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Title: An examination of the Institutional Arrangements for Disaster Management in Jamaica and CARICOM: A Case Study of the Socio-Economic Impact of Natural Disasters on Jamaica and other Caribbean states. Abstract

This paper examines the relevance of an effective disaster risk management approach to the CSME. It highlights the socio-economic impact of natural disasters on Caribbean States using Jamaica as an example. Disasters whether natural or manmade poses serious hazards and risks to society and can set back the development of a country by damaging important economic, physical and social infrastructure which are important to the sustainable development of the CSME. In fact their occurrence can damage the entire economy of small island states thus placing them in precarious situations. The Caribbean region is particularly vulnerable to disasters such as hurricanes, floods, tropical storms, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions due to its geographical location, (Buddan 2001). Consequently it is imperative that the region has an effective disaster risk management infrastructure, as well as institutional arrangements that encompasses pertinent issues relating to disaster management and mitigation. Caribbean governments like other regional governments have come to realize that in order to compete in the global economy they have to collaborate and strengthen their institutional capacity in various areas in order to be successful. The susceptibility of Caribbean economies to natural disasters reduce their developmental capabilities by redirecting scarce resources from other projects to deal with relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction processes. This paper supports the effort that is made by regional and international organizations such as CDERA, CARDIN, CDB, OFDA, WB and the UNDP among many others in the development of a comprehensive disaster management strategy for the Caribbean. This paper concludes that Caribbean economies can be strengthened by proactive disaster mitigation strategies. Vulnerabilities and damages can also be reduced if effective risk management procedures and plans applicable to our society and each country in particular are developed and implemented in a timely manner through local and regional institutions using best practices.

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Natural disasters often have devastating impact on the social and economic aspects of life in any society that they occur. They may pose serious hazards and risks to mankind, the ecosystem and livelihoods. In some countries the occurrence of natural disasters have significantly reversed or retarded years of development thus making those societies even more vulnerable to other forms of disasters. The effects especially on the development of poorer/smaller countries and the poorer members of society have been particularly devastating. Historically the Caribbean region due to it’s small size, it’s geographical location and changing climatic conditions have been highly susceptible to natural disasters such as hurricanes, floods, droughts, earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides and tropical storms of varying intensity. These disasters have resulted in tremendous human suffering and the destruction of social, economic and environmental infrastructure. The Commonwealth Vulnerability Index, which ranks developing countries according to measurable components of exposure and resilience to external shocks, places most Caribbean countries in the highly vulnerable to higher medium vulnerability range, (Commonwealth Secretariat/World Bank 2000). According to Merriman and Browitt (1993, 29), “vulnerability is the potential to suffer harm.” It can also be defined as the “extent to which a community, structure, service or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of a particular disaster or hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrain or a disaster prone area,” (APDC 2000). Natural disasters such as floods increase vulnerability especially that of the poor, as they are often more exposed to the hazards associated with the disaster. It is estimated that damages from disasters in the Latin America and the Caribbean region have reached some US$ 20 billion annually over a ten year period, leaving a toll of 45,000 deaths and 40 million people affected, (ECLAC, 1999 cited in Keipi and Tyson 2002, 1). In some instances the occurrence of natural disasters have induced political problems or tensions especially in relation to the relief phase. Over the past few decades some countries in the region have been severely affected by one or more of these natural disasters which have drastically reduced the developmental capabilities of these countries. According to Keipi, in Latin America and the Caribbean, the most common threats recorded in the twentieth century were in descending order of frequency, floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, landslides, droughts, volcanic eruptions and fires. Among these threats the first three account for 77% of all catastrophic events, (OFDA-CRED, 1999). Table 1. shows some of the main natural disasters that have occurred in the Caribbean during the period 1979 to 2001 and the number of persons who have been affected, as well as the estimated costs of damages. Table 1. Main Natural Disasters in the Caribbean (1979 –2001). Year Country Hazard Type Persons Affected Damage US $ (ooo’s)

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1979 Dominica (Hurricane) 72,100 44,650 1980 St. Lucia (Hurricane) 80,000 87,990 1988 Dominican Republic

(Flood) 1,191,150 -

1988 Haiti (Hurricane) 870,000 91,286 1988 Jamaica (Hurricane) 810,000 1,000,000 1989 Montserrat(Hurricane) 12,040 240,000 1989 Antigua,

St.Kitts/Nevis, Tortolla, Montserrat (Hurricane)

33,790 3,579,000

1991 Jamaica (Flood) 551,340 30,000 1992 Bahamas (Hurricane) 1,700 250,000 1993 Cuba (Storm) 149.775 1,000,000 1993 Cuba (Flood) 532,000 140,000 1994 Haiti (Storm) 1,587,000 - 1995 St. Kitts & Nevis

(Hurricane) 1,800 197,000

1995 US Virgin Island (Hurricane)

10,000 1,500,000

1998 Dominican Republic (Hurricane)

975,595 2,193,400

2000 Antigua/Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, St.Lucia (Hurricane)

268,000#

2001 Cuba (Hurricane) 5,900,012 87,000 Source: ODFA/CRED International Disaster Database (EM-DAT) 2002. # USAID/Jamaica 2000, Hurricane Lenny Recovery in the Easter Caribbean cited from The World Bank. Table 1. indicates that since 1988, there is at least one type of natural disaster occurring annually in the Caribbean region. Data produced by the World Bank 2002, shows that “natural disasters have larger aggregate effects in smaller Caribbean countries than in larger ones,” (World Bank 2002, 26). The Bank further states that over the past three decades larger countries such as Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic have had the highest frequency of natural disasters. Smaller states such as St. Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, Dominica and Antigua and Barbuda have however incurred average costs ranging from 11 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to 144 percent, compared to 4 to 5 percent for the larger countries, despite the fact that the larger countries experienced more disaster related events. The occurrence of these disasters have not only had severe negative impact on the economic sector of these countries but also on the social and ecological sectors which are of equal importance to the development of Caribbean states. Currently some countries in the region are increasingly faced with environmental threats such as global warming due to climate changes. This places some low lying coastal areas in the Caribbean at risk of being flooded as “sea levels in the Caribbean region are expected to rise 30 to 50

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centimetres (11.8 to 19.7 inches) in the next fifty years, which is significantly higher than average world levels,” (www.earthcrash 2001). Clifford Mahlung, climate change expert of the National Meteorological Service, in his report to the Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Global Climate Change Program state that, “sea level rise associated with coastal erosion, salt water intrusion into estuaries and aquifers and an escalation in the frequency and intensity of hurricanes will perhaps be the most serious environmental damage facing small island states,” (www.earthcrash 2001). In anticipation of the hazards and risks that may be posed by the occurrence of such natural events, it is imperative that existing disaster management organizations are drastically improved so that they can operate in a more effective and comprehensive manner. This is important for the Caribbean region, especially with the impending full implementation of the CSME, which focuses primarily on developing and strengthening the economies of the members of the Caribbean Community. Experience has shown that natural disasters above all other forms of catastrophic phenomenon occurs quite frequently in the Caribbean with mainly devastating economic impact especially in those countries that that are highly dependent on agricultural production. Table 2. indicates the frequency and costs of natural disasters in the Caribbean over the period 1970 – 2000. Table 2. Frequency and cost of natural disaster in the Caribbean 1970 –2000. Country Frequency Average cost /GDP (in

Percent) Antigua and Barbuda 6 10.76 Bahamas 4 7.87 Belize 6 9.72 Barbados 4 3.54 Dominica 6 29.40 Dominican Republic 15 4.98 Grenada 4 3.93 Guyana 5 4.04 Haiti 19 3.68 Jamaica 17 4.02 St. Kitts and Nevis 7 32.94 St. Lucia 8 143.93 Suriname 0 - Trinidad and Tobago 4 - St. Vincent and the Grenadines

8 17.13

Source: World Bank 2002. - Indicates that no data is available. As the governments of the Caribbean Community and other leaders in the region struggle to find ways to survive in an increasingly globalized society and deal with the various

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challenges to development, and security in the region, the strategic move in 1989 at Grand Anse in Grenada to create the Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME) has been a monumental step in the right direction in terms of deepening and strengthening the integration process of the Caribbean Community as a regional body. The systematic co-ordination of economic and other policies among the member states of the Caribbean Community are likely to make the capacity to cope with the challenges and opportunities brought about by global changes more manageable than if states act individually. The CSME is poised to generate immense benefits for the countries in the region based on its merits that are propelled by the principles of globalisation, which enforces competition and free trade among other things. It is slated to be a “single, enlarged economic entity without any form of political integration that provides an open market for both intra-regional and external markets, without any kind of cross border restrictions, hence the facilitation of the free movement of final products, goods, services and labour,”(www.reports.net 2003, 1). It is expected that the arrangements made under the CSME will lead to greater efficiency that will enable the achievement of sustainable economic growth and development for the approximately six million people of the Caribbean Community. The success of the CSME as a regional body however, will be based on several interrelated factors such as the implementation of effective legal, regulatory and institutional frameworks that encompasses economic, social as well as environmental issues. This paper looks at the impact of natural disasters as one aspect of environmental challenge to the developmental aspects of the CSME. Social and Economic Impact of Natural Disasters. This section of the paper looks at some of the challenges that environmental conditions such as natural disasters pose to the viability of the CSME. It looks specifically at the social and economic impact of natural disasters on Caribbean states. It uses the impact of floods on Jamaica to illustrate the negative social and economic impact of a natural disaster. The latter section examines the institutional arrangements and the inter-organisational networks for disaster management in Jamaica and the Caribbean Community and why it is important for the CSME to include these arrangements in any development plans that it may have. It attempts to highlight lessons for combating vulnerabilities due to natural risks and hazards. Factors influencing the catastrophic impact of natural disasters. There are certain ‘push’ economic factors that may help to create or exacerbate disaster-related problems. These may include: ��Change in land use Development practices such as the change in land use may create or increase the risk of some forms of disasters. For example, the construction of housing developments/housing

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schemes on unsuitable lands that may be prone to flooding due to the inability of the soil to absorb large amounts of water that may be due to heavy and prolonged rainfall. In urban areas increased development may decrease the amount of surface area that is available to either absorb water or for water to runoff. Problems may also be faced when swamp lands, coastal areas or floodplains are dumped up to facilitate the building of infrastructure. ��Poor building practices The poor construction of housing or other infrastructure to save costs or to increase the number of units that are available for sale may also pose problems, as the materials used for construction may not be able to withstand disasters such as earthquakes, floods and hurricanes. The development of coastal fans or areas in some countries in the region to facilitate the growth of tourism may also be a contributory factor. ��The overexploitation of non-renewable resources or natural resources for economic

gains This may include the destruction of coral reefs, improper agricultural practices, and mining in unrestricted areas such as riverbeds and deforestation. ��Poverty and the Vulnerability of the population It is seen that the poor are often the most vulnerable and most affected by the occurrence of natural disasters. This is usually due to the fact that they are usually forced to live in more vulnerable areas that are prone to disasters due to affordability. It is also seen that their daily struggle for survival is more important to them that making investments in mitigating the impact of potential disaster events, (World Bank 2000, 172). Hence poverty and vulnerability are closely linked. The struggle for economic success/rewards sometime greatly enhances/increases vulnerability especially that of the poor, who are often willing to exploit any means available to make a livelihood or for survival. ��Inadequate rules and regulations In most Caribbean states there is a lack of appropriate environmental laws. Regulation and building plans and codes are not enforced. No development should be carried out without proper impact assessment and approval granted. With the implementation of the CSME there will be even greater attempts by Caribbean countries to exploit whatever resources they have available towards meeting a competitive and open market system. The opportunities that will be provided by the free movement of labour and capital will also bring about several challenges for the governments and citizens of the region. Issues such as excessive migration to those countries that are more well off in terms of employment opportunities and the standard of living may become overburdened. There may be an influx of labour in one particular region or locale of a particular country, such as the coastal or urban areas and on marginal lands. Coastal and urban areas usually present economic opportunities such as tourism, fishery, export industries, facilitate trade, easy transportation routes etc. (Charve’riat 2000, 58). This can increase the need for further housing and other developments that may take place on marginal lands that are not quite safe, in order to meet the growing demand. Urban areas and cities have a high vulnerability to natural disasters due to the high population density and the concentration of most economic activity of the country such as industries and easy and accessible transportation routes.

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Majority of a country’s essential infrastructure are located in the urban areas on which the rural areas are extremely dependent for effective functioning. These infrastructure can be severely disrupted or damaged with the occurrence of a natural disaster thus affecting the operation of the entire country. This may lead to massive unemployment in the affected state as work in most developing states are usually labour intensive. To combat unemployment migration may be identified to other countries in the region where there are better opportunities may be seen as one of the best strategies for survival, especially if all or most of a persons assets are lost due to the disaster. Migration may also be seen as a means of reducing further vulnerability as in the case of Monsterrat that is highly vulnerable to volcanic eruptions. In situations like these, will CARICOM countries be equipped to deal issues of migration? Challenges that Natural Disasters pose to the CSME. Generally from an economic perspective a disaster implies some combination of losses in terms of human, physical and financial capital and a reduction in economic activity, such as income and investment, consumption, production and employment in the economy. There may be severe impact in terms of financial flows such as revenue and expenditure of public and private bodies and increased debt, (Benson and Clay 1998 cited in Benson and Clay 2003, 12). From a social perspective a disaster may pose several negative impact on society. These may include destruction of people’s livelihoods, destruction of the ecosystem, the loss of lives, compromising the health of the population due to illnesses caused by water borne diseases, a reduction in food supply among other social problems. The focus of the CSME as is the focus of other regional bodies such as the European Union is primarily on the economic aspect of developing their region. However it is increasingly being recognised that the environmental aspect is very critical to the process of development and the ultimate survival of any economic strategy. In the Caribbean for example agricultural activities, tourism and mining, which rely on favourable environmental conditions, are the backbone of most states. Hence the continued economic viability of these sectors depend to a large extent on sustaining and protecting the environment amidst the struggle to address the many other challenges to development that are evident in the individual countries that comprise the region. The Commonwealth/World Bank Task Force April 2000 Report notes that “small states share a number of developmental challenges in the global economy” arising from factors outside of their control.” Some of these challenges are applicable to most Caribbean states and will have either a direct or indirect impact on their performance in the CSME. The challenges noted by the Task Force that are applicable to Caribbean states include: ��Openness ��Susceptibility to natural disasters and environmental change ��Limited resources, production and export diversification ��Limited capacity and ��Limited access to global capital markets

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These challenges are further compounded by other factors including new security threats to the region such as drug trafficking, the rise of communicable and non-communicable diseases among others. Any attempt to foster or build economic success has to take into account the variables that are present or pose a threat to the normal functioning of the society. Natural disasters poses a direct threat to Caribbean society, therefore these threats have to be addressed. Below are some of the negative effects of natural disasters as identified in Jamaica and other Caribbean states: ��Damage to infrastructure such as roads, bridges, buildings and utilities (water,

electricity, telephone and transportation). ��Destruction of agricultural crops and livestock. ��Disrupts some of the vital sectors of a country such as tourism, health and education. ��Displaces and further impoverishes poor families. ��May result in the loss of lives. ��Illnesses due to moist weather and water borne diseases. ��Insufficient food supply due to shortages, this may lead to temporary increases in

prices due to shortages in food supply. ��Disruption of production as well as social activities. ��Loss of employment, income and tax revenue. ��Increase in foreign debt. ��Damage to natural resource base and environmental degradation, which further

increases vulnerability and poverty. ��Slowing of economic growth and the hampering of development due to reallocation

of funds from other social problems to address the consequences of the natural disaster.

��Damages to personal effects and the loss of one’s livelihood. ��May result in the migration of persons from one country to the next (or from rural to

urban areas) to enhance their survival and chances of gaining employment, this may lead to

��Uncontrolled migration which results in the rise of squatter settlements on vacant lands mainly in urban areas, which may be unsafe to live such as swamp lands.

Several studies have shown that the devastation caused by natural disasters have been compounded largely by factors of vulnerability which are often linked to issues of development. Negative impact are also compounded by human actions as well as inaction. Development practices in the region have in some ways created/increased the risk of natural disasters such as floods that can disrupt personal, economic and social activities. The impact of Floods on Jamaica.

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According to the ODPEMs record of floods which dates back to the early 1700s, historically floods have had devastating effects on the Jamaican society and have created as well as exacerbated economic, social, environmental and political problems. The country is situated in the tropical region that constantly faces the threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, earthquakes and other forms of natural disasters. In 1723, the area around Moneague in St. Ann was flooded to a depth of 75 feet by rains, which lasted for three and half-hours. In 1879, 180 persons died as a result of severe flooding of gullies and rivers in the Yallahs, Dry, Hope and Dallas areas. Houses, crops and livestock were washed away. In November 1909, more that 100 inches of rain fell in parts of St. Thomas, and in upper Clarendon. The Pedro Run River rose 30 feet above its normal level. The islands road system was destroyed and massive landslides added to the damage, at least 533 persons died. In November 1937, torrential rains caused flooding along the North Coast. In Portland 70 persons drowned. The damage to roads, bridges and farms were severe. Later on that month a landslide at Millbank in the John Crow Mountains of Portland caused a large portion of the mountain to collapse completely burying 150 acres of land, including a small community. In 1940 the parishes of Portland and St. Mary were flooded. One hundred and twenty five persons lost their lives, most by drowning and some by landslides. In 1963 and 1972, hurricanes Flora and David respectively caused extensive flooding in the island. Tropical storm Gilda caused extensive flooding and landslides on the South Coast, (ODPEM 2002). One of the worst floods in Jamaica’s recent history occurred in June 1979 when a tropical depression produced intense thunderstorm activity and heavy rainfall over Western Jamaica. (It was the effects of this flood that led to the creation of Jamaica’s first disaster management agency, ODIPERC). The rains resulted in damage to approximately ¼ of the island. The parishes of St. James, Trelawny, Westmoreland and St. Elizabeth were most affected. In St. Elizabeth the community of Newmarket and Chigwell were badly affected. Newmarket became a ‘lake district’ as water covered approximately 600 acres of land up to 90 feet deep. Most of this area remained submerged under water up to February 1980, (ODPEM 2002). Canoes had to be used for transportation. The total death figure was 39 with 18 persons missing and presumed dead. Combining the parishes approximately 160,000 people were affected. Homes, public buildings, roads, bridges, crops, livestock and utilities were extensively damaged. The estimate for the rehabilitation of infrastructure excluding losses to agriculture and housing was estimated at US $ 27 million, (ODPEM 2002). On September 2nd of the same year hurricane David affected the Eastern half of the island with heavy rains that caused flooding and extensive damage. The Western parishes were again affected. An estimated 643 million metric ton of water precipitated over Westmoreland alone. Within 24-hour period roads in the communities of St. James, Hanover and Trelawny were severely damaged and many towns in the areas were flooded. Since that major flooding event the island have experienced a number of serious floods. According to the WMO RAIV Hurricane Committee, “since 1987 the country has experienced 19 cases of reported flooding that were associated with cyclone activity, (WMO RAIV 1997).

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Floods in Jamaica 1988-2002. This section will look at some major flooding events in Jamaica between 1988-2002. Based on the chronological record of flooding compiled for Jamaica by the ODPEM, Since hurricane Gilbert in 1988, Jamaica nearly every year have been faced with the threat of impending hurricanes and tropical storms which have increased the level of rainfall, which sometimes prolong over weeks. Hurricane Gilbert, which occurred in September 1988, was accompanied by exceptionally heavy rainfall that caused widespread flooding, although it was said that most rainfall occurred over sea, (Clement 1990). The negative effect of the rainfall was compounded by factors such as deforestation, the blockage of drains, rivers overflowing, landslides and the inability of the soil to absorb moisture due to over saturation. Extensive damage was done to the economy such as businesses and to private individuals. The sectors most affected were agriculture including livestock, infrastructure (roads, bridges, houses, public buildings, utilities), tourism and health. In 1991, 1993, 1994 and 1995, the island at different times throughout the year experienced severe flooding events that led to several parishes been affected. In 1993 banana farmers in the parish of Portland suffered tremendous losses. Over 200 acres of banana were lost in the Rio Grande Valley and another 100 acres needed rehabilitation. Bananas are one of the prime export crops for Jamaica. The community of Hillside in St. Thomas was badly affected. Flood rains and landslides destroyed many homes. A nine year old boy died in his bed having been covered by debris and flood water which pulled off the section of the room of the house in which he was sleeping. In 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999 and 2000, flooding resulted in damages to the agricultural sector and to infrastructure. In 1996 combined damages to four parishes (Portland, St. Ann, St. James and Trelawny) as a result of floods rains between February 6 and 8 were JA. $ 65.992 million. In 1997 Portland again experienced flooding resulting in the main roads in the Rio Grande Valley been blocked. Agricultural farms were seriously affected. In 1998 in Portland five persons who were sheltering from rain at a bar and grocery store died when flooding caused a landslide which resulted in the bar and grocery store collapsing. The livelihood of some resident of Portland were destroyed as over one hundred rafts which provides a living for rafters who tour visitors (mainly tourists) on the Rio Grande River were destroyed. The 1998 flood event severely damaged road networks in the parish. Damage was estimated at JA. $ 24.6 million. Damage to livestock, crops and arable land was estimated at JA. $ 140 million. In 2001 impending hurricane Michelle resulted in severe flooding. Portland was one of the most affected parishes. At least 40,000 people were affected. More than 800 were evacuated and at least 2,000 were isolated due to flooding which caused extensive road damage.

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In 2002 floods severely affected the entire island. The agricultural sector including crops for export and local consumption were destroyed. Losses to livestock were concentrated in poultry. Floods severely affected farmland and agricultural crops in the parish of St. Elizabeth which is known as ‘the bread basket’ parish of Jamaica. Damages were estimated at JA. $104 million. In an article entitled “It started as a drizzle and ended in a disaster. One year after the May flood,” published in the Jamaica Gleaner 12, May 2003, D. Mitchell reported that May 22, 2002 was seen as a disastrous week. What began as drizzle resulted in a flood which claimed the lives of ten people. Prime Minister P.J. Patterson declared the parishes of Manchester, St. Elizabeth, Clarendon, St. Catherine and St. Thomas disaster areas and announced a $1 billion flood relief to fix the island’s damaged infrastructure. Flooding continues in Jamaica with serious consequences. In May 2003 raging floodwaters destroyed the recently constructed 240-foot Yallahs Bailey Bridge in St. Thomas. The Bailey bridge/ Yallahs Fording is an important transportation route as it provides a dependable way for people, goods and services to enter and leave the parish. Its destruction by floods has had severe impact especially on the business sector of the parish. Overall damages done by the event of floods are considered to be the greatest single source of loss of life and property in the region. The above paragraphs highlights that over the years floods have had profound effect on the Jamaican economy especially in vital sectors such as the agricultural sector, tourism and on infrastructure which are very important and necessary for the effective functioning of the country. Floods can result in both direct and indirect costs. Indirect costs include the damages done to the flow of goods and services, which may lower output due to damaged or destroyed assets and infrastructure, loss of earning due to damaged marketing infrastructure such as roads and ports, lower effective demand, job losses and increased costs associated with the use of more expensive inputs following the destruction of cheaper usual sources of supply. Indirect costs include the loss of lives and the trauma associated with disasters. The indirect costs can be difficult to estimate, hence the effects are largely ignored by society. The absence of documentation about smaller disaster events, which occurs frequently, can be just as devastating as one large disaster. These events may have serious implications on the welfare of the affected household or community in which it occurred. Small disaster events are usually overlooked. However the accumulation over time however might have a sizeable effect on welfare at the local and regional level. Production activities for example may be affected at the local level. This could lead to difficulties in meeting set quotas of production for the local, regional and international market. Thereby limiting the country’s earning capacity. High frequency small-scale natural disasters might also induce changes in behaviour of economic agents because of perceived risks. For example frequent flooding may have

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negative effects on the agriculture and livestock sector than a flood happening every 20 or 30 years. The Jamaican government have done much over the years to manage disasters. Jamaica’s National Disaster Framework and Plan. The ODPEM is the main agency that deals with disaster preparedness and management in Jamaica. Its mission states that “The Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management is committed to taking pro-active and timely measures to prevent or reduce the impact of disasters on the Jamaican people through its efficient staff and collaborative efforts with national, regional and international agencies,” (ODPEM 2002). Disaster management was formally introduced in Jamaica in 1979 by the Jamaican government after floods in June of that year severely devastated Western sections of the island. The government recognised the need to establish a comprehensive and permanent disaster management organisation that would focus on co-ordinating and monitoring the response to hazards as well as educating the nation on all aspects of disaster management. The Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Relief Co-ordination (ODIPERC) was established to carry out these functions. In 1993 the name was changed to Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management (ODPEM). The ODPEM is now a statutory body under the provision of Section 15 of the Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management Act and it operates out of the Ministry of Land and Environment. Jamaica’s Disaster Plan provides the legal framework upon which disaster preparedness, operations and training are predicated and under which government officers can be held accountable for disaster responsibilities. Due to the frequency of natural disasters such as floods in Jamaica, the government over the years have formulated strategies to cope with, and mitigate the effects. These policies have consisted of long term preventative and preparedness measures as well as immediate response mechanisms. The plans have included instituting appropriate administrative structures to manage disaster response, funding and facilitating these structures and putting in place mechanisms to ensure that policies and strategies are continuously reviewed and revised. The Management of Floods in Jamaica. In attempting to mitigate the impact of floods, the ODPEM have sought to take a proactive stance in all parishes, especially in those that are considered to be flood prone. Measures taken include: ��The regular cleaning of drains, proper resettlement practices to prevent persons from

returning to live in flood prone areas. Ensuring a state of readiness of emergency shelters increased focus on contingency planning and hazard mapping.

��The Deputy Director General of the ODPEM identified key issues such as, lessons learnt from past disasters, the successes and failures, the promotion of a culture of best practices and procedures, the promotion of information and communication, the

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identification of current risks faced by the country such as changing weather patterns and wider developmental issues, insurance factors and education and training, (The Daily Observer, June 9, 2003).

��The establishment of a permanent disaster management office and the establishment of the National Emergency Operating Centre (NEOC) which co-ordinates response to disasters.

��The development of mitigation programmes as long term measures for guiding land use planning.

��Community Flood Warning Systems have been developed in the Cave, Rio Grande and Rio Cobre Watersheds. There has been the development of an Automated Flood Warning System for the Rio Cobre Basin and the development of Flood Plain Maps for Flood Plains island- wide.

��The relocation of vulnerable populations in Portland and Hanover (Westmoreland) based on hazard assessment by a technical team.

��Ongoing training about disaster management and assessment of the socio-economic impact of natural disasters from an environmental perspective. Participants are drawn from the public sector, the private sector, voluntary organisations and the academic community. A host of other things are also been done to mitigate the effects of other forms of natural disasters that are likely to occur in Jamaica.

In keeping with global technological and global environmental changes, the Jamaican government have drawn lessons from the frequent occurrence of disasters from the local, regional and international level. Over the past 15 yeas disaster management in Jamaica have improved dramatically. The ODPEM have increased its capacity both in human and technological resources to a fairly acceptable and functional level, despite limited financial resources. Due to ongoing educational campaigns on disasters, the Jamaican populace have become more aware and informed as to the merits of disaster mitigation and the need for disaster reduction. The frequent occurrences of floods in certain parishes have highlighted the high-risk areas, the problems that currently exist and the need to address these problems. Floods have specifically highlighted areas of extreme vulnerability that can be life threatening, such as the danger of crossing fordings when heavy rainfall occurs. (In Kingston in April 2003, Mrs. Pauline Gray, then General Manager of the Shipping Association of Jamaica and Executive Vice President of the Caribbean Shipping Association along with St. Lucian Management Consultant Lawson Calderon drowned when the vehicle they were travelling in was swept away by heavy flood waters in their attempt to cross the Cassia Park Gully).

Amidsts the ongoing educational awareness campaigns as to the dangers associated with natural disasters such as floods and the precautions to be taken, several challenges still exist in relation to the Jamaican population adhering to disaster warnings. However despite the various shortcomings, the country can be said to have a fairly well defined disaster management structure that works in collaboration with regional and international agencies including the private sector and nongovernmental organizations.

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Regional Approach to Disaster Management. In recent years Caribbean governments have sought to strengthen their institutional capacity to manage the hazards and risks that natural disasters pose to their countries. As such they have come to realise the necessity of having a regional disaster management plan that is somewhat applicable to most Caribbean states, as it is clear that disasters in any form incur great costs and damages to society. To date, much recent research in relation to the development of effective disaster risk management strategies to mitigate the negative impact of disasters in the Caribbean region have been carried out by governments and a variety of international development agencies, including non- governmental organisations, which focus on key areas such as the risks and hazards posed by disasters and methods of preparedness and prevention. The term risk and hazard are often used interchangeably. Hood however distinguishes between the two. “Hazard generally denotes a phenomenon or circumstance perceived to be capable of causing harm or cost to human society. Risk by contrast is a broader and more diffuse concept. It connotes the assessment of the consequences or exposure to the chance of loss,” (Hood 1996, 2). Defined in this way, hazard becomes a component within risk, thus making hazard management a subset of risk management. An example of the difference between risk ands hazard shows that floods present a main hazard in the form of a large overflow of water that is out of control, which poses the risk of damage to infrastructure or the loss of lives. Hazard is therefore seen as a threat, while risk is the actual occurrence of the threat. Natural disasters such as floods, only become a hazard when they impinge unfavourably upon human activity, (Hood 1996, 2). Disaster management can be wide and varied. hence there is no universal approach to disaster management. However taking a proactive rather than a reactive approach to disaster management is identified as the best means of mitigating the negative effects and in keeping with growing international standards for disaster management. The reactive stance is extremely costly not only in the loss of assets, investments, and government expenditure but in terms of the loss of irreplaceable resources especially the loss of lives. Adopting a proactive stance in improving risk management in the Caribbean is essential to guarantee the protection and future progress of economic and social development in the region. Worldwide there is a growing trend towards reducing the impact of natural and other forms of disasters by moving away from largely reactive strategies towards proactive strategies. In keeping with the need to develop proactive measures in the Caribbean, there has been the establishment of agencies such as CDERA and CARDIN to deal with and co-ordinate efforts among Caribbean countries to address the effects of natural disasters on a regional level. CARDIN was established in June 1999 to provide linkages with Caribbean disaster organisations, to widen the scope of the collection of disaster related information and to ensure improved access to such materials, as well as establish and maintain relationships with other agencies for effective co-ordination of disaster

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information activities within the region. The information that CARDIN provides is beneficial to government agencies, planning units, statisticians, policymakers, researchers, the general public and to students, (Information supplied from pamphlet CARDIN, UWI, Mona). CDERA was established in 1991 by an agreement of the Conference of Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). It is a regional intergovernmental agency that is responsible for disaster management. At present there are sixteen participating states within CDERAs membership including Jamaica. The main functions of CDERA include: ��Securing, collating and channelling to interested governmental and nongovernmental

organisations, comprehensive and reliable information on disasters affecting the region.

��Mitigating or eliminating as far as possible the consequences of disasters affecting participating states.

��Establishing and maintaining on a sustainable basis, adequate disaster response capabilities among participating states.

��Mobilising and co-ordinating disaster relief from governmental and non-governmental organisations for affected participating states.

��Organise workshops for participating states to review and share experiences in disaster training, education and research.

��Prepare workshop report on lessons and challenges in disaster management to include recommendations for developing and implementing such training in small islands, (CDERA 2003,1).

Since CDERAs formation it has collaborated with national, regional and international organisations that share similar interests. This has helped to ensure rational use of the limited resources that are available to the region and reduce duplication. Besides the creation of these organisations Caribbean governments as well as private bodies have come together at various conferences and meetings to discuss disaster mitigation issues. “In 2001, a working group representing regional and national disaster management organisations, the private sector, regional technical institutions, multi and bi lateral donors and lending institutions developed a proposed “Strategy and Results Framework for Comprehensive Disaster Management (CDM) in the Caribbean,” (CDERA 2001) and (O’D Trotz 2002, 4). The objective of this strategy was to integrate comprehensive disaster management into the development process within the Caribbean region with emphasis on hazard risk reduction. This was supported by the World Bank who developed the Disaster Mitigation Facility for the Caribbean, at the Caribbean Development Bank, known as the Disaster Mitigation Fund for the Caribbean (DMFC). It focussed on the incorporation of hazard risk management into development decision making within the internal operations of the CDB, its borrowing member countries and partner regional institutions.

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Due to the transboundary nature of natural hazards and the experience of natural disasters such as hurricanes in the region, adopting a regional approach to disaster management can prove more cost effective in dealing with the problems faced by small island states. Regional organisations may be better able to explore the economic and social consequences of natural disasters and establish ways of enhancing the national capabilities of individual countries by providing guidelines and the necessary assistance for the development of local initiatives to withstand disasters. A regional approach may enable greater levels of research and development into disaster problems, as resource constraints may hinder individual countries from doing this by themselves. It may also enable continuous dialogue with international agencies on the prospects of securing funds and expertise for disaster management that can be distributed and utilised in countries that are in need of such assistance. The identification of common interests can also be addressed in a holistic manner. A regional approach can also foster the increased exchange of knowledge, the use of local or indigenous technologies, joint approaches to educational and awareness of the impact of natural disasters and facilitate the use of best practices and the development of common approaches where necessary in regards to technical coorporation. A regional approach may also attract more political support and commitment of national governments, this support and recognition is an important aspect of sustaining the disaster management process. The Role of International Organisation in the Regions Disaster Management Disaster management is not new to the Caribbean. However over the years it has been evolving largely from a relief centred strategy to one that is more focussed on preventing and mitigating the effects of natural and other forms of disasters. The Caribbean has a history of disaster management agencies that focussed largely on relief process rather than on proactive strategies. Recently several international organisations mainly from the developed countries such as the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom have been assisting Caribbean countries to develop and implement proactive strategies. Several notable international agencies such as the World Bank, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), The Overseas Development Agency (ADA) out of the United Kingdom, the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance of the USAID (OFDA/USAID), the Pro-Vention Consortium as well as several agencies of the United Nations have been supporting the region in this area by providing financial support and technical assistance for various projects. The Pro-Vention consortium which is a global coalition of governments, international organisations, academic institutions, the private sector and civil society organisations dedicated to increasing the safety of vulnerable communities and to reducing the impact of disasters in developing countries, has been very important in terms of its’ goal of reinforcing and supporting developing countries to reduce the risk, social, economic and environmental impacts of natural and technological disasters on the poor to reduce poverty and build sustainable development, (www.proventionconsortium.org 2004). The Canadian International Development Agency have funded the Caribbean Hazard

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Mitigation Capacity Building Programme (CHAMP). This project was implemented by the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA) and executed by the Organisation of American States (OAS). The project aimed to enhance regional capacity and reduce vulnerability to the effects of natural hazards, by developing national hazard mitigation policies and implementation programmes, promoting greater use of hazard information in development decisions and on strengthening safe building practices by building training and certification in four pilot states, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Grenada and St. Lucia, (www.oas.org/cdera/champ 2004). The World Bank has been very instrumental. Over the years it has supported the region in various aspects of disaster management especially in building capacity to strengthen the performance of regional agencies. The World Bank have done work to assist states in areas of disaster mitigation and insurance in the Caribbean as it is the intention of the bank to cooperate with states in the region to develop and support regional risk pooling arrangements to complement improved disaster mitigation and prevention measures as these can greatly reduce the costs of disaster when they occur, (Commonwealth Secretariat/ World Bank Joint Task Force 2000). The United Nations decade of the 1990s (IDNDR) helped to increase the awareness of Caribbean governments to proactively prepare for disaster events. Throughout the decade several programmes have been implemented in keeping with Agenda 21, which is a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organisations of the United Nations System, Governments, and Major Groups in every area in which human activities impact on the environment. In April 1994, the Global Conference on Sustainable Development and the implementation of Agenda 21 principles were discussed at the Global Conference on Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States in Barbados. The conference adopted the Barbados Programme of Action. This was the first conference that translated Agenda 21 into a programme of action for a group of countries. The Barbados Programme of Action sets forth specific actions and measures to be taken at the national, regional and international levels in support of the sustainable development of Small Island Developing States, (www.un.org 2004). The IDNDR have been followed by the ISDR as a successor arrangement. The ISDR was designed to respond to the need for protection against hazards and the management of risks through the integration of risk reduction strategies in sustainable development plans. The ISDRs vision is to enable all societies to become resilient to natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters to reduce environmental, human, economic and social losses. The ISDRs main objectives are: increasing public awareness, obtaining commitment from public authorities, stimulating interdisciplinary and inter-sectoral partnership and expanding risk reduction networking at all levels, improving further the scientific knowledge of the causes of disasters and the effects of natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters on societies, (Trotz 2002, 3).

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Overall the decade of the 1990s have shown increased awareness of the negative impact of natural disasters. Studies have indicated that these negative impact ca be effectively reduced and controlled through improved risk management, proper development plans and by government commitment. It is also realized that the exposure to hazards need not necessarily lead to disaster if pre-emptive measures are taken and implemented. As a result of the work of the IDNDR and other bodies, governments world-wide have come to realise the necessity of having an effective disaster management plan. Caribbean countries can build on the work of international aid agencies and organisations that have assisted the countries in the region over the years and strengthen their capacity to deal with key disaster issues. Economic success is essential to the development of the region, however development is dependent on a host of other factors. Development is an outcome of economic, social and political processes that interact and reinforces each other. From a purely economic point of view investing in risk reduction is one of the best ways to reduce disaster vulnerability. Weaknesses in disaster management approaches in the Caribbean Even though Caribbean governments have come to see the necessity of preventative efforts both at the regional and national levels, and a number of agencies have focussed on improving disaster management in the region, by implementing proactive strategies, the risks associated with natural disasters have not been drastically reduced. There is still the trend of extensive losses and fatalities continue to be high with the occurrence of natural disasters As economic interdependence among Caribbean states increase, the impact of natural disasters will be quite devastating if this trend continues. Issues of persistent poverty, population growth, environmental degradation and exploitation and increasing unsustainable development are some factors that continue to increase vulnerability in the region. Environmental degradation for example, directly magnifies the risk of occurrence of natural hazards by destroying natural barriers and leaving human settlement and productive activities more vulnerable to their effects. The agencies established in the region have done much in terms of disaster management however much more needs to be done as several weaknesses still exists in the system. Currently there is the need for CARICOM, including the CSME and international community to be further sensitised to the inherent vulnerability and level of resilience of small states to natural disasters as well as the catastrophic impact that they can have on the society if problems and threats are not dealt with proactively. The continued provision of vast amounts of aid after the fact for relief and reconstruction is a proliferation of old reactive practices, hence inherent weaknesses and vulnerabilities are not addressed especially if they are not politically feasible. There needs to be a comprehensive approach to disaster risk management. Government have to be committed to the process. Most often issues of disaster management are not given priority given that the term of government for most Caribbean states is five years. Risk management is defined as the process of identifying, analysing and quantifying the probability of losses in order to undertake preventative or corrective actions (Schaming,

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1998). This involves two types of activities 1. Planning actions to reduce vulnerability in areas where risks can be controlled, and 2. Establishing protection mechanisms against the potential economic losses resulting from uncontrollable factors in order to offset the financial threat. A comprehensive approach to disaster management should emphasise both ex ante measures prior to a hazard and ex post activities. Effective disaster management in the Caribbean has to be anticipatory. It should involve using best practices and drawing lessons from other countries. Argentina for example did a cost benefit analysis for eight cities in the Argentinean Flood Rehabilitation Project and found that investing in disaster reduction and mitigation plans before the occurrence of a disaster related in less spent on rehabilitation efforts after the disaster. Conclusion and Recommendations. This paper examined the social and economic impact of natural disasters in the Caribbean region. It concludes that natural disasters such as floods can have devastating effects on society. It therefore emphasises the need for an effective and comprehensive risk management approach in mitigating the impact of natural disasters, which are unavoidable and will continue to occur. The catastrophic impacts however that may result when they occur can be avoided if the necessary precautions are taken. The paper highlights the fact that human actions and economic activities can induce problems such as environmental degradation, which will intensify the outcome of natural disasters. This helps to make the attempt to reduce the vulnerability to their occurrence and to lessen the tremendous costs incurred due to losses (social, economic and environmental) a major challenge world-wide. Kreimer and Arnold 2000 state that doing development right and making sure that human activities contribute to reducing disasters rather than exacerbating them, is a major task which needs to be dealt with in the new millennium. This paper outlines some recommendations on how to further strengthen local and regional organisations to address problems associated with natural disasters. ��Understanding the natural and manmade induced reasons for the occurrence and

intensity of natural disasters. This includes the use of adequate prediction and forecasting technologies/instruments, to identify risks and hazards that are associated with particular types of natural disasters, so that appropriate measures can be taken beforehand and appropriate warnings issued.

��Instituting good governance and appropriate environmental laws. To minimise disaster related damages, environmental management should be a part of development plans. Regulation and building codes must be enforced. Caribbean countries should make more use of the CUBIC plan in developing their own country building codes.

��To ensure sustainable development the CSME must take into account the risk of natural hazards and their impact. Disaster reduction policies must make sure that societies are resilient to natural hazards and ensure that development efforts do not

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increase the vulnerability to these hazards. Current trends towards a globalized society have made countries much more dependent on services and infrastructure. The failure of these services due to natural or other disasters can have considerable consequences for the affected society. To meet the challenges and take advantage of the opportunities of globalisation Caribbean states have to maintain the sustainability of resources that are available in Caribbean states.

��Investing in new technologies such as early warning systems and other risk reducing tools that will help to avert the disaster impact and enhance planning capability.

��Increase public education awareness campaigns as a way of fostering a culture of respect for the environment, Training must be conducted at all levels of the society starting at the basic level. More use should be made of the electronic and print media for purpose of public education. Programmes should be designed to focus the public’s attention on the importance of the environment, the impact of environmental damage on our daily lives and the public’s role in protecting and preventing further damage.

��Disaster management must be a participatory effort, which involves all areas and members of society, such as the public sector, the private sector, NGOs and the individual.

��Caribbean countries need to focus on the root causes of the high to medium level of vulnerability in the region. Risk reducing strategies are important to combating these vulnerabilities. Strategies should comprise of insurance and reinsurance schemes geared towards protecting life and assets. It should include the diversification of agricultural production such as planting multiple crops, diversifying sources of income among other things. Grassroot organisations should be encouraged to carry out activities aimed at reducing environmental damages. National universities, research centres and NGOS should form partnerships that enable real consensus in changing the environmental outlook and conditions of the population.

��Institutional and technical capacity must be strengthened at all levels. To effectively mitigate the problems associated with the occurrence of natural disasters, capacity must be built at the local, national and regional level. Integrating all three levels can generate tremendous benefits for sustainable economic development in the region.

��Technological and physical measures should incorporate and creatively explore the use of sociological, ecological and other human science approaches to dealing with disasters as part of long term strategies.

��Fundamental to any disaster management policy and strategy is information and the

availability of such information. Building a culture of information is essential. Policymaking and improvements to the system depend on the availability of vital information. All countries in the region should have well documented information on previous disaster events and information on high risk areas within their country.

��Ongoing training of staff in order to support and promote the development of research, new technologies and the use of local knowledge in mitigation measures that are aimed at supporting risk reduction and disaster management activities.

��Make disaster management a component of other policies such as education, health, tourism, environment and others.

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There are direct relationships among trade, sustainable development, and economic and environmental issues. Particular types of economic activities and policies can impact on the environment and increase a country’s vulnerability to natural disasters. If steps are not taken to address these situations natural disasters will continue to have significant impact on the development of the countries in the region. Experiences of natural disasters have shown that the economies of developing countries are more prone and vulnerable to losses than the developed economies. They also suffer more fatalities; hence there is an urgent need to manage risks in the region. Over the past decade natural disasters have caused more than “800,000 deaths and affected the livelihoods of more than two billion people world-wide. Total reported losses from natural catastrophes, ranging from $30 billion to $190 billion annually have averaged roughly $65 billion annually,” (World Disaster Report 2001). Most of these damages and costs are incurred in small island states including the Caribbean region. This paper concludes that it may not be possible to prevent the occurrence of natural disasters, however it is possible to reduce the vulnerability of populations and keep hazards in tact, by implementing effective proactive risk management strategies as a direct step towards continued progress as well as economic and social development of the region. References Baldwin, R. C. Hoodand H. Rothstein. (2001). The Government of Risk, Understanding Risk Regulation Regimes. Oxford University Press. Benson, C. and E. J. Clay (2000), Developing Countries and the Economic Impact of Natural Disasters. World Bank. Washington D. C. Browitt, C. W. A. and P. A. Merriman. (1993), Natural Disasters, Protecting Vulnerable Communities. London. Thomas Telford. Clement, D. (1990), An Analysis of Disaster: Life After Gilbert. Jamaica. Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of the West Indies, Mona. Charveriat, Celine, (2000), Natural Disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Overview of Risk, Washington D.C., and Inter - American Development Bank.

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Commonwealth Secretariat/ World Bank Joint Task Force, (2000), Small States: Meeting Challenges in the Global Economy. World Bank. ECLAC. (2002). Jamaica, Macro-Socio-Economic Assessment of the damages done by Flood Rains and Landslides, May 2002. ECLAC. (2002). Jamaica, An Assessment of the Economic and other damages caused by hurricane Michelle, October 2001. Hood, C. and D. K. C. Jones. (2002). Accident and Design, Contemporary Debates in Risk Management. London School of Economics and Political Science. London: Routledge. Keipi, Kari and Justin Tyson, (2002), Planning and Financial Protection to Survive Disasters, Washington D.C. Inter-American Development Bank. Kreimer A. K. and M. Arnold (2000), Disaster Risk Management Series No. 2, Managing Disaster Risk in Emerging Economies. The World Bank. Mitchell, D. (2003) May 12. It started as drizzle ended in a disaster. One year after the May flood. Jamaica. The Gleaner. ODPEM, (1999). Mitigation Planning and Research Division, Flood Report and Damage Assessment, January 3-4, 1998. ODPEM, (2002). Annual Report, April 2001 – March 2002. World Bank, (2002). World Development Report, Coping with Natural Disasters, 2000/2001. World Bank (2002), Caribbean Economic Overview 2002: Macroeconomic Volatility, Household Vulnerability, and Institutional and Policy Responses. World Disaster Report, (2001), International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Geneva. WMO RAIV Hurricane Committee 9th session (1997). Review of the Post Hurricane Season. Internet Sources CDERA. (2003). About CDERA. www.cdera.org/about.htm

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Caribbean Hazard Mitigation Capacity Building Project (CHAMP) www.oas.org/cdera/champ Earth crash, (2001. Global Warming to Hit Caribbean Islands Hard. http://eces.org/articles/static/987654006177555.html ODPEM (2003) About Us http://www.odpem.org.jm/about-us/ Pro- Vention Consortium www.proventionconsortium.org Trotz, O’D U. (2002) Disaster Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change – A CARICOM experience, June 17 –19, 2002. www.onu.org.cu/havanarisk/papers. United Nations Report of Economic and Social Affairs: Division for Sustainable Affairs Development. www.un.org