3

ResultsResults

For Group 1, the average delay in responding For Group 1, the average delay in responding was less than one minute, whereas for Group 3 was less than one minute, whereas for Group 3 it was over three minutes.it was over three minutes.

Finally, the total number of subjects who Finally, the total number of subjects who reported the seizure at all, either during or reported the seizure at all, either during or after it occurred, varied among the groups in a after it occurred, varied among the groups in a similar way. similar way.

All of the subjects in group 1 reported the All of the subjects in group 1 reported the emergency, but only 85% of group 2 and 60% emergency, but only 85% of group 2 and 60% of group 3 did so at any time during the 4- of group 3 did so at any time during the 4- minute period.minute period.

Discussion Discussion

As in the real-life of Kitty Genovese, you As in the real-life of Kitty Genovese, you might think that the subjects in this might think that the subjects in this study were simply uncaring toward the study were simply uncaring toward the victim having the seizure.victim having the seizure.

However, Darley and Latene are quick However, Darley and Latene are quick to point out that this was not the reason to point out that this was not the reason for the inaction of subjects in groups 2 for the inaction of subjects in groups 2 and 3 (or of Genovese’s neighbors)and 3 (or of Genovese’s neighbors)

DiscussionDiscussion

All the subjects reported experiencing a All the subjects reported experiencing a great deal of anxiety and discomfort great deal of anxiety and discomfort during the attack and showed physical during the attack and showed physical signs of nervousness (trembling hands, signs of nervousness (trembling hands, sweaty palms). sweaty palms).

The researchers concluded, therefore, The researchers concluded, therefore, that the reason for their results must lie that the reason for their results must lie in the difference in the number of other in the difference in the number of other people the subjects believed were people the subjects believed were present.present.


Darley and Latane claimed to have Darley and Latane claimed to have demonstrated and supported their demonstrated and supported their theory of diffusion of responsibility. theory of diffusion of responsibility.

As the number of people in the As the number of people in the group increased, the subject felt group increased, the subject felt less personal or individual less personal or individual responsibility to take action. responsibility to take action.


Darley and Latane contended that Darley and Latane contended that part of the reason we fail to help part of the reason we fail to help when others are present is that we when others are present is that we are afraid of being embarrassed or are afraid of being embarrassed or ridiculed. ridiculed.

Significance of the Significance of the FindingsFindings

They proposed that there are five steps They proposed that there are five steps you would go through before you would go through before intervening in an emergency:intervening in an emergency:

1. You, the potential helper, must first 1. You, the potential helper, must first notice that an event is occurring. notice that an event is occurring.

2. Next, you must interpret the situation 2. Next, you must interpret the situation as one in which help is truly needed. as one in which help is truly needed. This is the point at which fear of This is the point at which fear of embarrassment exerts its influence. embarrassment exerts its influence.


3. You have to assume personal 3. You have to assume personal responsibility. This will usually happen responsibility. This will usually happen immediately if you are the only bystander immediately if you are the only bystander in the emergency. in the emergency.

4. If you assume responsibility, you then 4. If you assume responsibility, you then must decide what action to take. Here, if must decide what action to take. Here, if you do not know what to do or you do not you do not know what to do or you do not feel capable of taking the appropriate feel capable of taking the appropriate action, you will be less likely to help. action, you will be less likely to help.


Finally, after you’ve decided what Finally, after you’ve decided what action to take, you have to just action to take, you have to just take it. Just because you know take it. Just because you know what to do doesn’t guarantee that what to do doesn’t guarantee that you will do it. You will weigh the you will do it. You will weigh the costs and benefits of helping. costs and benefits of helping.

Subsequent Findings and Recent Subsequent Findings and Recent

ApplicationsApplications

Both Kitty Genovese murder and the Both Kitty Genovese murder and the experiment we have been discussing her experiment we have been discussing her involved groups of onlookers who were involved groups of onlookers who were out of contact with each other. out of contact with each other.

Darley and Latane believed that in some Darley and Latane believed that in some cases even groups in close contact would cases even groups in close contact would be less likely than individuals to help. be less likely than individuals to help.

This would be especially true, they This would be especially true, they theorized, when the emergency is theorized, when the emergency is somewhat ambiguous. somewhat ambiguous.

Conclusion Conclusion

The results of this research may seem The results of this research may seem rather pessimistic, but it should be rather pessimistic, but it should be stressed that this research deals with an stressed that this research deals with an extremely specific situation in which extremely specific situation in which people fail to help. people fail to help.

Hopefully, as more people become Hopefully, as more people become aware of the bystander effect, they will aware of the bystander effect, they will make the extra effort to intervene in an make the extra effort to intervene in an emergency, even if others are present. emergency, even if others are present.

Conclusion Conclusion

In fact, research has actually In fact, research has actually demonstrated that when people have demonstrated that when people have learned about the bystander effect, they learned about the bystander effect, they are more likely to help in emergencies. are more likely to help in emergencies.

The bottom line is this: Never assume The bottom line is this: Never assume that others have intervened or will that others have intervened or will intervene in an emergency. Always act intervene in an emergency. Always act as if you are the only person there. as if you are the only person there.

Documents

To Help Or Not To Help Darley, J.M., & Latene, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility