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8/8/2019 Timjas Internship Report
1/29
TimJasIntercontinental
Shipping Line.Live Project
2010
Jaspreet Kaur Sethi (4843)Shaheed Sukhdev College of Business Studies
Delhi University
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere thanks to TimJas
Intercontinental Shipping Line, Sinagpore for giving me the
opportunity to carry out the Summer Internship Program in their
organization. The whole period spent with the organization has been of
immense learning experience about the functioning of a Shipping Line.
Preparing a project of such a kind is not an easy task in itself and I am
sincerely thankful to all those people who help me lot, in preparing and
completing this project.
I am grateful to TimJas Intercontinental Shipping Line who has given
me this opportunity to carry out the project Financial Management
in a shipping line. .
I sincerely thank to Mr. Rajinderpal Singh (Managing Director, TimJas
intercontinental Shipping Line, Sinagpore) for providing me this
valuable learning opportunity.
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Breif Overview of a shipping line.
A shipping Line caters to many needs of its customers, which includes
forwarding, containerization and other facilities.
Forwarding
Firm specializing in arranging storage and shipping ofmerchandise on
behalf of its shippers. It
usually providesfullrange ofservices including: tracking in land
transportation, preparation of shipping and export
documents, warehousing, bookingcargo space, negotiating
freightcharges, freight consolidation, cargo insurance,
andfiling ofinsurance claims. Freight forwarders usually ship under
their ownbills oflading or air waybills (called house bill of
lading or house air waybill) and their agents or associates at the
destination (overseas freight forwarders)
provide documentdelivery, deconsolidation, and
freightcollection services. Also called forwarder.
Containerization
Containerization (or containerisation) is a system ofintermodal
freight transport using standard intermodal containers as prescribed
by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). These can
be loaded and sealed intact onto container ships, railroad cars, planes,
and trucks.
The introduction of containers resulted in vast improvements in port
handling efficiency, thus lowering costs and helping lower freight
charges and, in turn, boosting trade flows. Most goods can be shipped
by container.
http://www.investorwords.com/1967/firm.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/storage.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/shipping.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/merchandise.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/shipper.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/provide.htmlhttp://www.investorwords.com/2106/full.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/range.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/services.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/tracking.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/transportation.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/preparation.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/export.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/documents.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/warehousing.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/booking.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/cargo.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/freight.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/charge.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/freight-consolidation.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/insurance.htmlhttp://www.investorwords.com/1934/filing.htmlhttp://www.investorwords.com/2514/insurance_claim.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/forwarder.htmlhttp://www.investorwords.com/3563/own.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/bill.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/lading.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/air-waybill-AWB.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/house-bill-of-lading-B-L.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/house-bill-of-lading-B-L.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/house-air-waybill.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/agent.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/associate.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/document.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/delivery.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/deconsolidation.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/collection.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_containerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatcar#Intermodal_freight_usehttp://www.investorwords.com/1967/firm.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/storage.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/shipping.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/merchandise.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/shipper.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/provide.htmlhttp://www.investorwords.com/2106/full.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/range.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/services.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/tracking.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/transportation.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/preparation.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/export.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/documents.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/warehousing.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/booking.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/cargo.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/freight.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/charge.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/freight-consolidation.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/insurance.htmlhttp://www.investorwords.com/1934/filing.htmlhttp://www.investorwords.com/2514/insurance_claim.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/forwarder.htmlhttp://www.investorwords.com/3563/own.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/bill.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/lading.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/air-waybill-AWB.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/house-bill-of-lading-B-L.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/house-bill-of-lading-B-L.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/house-air-waybill.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/agent.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/associate.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/document.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/delivery.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/deconsolidation.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/collection.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_containerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatcar#Intermodal_freight_use8/8/2019 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Origin of the concept of Shipping
Origins
Although having its origins in the late 1780s or earlier, the global
standardization of containers and container handling equipment wasone of the important innovations in 20th century logistics.
By the 1830s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers
that could be transferred to trucks or ships, but these containers were
invariably small by today's standards. Originally used for shipping coal
on and off barges, 'loose boxes' were used to containerize coal from
the late 1780s, on places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the 1840s,
iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones. The early 1900s saw
the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movementbetween road and rail.
In the United Kingdom, several railway companies were using similar
containers by the beginning of the 20th century and in the 1920s
theRailway Clearing House standardised the RCH container. Five- or
ten-foot-long, wooden and non-stackable, these early standard
containers were a great success but the standard remained UK-
specific.
From 1926 to 1947, in the US, the Chicago North Shore and MilwaukeeRailway carried motor carrier vehicles and shippers' vehicles loaded
on flatcars between Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Chicago, Illinois.
Beginning in 1929, Seatrain Lines carried railroad boxcars on its sea
vessels to transport goods between New York and Cuba. In the mid-
1930s, theChicago Great Western Railway and then the New
Haven Railroad began "piggy-back" service (transporting highway
freight trailers on flatcars) limited to their own railroads. By 1953,
theCB&Q, the Chicago and Eastern Illinois and the SouthernPacific railroads had joined the innovation. Most cars were surplus
flatcars equipped with new decks. By 1955, an additional 25 railroads
had begun some form of piggy-back trailer service.
In 1955, businessman (and former trucking company owner) Malcolm
McLean worked with engineer Keith Tantlinger to develop the
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modern intermodal container. The challenge was to design a shipping
container and devise a method of loading and locking them onto ships.
The result was a 8 feet (2.4 m) tall by 8 ft (2.4 m) wide box in 10 ft
(3.0 m) long units constructed from 25 mm (0.98 in) thick corrugated
steel. The design incorporated a twist-lock mechanism atop each ofthe four corners, allowing the container to be easily secured and lifted
using cranes. Helping McLean make the successful design, Tantlinger
convinced McLean to give the patented designs to the industry; this
began international standardization of shipping containers.
Toward the end of World War II, the United States Army used
specialized containers to speed the loading and unloading of transport
ships. The army used the term "transporters" to identify the
containers, for shipping household goods of officers in the field. A"transporter" was a reusable container, 8.5 feet (2.6 m) long,
6.25 feet (1.91 m) wide, and 6.83 feet (2.08 m) high, made of rigid
steel with a carrying capacity of 9,000 pounds. During the Korean
War the transporter was evaluated for handling sensitive military
equipment, and proving effective, was approved for broader use. Theft
of material and damage to wooden crates, in addition to handling time,
by stevedores at the Port of Pusan, convinced the army that steel
containers were needed. In 1952 the army began using the term
CONEX, short for "Container Express". The first major shipment of
CONEXes (containing engineering supplies and spare parts) were
shipped by rail from the Columbus General Depot in Georgia to the
Port of San Francisco, then by ship to Yokohama, Japan, and then to
Korea, in late 1952. Shipment times were cut almost in half. By
the Vietnam War the majority of supplies and materials were shipped
with the CONEX. After the U.S. Department of Defense standardized
an 8'8' cross section container in multiples of 10' lengths for military
use, it was rapidly adopted for shipping purposes.
These standards were adopted in the United Kingdom for containers
and largely displaced wooden containers in the 1950s. The railways of
the USSR had their own small containers.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_containerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreader_(container)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevedorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_containerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreader_(container)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevedorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense8/8/2019 Timjas Internship Report
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Purpose-built ships
Containers waiting at the South Korean port ofBusan.
Main article: Container ship
The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers began operation in
Denmark in 1951. In the U.S. ships began carrying containers between
Seattle and Alaska in 1951. The world's first intermodal container
system used the purpose-built container ship the Clifford J. Rodgers,
built in Montreal in 1955 and owned by the White Pass and Yukon
Route. Its first trip carried 600 containers between North Vancouver,
British Columbia and Skagway, Alaska, on November 26, 1955; in
Skagway, the containers were unloaded to purpose-built railroadcars for transport north to the Yukon, in the first intermodal service
using trucks, ships and railroad cars. Southbound containers were
loaded by shippers in the Yukon, moved by rail, ship and truck, to
their consignees, without opening. This first intermodal system
operated from November 1955 for many years.
The U.S. container shipping industry dates to April 26, 1956, when
trucking entrepreneur Malcom McLean put 58 containers aboard a
refitted tanker ship, the Ideal-X, and sailed themfrom Newark to Houston. What was new in the USA about McLean's
innovation was the idea of using large containers that were never
opened in transit between shipper and consignee and that were
transferable on an intermodal basis, among trucks, ships and railroad
cars. McLean had initially favored the construction of "trailerships"
taking trailers from large trucks and stowing them in a ships cargo
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hold. This method of stowage, referred to as roll-on/roll-off, was not
adopted because of the large waste in potential cargo space onboard
the vessel, known as broken stowage. Instead, he modified his original
concept into loading just the containers, not the chassis, onto the
ships, hence the designation container ship or "box" ship. (Seealso pantechnicon van and trolley and lift van.)
Towards standards
During the first twenty years of growth containerization meant using
different and incompatible, container sizes and corner fittings from one
country to another. There were dozens of incompatible container
systems in the U.S. Among the biggest operators, the Matson
Navigation Company had a fleet of 24-foot (7.3 m) containers
while Sea-Land Service, Inc used 35-foot (11 m) containers. The
standard sizes and fitting and reinforcement norms that exist now
evolved out of a series of compromises among international shipping
companies, European railroads, U.S. railroads, and U.S. trucking
companies. Four important ISO (International Organization for
Standardization) recommendations standardised containerisation
globally[8]
January 1968: R-668 defined the terminology, dimensions and
ratings
July 1968: R-790 defined the identification markings
January 1970: R-1161 made recommendations about corner
fittings
October 1970: R-1897 set out the minimum internal dimensions
of general purpose freight containers
In the United States, the Interstate Commerce Commission was
created in 1887 to keep railroads from using monopolist pricing and
rate discrimination on customers, especially rural Western farmers, but
fell victim to regulatory capture, and by the 1960s, before any shipper
could carry different items in the same vehicle, or change rates, the
shipper had to have ICC approval, which impeded containerization and
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other advances in shipping. The United States' present fully integrated
systems became possible only after the ICC's regulatory oversight was
cut back (and abolished in 1995), trucking and rail were deregulated in
the 1970s and maritime rates were deregulated in 1984.[9]
Today
A converted container used as an office at a building site
Today, approximately 9 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide moves by
containers stacked on transport ships; 26% of all containers originate
from China. As of 2005, some 18 million total containers make over
200 million trips per year. There are ships that can carry over
14,500 Twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU), for example the Emma
Mrsk, 396 m long, launched August 2006. It has even been predicted
that, at some point, container ships will be constrained in size only by
the depth of the Straits of Malaccaone of the world's busiest shipping
laneslinking the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. This so-called Malaccamax size constrains a ship to dimensions of 470 m in
length and 60 m wide (1542 feet by 197 feet).
However, few initially foresaw the extent of the influence
containerization would bring to the shipping industry. In the 1950s,
Harvard University economist Benjamin Chinitz predicted that
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containerization would benefit New York by allowing it to ship
industrial goods produced there more cheaply to the Southern United
States than other areas, but did not anticipate that containerization
might make it cheaper to import such goods from abroad. Most
economic studies of containerization merely assumed that shippingcompanies would begin to replace older forms of transportation with
containerization, but did not predict that the process of
containerization itself would have some influence on producers and the
extent of trading.
The widespread use of ISO standard containers has driven
modifications in other freight-moving standards, gradually forcing
removable truck bodies or swap bodies into the standard sizes and
shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), andchanging completely the worldwide use of freight pallets that fit into
ISO containers or into commercial vehicles.
Improved cargo security is also an important benefit of
containerization. The cargo is not visible to the casual viewer and thus
is less likely to be stolen and the doors of the containers are generally
sealed so that tampering is more evident. This has reduced the "falling
off the truck" syndrome that long plagued the shipping industry.
Use of the same basic sizes of containers across the globe haslessened the problems caused by incompatible rail gauge sizes in
different countries. The majority of the rail networks in the world
operate on a 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 12 in) gauge track known as standard
gauge but many countries (such as Russia, India, Finland, and
Lithuania) use broader gauges while many other countries in Africa
and South America use narrower gauges on their networks. The use of
container trains in all these countries makes trans-shipment between
different gauge trains easier.Car shipping
Containers have become a popular way to ship vehicles overseas. Cars
can be loaded into 20 or 40 foot containers, loaded onto container
ships, and shipped to most countries. Unlikeroll-on/roll-offvehicle
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shipping, personal effects can be loaded into the container with the
vehicle, allowing for easy international relocation.
Container standards
ISO standard
Main article: Intermodal freight shipping container
There are five common standard lengths, 20-ft (6.1 m), 40-ft (12.2
m), 45-ft (13.7 m), 48-ft (14.6 m), and 53-ft (16.2 m). United States
domestic standard containers are generally 48 ft (15 m) and 53-ft (rail
and truck). Container capacity is often expressed in twenty-foot
equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes teu). An equivalent unit is a
measure of containerized cargo capacity equal to one standard 20 ft
(length) 8 ft (width) container. As this is an approximate measure,
the height of the box is not considered, for instance the 9 ft 6 in (2.9
m) High cube and the 4-ft 3-in (1.3 m) half height 20 ft (6.1 m)
containers are also called one TEU.
The maximum gross mass for a 20 ft (6.1 m) dry cargo container is
24,000 kg, and for a 40-ft (including the 2.87 m (9 ft 6 in) high cube
container), it is 30,480 kg. Allowing for the tare mass of the container,
the maximum payload mass is therefore reduced to approximately
22,000 kg for 20 ft (6.1 m), and 27,000 kg for 40 ft (12 m)
containers.
The original choice of 8 foot height for ISO containers was made in
part to suit a large proportion of railway tunnels, though some had to
be deepened. With the arrival of even taller containers, further
enlargement is proving necessary.
[edit]Air freight containers
A number of LD-designation Unit Load Device containersMain article: Unit Load Device
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While major airlines use containers that are custom designed for their
aircraft and associated ground handling equipment the IATA has
created a set of standard container sizes, the LD-designation sizes are
shown below:
DesignationWidth(in)
Height(in)
Depth(in)
Base(In)
Maxload(lb)
Maxload(kg)
Shape
LD-1 92.0 64.0 60.4 61.5 3500 ~1588 Type A
LD-2 61.5 64.0 47.0 61.5 2700 ~1225 Type A
LD-3 79.0 64.0 60.4 61.5 3500 ~1588 Type A
LD-4 96.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 5400 ~2449 Rectangular
LD-5 125.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 7000 ~3175 Rectangular
LD-6 160.0 64.0 60.4 125.0 7000 ~3175 Type B
LD-7 125.0 64.0 80.0 n/a 13300 ~6033Rect. orContoured
LD-8 125.0 64.0 60.4 96.0 5400 ~2449 Type B
LD-9 125.0 64.0 80.0 n/a 13300 ~6033 Rect. orContoured
LD-10 125.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 7000 ~3175 Contoured
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LD-11 125.0 64.0 60.4 n/a 7000 ~3175 Rectangular
LD-29 186.0 64.0 88.0 125.0 13300 ~6033 Type B
LD-1, -2, -3, -4, and -8 are those most widely used, together with the
rectangular M3 containers.
Other container system standards
Some other container systems are:
PODS
Haus-zu-Haus (House to house) (Germany)
RACE (Australia)
SECU (Sweden, Finland, UK)
ARKAS
Japanese railway containers (japanese) Containers used
by Japan Freight Railway Company
Load securing in containers
There are many different ways and materials available to stabilize and
secure cargo in containers used in all modes of transportation.
Conventional load securing methods and materials such as steel
banding and wood blocking and bracing have been around for decades
and are still widely used. Load securing methods offer several, new
and unknown options that have become available through
technological advancement including polyester strapping and -lashing,
synthetic webbings and Dunnage Bags, also known as air bags orinflatable bags.
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Issues
Increased efficiency
Although there have been few direct correlations made between
containers and job losses, there are a number of texts associating job
losses at least in part with containerization. A 1998 study of post-
containerization employment at United States ports found that
container cargo could be moved nearly twenty times faster than pre-
container break bulk. The new system of shipping also allowed for
freight consolidating jobs to move from the waterfront to points far
inland, which also decreased the number of waterfront jobs.
Additional fuel costs
Containerisation increases the fuel costs of transport and reduces thecapacity of the transport as the container itself must be shipped
around not just the goods. For certain bulk products this makes
containerisation unattractive. For most goods the increased fuel costs
and decreased transport efficiencies are currently more than offset by
the handling savings. On railway the capacity of the container is far
from its maximum weight capacity, and the weight of a railcar must be
transported with not so much goods. In some areas (mostly USA and
Canada) containers are double stacked, but this is usually not possible
in other countries.
Hazards
Containers have been used to smuggle contraband. The vast majority
of containers are never subjected to scrutiny due to the large number
of containers in use. In recent years there have been increased
concerns that containers might be used to transport terrorists or
terrorist materials into a country undetected. The U.S. government has
advanced the Container Security Initiative (CSI), intended to ensure
that high-risk cargo is examined or scanned, preferably at the port of
departure.
Empty containers
Containers are intended to be used constantly, being loaded with new
cargo for a new destination soon after having emptied of previous
cargo. This is not always possible, and in some cases, the cost of
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transporting an empty container to a place where it can be used is
considered to be higher than the worth of the used container. Shipping
lines and Container Leasing Companies have become expert at
repositioning empty containers from areas of low or no demand, such
as US West Coast, to areas of high demand such as China. However,damaged or retired containers may also be recycled in the form
ofshipping container architecture, or the steel content salvaged.
Loss at sea
Containers occasionally fall from the ships, usually during storms;
10,000 containers are lost at sea each year. For instance, on
November 30, 2006, a container washed ashore on the Outer Banks
ofNorth Carolina USA, along with thousands of bags of its cargo
ofDoritos Chips. Containers lost at sea do not necessarily sink, butseldom float very high out of the water, making them a shipping
hazard that is difficult to detect. Freight from lost containers has
provided oceanographers with unexpected opportunities to track
global ocean currents, notably a cargo ofFriendly Floatees.[16]
In 2007 the International Chamber of Shipping and the World Shipping
Council began work on a code of practice for container storage,
including crew training on parametric rolling, safer stacking and
marking of containers and security for above-deck cargo in heavyswell.[17]
Double-stack containerization
Most flatcars cannot carry more than one standard 40-foot (12.19 m)
container, but if the rail line has been built with sufficient vertical
clearance, a double-stack car can accept a container and still leave
enough clearance for another container on top. This usually precludes
operation of double-stacked wagons on lines with overhead electric
wiring. However, the Betuweroute, which was planned with overheadwiring from the start, has been built with tunnels that do
accommodate double-stacked wagons so as to keep the option to
economically rebuild the route for double stacking in the future. The
overhead wiring would then have to be changed to allow double
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stacking. Lower than standard size containers are run double stacked
under overhead wire in China.
History of double-stacking
United States/ Canada/ Mexico: Southern Pacific
Railroad (SP), with Malcom McLean, came up with the idea of the
first double-stack intermodal car in 1977. SP then designed the first
car with ACF Industries that same year. At first it was slow to
become an industry standard, then in 1984 American President
Lines, started working with the SP and that same year, the first all
"double stack" train left Los Angeles, California for South Kearny,
New Jersey, under the name of "Stacktrain" rail service. Along theway the train transferred from the SP to Conrail. It saved shippers
money and now accounts for almost 70 percent ofintermodal
freight transport shipments in the United States, in part due to the
generous vertical clearances used by U.S. railroads. These lines are
diesel operated with no overhead wiring.
Australia: Double stacking is also used in Australia between
Adelaide, Parkes, Perth and Darwin. These are diesel only lines with
no overhead wiring. Tunnels prevent extension of service to
Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane.
India: Double stacking in India is used for selected freight-
only lines, on electrified lines with specially high overhead 25kV
AC wiring.
China: using double stacked container trains under 25kV
AC overhead lines.
Wagons
Railways have flat wagons and well cars that can hold 40' ISO
containers.
Narrow gauge railways of 610 mm (2 ft) gauge have smaller wagons
that do not readily carry ISO containers, nor do the 30-foot (9.14 m)
long and 7-foot (2.13 m) wide wagons of the762 mm (2
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ft 6 in) gauge Kalka-Shimla Railway. Wider narrow gauge railways of
e.g. 914 mm (3 ft) and 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 38 in) gauge can take ISO
containers, provided that the loading gauge allows it.
Other uses for containers
Shipping container architecture is the use of containers as the basis for
housing and other functional buildings for people, either as temporary
housing or permanent, and either as a main building or as a cabin or
workshop. Containers can also be used as sheds or storage areas in
industry and commerce.
Containers are also beginning to be used to house computer data
centers, although these are normally specialized containers.Companies
Biggest ISO container companies
Top 20 container shipping companies in order of TEU capacity, 18 May2010
Company TEU capacity[23] Number of ships
A.P. Moller-Maersk Group 2,045,776 545
Mediterranean Shipping CompanyS.A.
1,638,962 414
CMA CGM 1,100,007 384
American President Lines 589,879 147
Evergreen Marine Corporation 554,725 152
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Hapag-Lloyd 541,811 124
COSCO 498,437 134
CSAV 469,428 128
Hanjin Shipping 448,051 98
China Shipping Container Lines 440,236 122
NYK Line 365,034 95
Mitsui O.S.K. Lines 363,188 94
Orient Overseas Container Line 353,338 77
Hamburg Sd 338,778 109
Zim Integrated Shipping Services 322,685 96
K Line 318,193 82
Yang Ming Marine TransportCorporation
313,379 77
Hyundai Merchant Marine 271,604 52
Pacific International Lines 227,649 126
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UASC 199,082 50
INTERNATIONAL shipping laws
Admiralty law (also referred to as maritime law) is a distinct body
oflaw which governs maritime questions and offenses. It is a body of
both domestic law governing maritime activities, and private
international law governing the relationships between private entities
which operate vessels on the oceans. It deals with matters including
marine commerce, marine navigation, shipping, sailors, and the
transportation of passengers and goods by sea. Admiralty law also
covers many commercial activities, although land based or occurring
wholly on land, that are maritime in character.
Admiralty law is distinguished from the Law of the Sea, which is a
body of public international law dealing with navigational
rights, mineral rights, jurisdiction over coastal waters and international
law governing relationships between nations.
Although each legal jurisdiction usually has its own enacted legislation
governing maritime matters, admiralty law is characterized by a
significant amount of international law developed in recent decades,
including numerous multilateral treaties.
History of admiralty law
Seaborne transport was one of the earliest channels of commerce, and
rules for resolving disputes involving maritime trade were developed
early in recorded history. Early historical records of these laws include
the Rhodian law (of which no primary written specimen has survived,
but which is alluded to in other legal texts: Roman and Byzantine legal
codes) and later the customs of the Hanseatic League. In southern
Italy theOrdinamenta et consuetudo maris (1063) at Trani and
the Amalfian Laws were in effect from an early date.
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Islamic law also made major contributions to international admiralty
law, departing from the previous Roman and Byzantine maritime laws
in several ways. These included Muslim sailors being "paid a
fixed wage in advance with an understanding that they would owe
money in the event ofdesertion or malfeasance, in keeping withIslamic conventions" in which contracts should specify a known fee
for a known duration, in contrast to Roman and Byzantine sailors who
were "stakeholders in a maritime venture, in as much as captain and
crew, with few exceptions, were paid proportional divisions of a sea
ventures profit, with shares allotted by rank, only after a voyages
successful conclusion". Muslim jurists also distinguished between
"coastal navigation, or cabotage", and voyages on the high seas, and
they also made shippers "liable for freight in most cases excepttheseizure of both a ship and its cargo". Islamic law also "departed
from Justinians Digest and the Nomos Rhodion Nautikos in
condemning slave jettison", and the Islamic Qirad was also a precursor
to the European commenda limited partnership. The Islamic influence
on the development of an international law of the sea can thus be
discerned alongside that of the Roman influence.
Admiralty law was introduced into England by Eleanor of
Aquitaine while she was acting as regent for her son, King Richard the
Lionheart. She had earlier established admiralty law on the island
ofOleron (where it was published as the Rolls of Oleron) in her own
lands (although she is often referred to in admiralty law books as
"Eleanor of Guyenne"), having learned about it in the eastern
Mediterranean while on a Crusade with her first husband, King Louis
VII of France. In England, special admiralty courts handle all admiralty
cases. These courts do not use the common law of England, but
are civil law courts largely based upon the Corpus Juris
Civilis ofJustinian.
Admiralty courts were a prominent feature in the prelude to
the American Revolution. For example, the phrase in the Declaration of
Independence For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial
by Jury refers to the practice of Parliament giving the Admiralty
Courts jurisdiction to enforce The Stamp Act in the American Colonies.
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[2] Because the Stamp Act was unpopular, a colonial jury was unlikely
to convict a colonist of its violation. However, because admiralty courts
did not (as is true today) grant trial by jury, a colonist accused of
violating the Stamp Act could be more easily convicted by the Crown.
Admiralty law became part of the law of the United States as it was
gradually introduced through admiralty cases arising after the adoption
of the U.S. Constitution in 1789. Many American lawyers who were
prominent in the American Revolution were admiralty and maritime
lawyers in their private lives. Those included are Alexander
Hamilton in New York and John Adams in Massachusetts.
In 1787 Thomas Jefferson, who was then ambassador to France, wrote
to James Madison proposing that the U.S. Constitution, then under
consideration by the States, be amended to include "trial by jury in all
matters of fact triable by the laws of the land [as opposed the law of
admiralty] and not by the laws of Nations [i.e. not by the law of
admiralty]". The result was the Seventh Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution. Alexander Hamilton and John Adams were both admiralty
lawyers and Adams represented John Hancock in an admiralty case in
colonial Boston involving seizure of one of Hancock's ships for
violations of Customs regulations. In the more modern era, Supreme
Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes was an admiralty lawyer beforeascending to the federal bench.
Features of admiralty law
Maintenance and cure
The doctrine of maintenance and cure is rooted in the Article VI of the
Rules of Oleron promulgated in about 1160 A.D. The obligation to
"cure" requires a shipowner to provide medical care, free of charge, to
a seaman injured in the service of the ship, until the seaman has
reached "maximum medical cure". The concept of "maximum medicalcure" is more extensive than the concept "maximum medical
improvement". The obligation to "cure" a seaman includes the
obligation to provide him with medications and medical devices which
improve his ability to function, even if they don't "improve" his actual
condition. They may include long term treatments permit him to
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continue to function well. Common examples include prostheses,
wheelchairs, and pain medications.
The obligation of "maintenance" requires the shipowner to provide a
seaman with his basic living expenses while he is convalescing. Once a
seaman is able to work, he is expected to maintain himself.
Consequently, a seaman can lose his right to maintenance, while the
obligation to provide cure is ongoing.
A seaman who is required to sue a shipowner to recover maintenance
and cure may also recover his attorneys fees. Vaughan v. Atkinson,
369 U.S. 527 (1962). If a shipowner's breach of its obligation to
provide maintenance and cure is willful and wanton, the shipowner
may be subject to punitive damages.
Personal injuries to passengers
Shipowners owe a duty of reasonable care to passengers (for a broad
overview of this theory in law, see negligence). Consequently,
passengers who are injured aboard ships may bring suit the same as if
they had been injured ashore through the negligence of a third party.
The passenger bears the burden of proving that the shipowner was
negligent. While the statute of limitations is generally three years,
suits against cruise lines must usually be brought within one year
because of limitations contained in the passenger ticket. Notice
requirements in the ticket may require a formal notice to be brought
within six months of the injury. Most U.S. cruise line passenger tickets
also have provisions requiring that suit to be brought in
eitherMiami or Seattle.
