Tightrope Hypothesis Hermes

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Testing the Effort Models Tightrope Hypothesis in simultaneous interpreting a

Contribution

Daniel Gile

Universit Paris 3 Sorbonne Nouvelle

[email protected]

www.cirinandgile.com

Edited version from Hermes23 (1!" 1#3$1%2"

&bstra't

In a samle o! "# ro!essionals interreting the same source seech in the simultaneous mode$

errors and omissions %e&o's( were !ound to a!!ect di!!erent source)seech segments$ and a large

roortion among them were only made by a small roortion o! the sub*ects. In a reeat

er!ormance$ there were some new e&o's in the second version when the same interreters had

interreted the relevant segments correctly in the !irst version. +hese !indings are in line with the

,!!ort -odels' +ightroe /yothesis' that many e&o's are due not to the intrinsic di!!iculty o! the

corresonding source)seech segments$ but to the interreters wor0ing close to rocessingcaacity saturation$ which ma0es them vulnerable to even small variations in the available

rocessing caacity !or each interreting comonent.

1eywords2 simultaneous interreting$ errors$ omissions$ cognitive load$ +ightroe hyothesis$

cognitive saturation

&uthors introdu'tory note to the 21# translation of the paper)

+his " aer was a !irst attemt to test the +ightroe /yothesis$ which is e4lained in the

body o! the te4t. +his was done !or the ,!!ort -odel !or simultaneous interreting between

so0en languages. -eanwhile$ an ,!!ort -odel !or simultaneous interreting between a so0enlanguage and a signed language or between two signed languages has also been develoed. +he

rincile is the same$ but !urther ,!!orts have been identi!ied2 Sel! -anagement in Sace and

Interaction with Dea! 5eceivers %when wor0ing into a sign language(. -oreover$ the short term

-emory ,!!ort in the model involves a stronger satial comonent than in interreting between

so0en languages %Gile$ in ress(. 6ut the testing rocedure should aly e7ually whatever

interreting modality is used.

1" The nature of the Effort Models

In the nineteen)seventies$ interreting models based on the in!ormation)rocessing aradigm

%Gerver "89$ -oser "8:( were develoed to account !or the mental oeration o! simultaneousinterreting. -ore recently$ Setton %"8($ Paradis %";( and -in the ractical side$ however$ over the

ast two decades$ they have not been sub*ected to much systematic testing$ robably due to the

comle4ity o! the mental oerations involved %see !or instance ?ambert "9$ -oser)-ercer

"82$ -assaro and Shlesinger "82";$ Arauen!elder and Schrie!ers "8299( and to the lac0

o! institutional$ human and !inancial resources !or such e4loration.

In the early eighties$ a set o! models were develoed in a di!!erent mindset$ the idea being

not to describethe simultaneous interreting rocess$ but to account !or errors and omissions

observed in the er!ormance o! simultaneous and consecutive interreters which could not be

easily attributed to de!icient linguistic abilities$ insu!!icient e4tralinguistic 0nowledge or oor
mailto:[email protected]://www.cirinandgile.com/mailto:[email protected]://www.cirinandgile.com/


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conditions in the delivery o! the source te4t. +hese ,!!ort -odels' %see !or e4amle Gile "9$

"8( ool together oerational comonents o! interreting into three ,!!orts'$ namely2

? B the ?istening and analysis ,!!ort$ re!erring to the interreter listening to the source seech

P B the Production ,!!ort %seech roduction in simultaneous$ and note roduction during the

!irst stage o! consecutive$ while the interreter is listening but not interreting yet(. +heProduction ,!!ort includes sel!)monitoring and sel!)reair.

- B the short)term -emory ,!!ort$ which covers memory oerations !rom the time a seech

segment is heard and until it is re!ormulated in the target seech %or written down as notes in

consecutive($ or disaears !rom memory %note that this short)term -emory ,!!ort is in many

ways similar to various models o! Cor0ing -emory develoed in cognitive sychology$ but

should not be e7uated with any o! them$ as it is a more holistic concet(.

In addition$ $ a oordination ,!!ort$ is necessary to coordinate the allocation o! attention

between the three ,!!orts.

Eisually$ the ,!!ort -odel !or Simultaneous Interreting %SI( can be reresented as !ollows2

SI F ? - P

Chere the mathematical signs HF and H are used in a very wide sense$ not their mathematical

sense$ to mean HSI is comosed o! ?$ o! -$ o! P and o! .

Aor consecutive interreting$ the ,!!ort -odel is articulated in two arts2

a. ?istening Phase2 ?istening F ? - P

%Chere P re!ers to the Production o! notes$ not o! seech in the target language(

b. 5e!ormulation Phase2 5e!ormulation F 5ead 5emembering P

%Chere H5ead re!ers to note reading$ H5emembering re!ers to retrieval o! in!ormation about

the seech heard !rom long)term memory and P re!ers to the roduction o! the target language

seech(

During the listening hase$ oerations are aced by the sea0er$ and the ,!!orts are in

cometition. In the re!ormulation hase$ the interreter is sel!)aced and there is muchcooeration between the ,!!orts$ as notes hel remember and roduce seech. +he +ightroe

/yothesis ostulated in this aer alies to the ?istening Phase only.

+he ,!!ort -odels %,-( are models o! oerational constraints$ not architectural models$

inso!ar as they do not ostulate a articular mental structure and in!ormation)rocessing !low as

is the case o! the other models mentioned above. +he underlying idea is that with minimal

assumtions about cognitive architecture$ it is ossible to come u with a set o! models with

e4lanatory otential !or actual interreting er!ormance. +here!ore$ contrary to a widesread

aradigm in cognitive science$ their testing and develoment can !ocus on their validation as

oerational tools rather than on architectural validation and on the addition and&or correction o!

comonents$ interactions and&or !lows. 6ecause o! their distinct nature and ob*ectives$ they arenot in direct cometition with architectural models$ at least as long as these cannot ma0e

oerational redictions.


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+he ,!!ort -odels were deliberately designed at a holistic level without going into !ine)

grained architectural analysis$ but they are based on cognitive concets and ideas %in articular

the concet o! limited attentional resources and the assumtion o! a strong correlation between

tas0 di!!iculty and the duration o! its imlementation($ and any cognitive !indings invalidating

basic assumtions on which they are built will have to be ta0en into account.

+he most !undamental architectural assumtion in the ,!!ort -odels is that in site o! the

sharing o! some cognitive resources$ and in articular wor0ing memory and long)term memory$there are enough unshared comonents in interreting to *usti!y the distinction between the three

core ,!!orts$ one revolving around comrehension$ one around roduction o! seech %in

simultaneous( or notes %in the !irst stage o! consecutive($ and one around short)term memory

oerations. +he !acts that in simultaneous$ comrehension is in one language and roduction in

another$ and that in consecutive$ what is roduced %in the listening stage( are notes$ are one

element which *usti!ies searation o! these two ,!!orts. +he de!inition o! the -emory ,!!ort as a

distinct comonent is less evident$ since both sensory memory and wor0ing memory come in

both in comrehension and in roduction. +hus$ it could be argued that a two)element model

comosed o! a comrehension hase and a roduction hase would be su!!icient and more

reresentative o! actual cognitive architecture. +he case !or a distinct lace !or the -emory

,!!ort !or the models rests on the !ollowing2

a. +he necessary co)e4istence in short)term memory %including sensory memory and wor0ing

memory( o! source)seech elements and target)seech elements in simultaneous interreting and

o! source)seech elements and written reresentations o! words and concets in the !irst stage o!

consecutive is li0ely to induce in the interreter's short)term memory some oerations and

ossibly some architectural lin0s and comonents %searate stores !or the source seech and the

target seech$ inhibition and activation$ lin0s with the mental le4icon in one language or another

etc.($ which are not usual in the non)interreting listener's$ seech roducer's or note roducer's

memory.

b. In strategic terms$ interreters ma0e seci!ic decisions on ,ES %,ar)Eoice San$ their lag

behind the sea0er( on the basis o! memory)caacity limitations beyond the automatic memory

oerations which occur in seech comrehension and seech roduction. +hese limitations and

actions have been a distinct toic o! re!lection and discussion since the si4ties %see inter alia

Au0uii and =sano "J"$ >lron and Namon "J9$ 1ade and artellieri "8"$ DarK and Aabbro

";$ >sa0a ";$ Padilla "9$ Gran and 6ellini "J$ hincotta and Underwood ":(.

6esides this architectural assumtion$ three ma*or oerational assumtions underlie the -odels2

a. ,ach o! the three ,!!orts has non)automatic comonents. +here!ore$ all three re7uire

attentional resources.

Arom cognitive sychology and sycholinguistics research$ it is 0nown that seech

comrehension and seech roduction under ordinary conditions include non)automatic

comonents. In simultaneous interreting$ there is no reason to assume that seech

comrehension is more automatic than in ordinary conditions$ while there are many to assume

the oosite. =s to seech roduction$ it would become automatic only i! it involved automatic

word)!or)word relacement$ which is clearly not the case. +he short)term memory e!!ort is non)

automatic inso!ar as it involves storing and retrieving ever)changing in!ormation elements %!or a

more detailed discussion o! the non)automatic nature o! the three ,!!orts$ see Gile "9(. +his

!irst oerational assumtion can there!ore be considered unroblematic.


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b. +he three ,!!orts are at least artly cometitive$ meaning that even i! they share resources and

may be somewhat cooerative$ the net result o! their coe4istence will usually be an increase in

rocessing caacity re7uirements %the cometition hyothesis'(.

In mathematical terms$ this cometition hyothesis' can be reresented in the !ollowing

way$ with the total rocessing caacity consumtion +ot associated with interreting at any

time reresented as a sum' %but not in the ure arithmetic sense( o! consumtion !or ?$

consumtion !or - and consumtion !or P$ with !urther consumtion !or coordination' %(between the ,!!orts$ that is$ the management o! caacity allocation between the ,!!orts2

%"( +ot F %?( %-( %P( %(

=nd

%( %i( L# i F ?$ -$ P

%3( +ot L %i( i F ?$ -$ P

%;( +ot L %i( %*( i$* F ?$ -$ P

Chere e7uation %"( reresents the total rocessing caacity consumtion

Ine7uality %( means that each o! the three ,!!orts re7uires some rocessing caacity

Ine7uality %3( means that the total caacity consumtion is at least e7ual to that o! any single

,!!ort

Ine7uality %;( means that the total rocessing caacity consumtion is at least e7ual to that o!

any two ,!!orts er!ormed in con*unction %in other words$ adding a third ,!!ort means adding

!urther caacity consumtion(.

+he cometition hyothesis is generally acceted intuitively by ractitioners$ is e4licit in many

anecdotal accounts o! di!!iculties encountered by interreters$ and has not generated anycriticism when resented to cognitive scientists at various interdiscilinary meetings. /owever$ it

cannot be ruled out that in some seci!ic cases$ it does not hold.

c. +he idea that most o! the time$ interreters wor0 near saturation level %the +ightroe

/yothesis'(.

+he resent study is a artial test o! this third hyothesis.

2" *revious theori+ing and testing

>n the basis o! the ,!!ort -odels$ some !urther theoreti


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interreting tactics when interreting !rom Maanese. Un!ortunately$ no on)line testing o! this

otential e!!ect has been comleted at this stage.

= !urther assumtion develoed !rom the ,- was that these triggers could generate

!ailure at a distance$ when attentional resources were diverted !rom one ,!!ort to another where

rein!orcement' was necessary this could save' one seech segment but could *eoardi


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when no articular technical or other di!!iculties can be indenti!ied in the source seech %Gile

":(2 i! interreters wor0ed well below saturation level$ errors and omissions should occur only

when signi!icant di!!iculties came u in the source seech.

+he recise aim o! this investigation was to try to establish$ in a samle o! ro!essionals

interreting a seech$ whether there are indeed errors and omissions %e&o's( a!!ecting segments

that resent no evident intrinsic di!!iculty. I! there are$ it is li0ely that they can be e4lained in

terms o! rocessing caacity de!icits such as redicted by the ,-.+he underlying rationale o! this study is the !ollowing2

>ne indication o! the e4istence o! such e&o's would be variability in the segments a!!ected

in the samle %at the level o! words or roositions(. I! all sub*ects in the samle !ail to

reroduce ade7uately the same ideas or ieces o! in!ormation$ this would suggest the e4istence

o! an intrinsic interreting di!!iculty' o! the relevant segments %too seciali


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language %non)native$ but strong enough to wor0 into it !rom an = language($ or are double ='

bilinguals. =ll had regular wor0ing e4erience o! "9 years or longer e4cet one whose

e4erience was 8 years$ and all are members o! =II$ the International =ssociation o!

on!erence Interreters$ and wor0 both in the rivate sector mar0et and !or international

organi,D and UN,S>. +hey can there!ore be considered 7uali!ied

ro!essionals.