]Maritime liens and mortgages
Banks which loan money to purchase ships, vendors who supply
ships with necessaries like fuel and stores, seamen who are due
wages, and many others have a lien against the ship to guarantee
payment. To enforce the lien, the ship must be arrested or seized.
An action to enforce a lien against a U.S. ship must be brought in
federal court and cannot be done in state court.
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Salvage and treasure salvage
When property is lost at sea and rescued by another, the rescuer
is entitled to claim a salvage award on the salved property. There
is no "life salvage". All mariners have a duty to save the lives of
others in peril without expectation of reward. Consequently
salvage law applies only to the saving of property.
There are two types of salvage: contract salvage and pure salvage,
which is sometimes referred to as "merit salvage". In contract
salvage the owner of the property and salvor enter into a salvage
contract prior to the commencement of salvage operations and the
amount that the salvor is paid is determined by the contract. The
most common salvage contract is called a "Lloyds Open Form
Salvage Contract".
In pure salvage, there is no contract between the owner of the
goods and the salvor. The relationship is one which is implied by
law. The salvor of property under pure salvage must bring his
claim for salvage in federal court, which will award salvage based
upon the "merit" of the service and the value of the salvaged
property.
Pure salvage claims are divided into "high-order" and "low-order"
salvage. In high-order salvage, the salvor exposes himself and his
crew to the risk of injury and loss or damage to his equipment in
order to salvage the damaged ship. Examples of high-order
salvage are boarding a sinking ship in heavy weather, boarding a
ship which is on fire, raising a ship or boat which has already sunk,
or towing a ship which is in the surf away from the shore. Low-
order salvage occurs where the salvor is exposed to little or no
personal risk. Examples of low-order salvage include towing
another vessel in calm seas, supplying a vessel with fuel, or pullinga vessel off a sand bar. Salvors performing high order salvage
receive substantially greater salvage award than those performing
low order salvage.
In both high-order and low-order salvage the amount of the
salvage award is based first upon the value of the property saved.
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If nothing is saved, or if additional damage is done, there will be
no award. The other factors to be considered are the skills of the
salvor, the peril to which the salvaged property was exposed, the
value of the property which was risked in effecting the salvage, the
amount of time and money expended in the salvage operation etc.
A pure or merit salvage award will seldom exceed 50 percent of
the value of the property salved. The exception to that rule is in
the case of treasure salvage. Because sunken treasure has
generally been lost for hundreds of years, while the original owner
(or insurer, if the vessel was insured) continues to have an interest
in it, the salvor or finder will generally get the majority of the
value of the property. While sunken ships from the Spanish
Main (such as Nuestra Seora de Atocha in the Florida Keys) arethe most commonly thought of type of treasure salvage, other
types of ships including German submarines from World War II
which can hold valuable historical artifacts, American Civil
War ships (the USS Maple Leaf in theSt. Johns River, and
the CSSVirginia in Chesapeake Bay), and sunken merchant ships
(the SSCentral America offCape Hatteras) have all been the
subject of treasure salvage awards.[citation needed] Due to refinements
in side-scanning sonars, many ships which were previously missing
are now being located and treasure salvage is now a less risky
endeavor than it was in the past, although it is still highly
speculative.
International conventions
Prior to the mid-1970s, most international conventions concerning
maritime trade and commerce originated in a private organization
of maritime lawyers known as the Comit Maritime
International (International Maritime Committee or CMI). Foundedin 1897, the CMI was responsible for the drafting of numerous
international conventions including the Hague Rules (International
Convention on Bills of Lading), the Visby Amendments (amending
the Hague Rules), the Salvage Convention and many others. While
the CMI continues to function in an advisory capacity, many of its
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functions have been taken over by the International Maritime
Organization, which was established by the United Nations in 1958
but did not become truly effective until about 1974.
The IMO has prepared numerous international conventions
concerning maritime safety including the Safety of Life at Sea
Convention (SOLAS), the Standards for Training, Certification, and
Watchkeeping (STCW), the Collision Regulations (COLREGS),
Maritime Pollution Regulations (MARPOL), International
Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue
Convention(IAMSAR) and others. The United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defined a treaty regarding
protection of the marine environment and various maritime
boundaries.
Once adopted, the international conventions are enforced by the
individual nations which are signatories, either through their
local Coast Guards, or through their courts.
Piracy
Merchant vessels transiting areas of increased pirate activity (ie
the Gulf of Aden, Somali Basin, Southern Red Sea and Bab-el-
Mandeb straits) are advised to implement Self-Protective measures
in accordance with most recent Best Management Practices agreed
upon by the members of the merchant industry, and endorsed by
the NATO Shipping Centre, and the Maritime Security Centre Horn-
of-Africa (MSCHOA)
In individual countries
Maritime law of common law countries
Most of the common law countries
(including Pakistan, Singapore, India, Canada, and manyother Commonwealth of Nations countries) follow English statutes
and case law. India still follows many Victorian-era British statutes
such as the Admiralty Court Act, 1861 [24 Vict c 10]. Whilst
Pakistan now has its own statutes such as the Admiralty
Jurisdiction of High Courts Ordinance, 1980 (Ordinance XLII of
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1980), it still follows English case law. One reason for this is that
Pakistani law is partly modelled on old English admiralty law as
defined in the Administration of Justice Act, 1956. The current
statute dealing with the Admiralty jurisdiction of the England and
Wales High Court in Pakistan is the Supreme Court Act, 1981(sec.20-24,37). This statute is, in turn, based on the International
Arrest Convention 1952. Other countries which do not follow the
English statutes and case laws such as Panama also have
established well-known maritime courts which decide international
cases on a regular basis.
Admiralty Courts assume jurisdiction by virtue of the presence of
the vessel in its territorial jurisdiction irrespective of whether the
vessel is national or not and whether registered or not andwherever the residence or domicile or their owners may be. A
vessel is usually arrested by the court to retain jurisdiction. State
owned vessels are usually immune from arrest.
In the United States
Jurisdiction
Article III, Section 2 of the United States Constitution grants
original jurisdiction to U.S. federal courts over admiralty and
maritime matters, however that jurisdiction is not exclusive andmost maritime cases can be heard in either state or federal courts
under the "saving to suitors" clause.[4]
There are five types of cases which can only be brought in federal
court: Limitation of Shipowner's Liability, Vessel Arrests in Rem,
Property arrests Quasi in Rem, Salvage cases, and Petitory and
Possession Actions. The common element of those cases are that
they require the court to exercise jurisdiction over maritime
property. For example, in a Petitory and Possession Action, avessel whose title is in dispute, usually between co-owners, will be
put in the possession of the court until the title dispute can be
resolved. In a Limitation Action the shipowner will post a bond
reflecting the value of the vessel and her pending freight. A sixth
category, that ofprize (law), relating to claims over vessels
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captured during wartime, has been rendered obsolete due to
changes in the laws and practices of warfare.
Aside from those five types of cases, all other maritime cases,
such as claims for personal injuries, cargo damage, collisions,
maritime products liability, and recreational boating accidents may
be brought in either federal or state court.
From a tactical standpoint it is important to consider that in federal
courts in the United States, there is generally no right to trial by
jury in admiralty cases, although the Jones Act grants a jury trial
to seamen suing their employers.
Maritime law is governed by a uniform three year statute of
limitations for personal injury and wrongful death cases. Cargocases must be brought within two years (extended from the one-
year allowance under the Hague-Visby Rules), pursuant to the
adoption of the Rotterdam Rules]. Most major cruise ship
passenger tickets have a one year statute of limitations.
Applicable law
A state court hearing an admiralty or maritime case is required to
apply the admiralty and maritime law, even if it conflicts with the
law of the state, under a doctrine known as the "reverse-Erie
doctrine". While the "Erie doctrine" requires that federal courts
hearing state actions must apply substantive state law, the
"reverse-Erie doctrine" requires state courts hearing admiralty
cases to apply substantive federal admiralty law. However, state
courts are allowed to apply state procedural law. This change can
be significant.
Features of U.S. admiralty law
Cargo claims
Claims for damage to cargo shipped in international commerce are
governed by the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act (COGSA), which is
the U.S. enactment of the Hague Rules. One of its key features is
that a shipowner is liable for cargo damaged from "hook to hook",
meaning from loading to discharge, unless it is exonerated under
one of 17 exceptions to liability, such as an "act of God", the
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inherent nature of the goods, errors in navigation, and
management of the ship.
]Personal injuries to seamen
Seaman injured aboard ship have three possible sources of
compensation: the principle of maintenance and cure, the doctrine
of unseaworthiness, and the Jones Act. The principle of
maintenance and cure requires a shipowner to both pay for an
injured seaman's medical treatment until maximum medical
recovery (MMR) is obtained and provide basic living expenses until
completion of the voyage, even if the seaman is no longer aboard
ship.
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References
Throughout the span of creating this report, I have taken the help ofvarious sources. Some of these sources were used for literary ways,others simply for support and knowledge enrichment. Either ways, I am
sincerely grateful.
1. Www. Wikipedia .com2. Www. Google.com3. Www. Cosco.com4. Www. TimJasinternational.com5. Www.containersordummies .com6. Www. Ask.com7. Www. Cluemein.com
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Thank you