+arget seeches were transcribed$ and transcrits were scanned !or errors and omissions.+his method is not without it!alls$ both because o! high inter)rater variability in the ercetion

o! what is and what is not an error or omission and because what may be identi!ied as an error or

omission in a transcrit may be an accetable rendition in an oral resentation o! the seech %as

demonstrated in Gile "(. +o avoid these it!alls$ only instances o! what aeared to me as

!lagrant errors or omissions were included in the analysis$ and at least two !urther oinions !rom

other con!erence interreters were re7uested to con!irm that the e&o's I identi!ied were also

considered e&o's by them. +here were no dissenting oinions. -oreover$ the li0elihood that the

e&o's identi!ied by me were also considered e&o's by the sub*ects themselves is heightened by the

!act that all o! them but one %Hwell enough B e&o n;( were corrected in the second version o!

the target seech by at least some o! the sub*ects %table "(.

+his conservative oerational de!inition o! e&o's may have le!t out other e&o's. I decidedto accet this loss o! sensitivity o! the tool inso!ar as it reserved validity by reducing the

robability o! !alse ositives' %mista0ing te4t maniulations considered accetable by the

sub*ects !or e&o's(.

+he analysis then roceeded by trying to determine2

a. /ow many sub*ects in the samle made an e&o !or each a!!ected seech segment.

b. Chat e&o's were corrected in the second version o! the target seech. %Note that due to a

technical roblem$ no second version could be recorded !or sub*ect D$ and a local

technical roblem made it imossible to chec0 the second version !or sub*ect as

regards e&o n"J(.

#" -esults

#"1 .ist of e/os

1" 0m sure my

Subject F2 Q *e suis sRr 7ue c'est ossible %HI am sure it is ossible(. ,rror. orrected in the

sub*ect's second version.

2" 0 dont even 4no5 these people yet)

Subject D2 Q *e ne connais mTme as ces gens %HI don't even 0now these eole(. >mission o!the idea e4ressed by Hyet. No second version.

Subject E2 Q 7ue *e connais bien %Hthat I 0now well(. ,rror. orrected artially in the second

version %Q *e connais as ces gens ) HI don't 0now these eole(

Subject F2 Q *e connais %HI 0now(. ,rror. orrected in the second version.

Subject H2 Q *e ne les connais as encore %HI don't 0now them yet(. Cho is Hthem ,rror.

orrected in the second version.

Subject J2 Q *e ne connais as ces gens %HI don't 0now these eole(. >mission o! the Hyet

idea. Uncorrected in the second version.

3" 0s'ientists and engineers

Subject B2 Q le monde scienti!i7ue %Hthe scienti!ic world(. orrected in the second version.


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Subject I2 Q les chercheurs %Hresearchers(. orrected in the second version.

," 05ell enough

Subject E2 Q 7ue *e connais bien %Hthat I 0now well(. Uncorrected in the second version.

Subject F2 Q *e connais %HI 0now(. Uncorrected in the second version.

#" 0sin'e dont 4no5

Subject A2 Q dont on ignore encore la nature.. %Hthe nature o! which is not 0nown yet(.

Uncorrected in the second version.

Subject B2 >mission. orrected in the second version.

Subject D2 >mission. No available second version.

Subject F2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.

Subject G2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.

Subject H2 >mission. orrected in the second version.

Subject I2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.

6" 0 'an spea4 loosely


Subject C2 >mission. orrected in the second version.

%" 0the imaging side of 7oda4


Subject E2 Q ?'image de 1oda0 %H1oda0's image(. orrected in the second version.

Subject I2 Q ?'image de 1oda0 %H1oda0's image(. orrected in the second version.

Subject J2 Q ?'image de 1oda0 %H1oda0's image(. orrected in the second version.

8" 0lets 'on'entrate on that"


Subject C2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.


" 0for the foreseeable future

Subject C2 >mission. orrected in the second version.


1" 0as far as 'apture goes

Subject A2 >mission. orrected in the second version.

Subject J2 Q march cati! %Hcative mar0et(. orrected in the second version.

11" 0highest resolution

Subject A2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.


Subject C2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.

Subject D2 >mission. No available second version.Subject G2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.

Subject H2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.


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12" 0'ause mine sure does 5ith me

Subject F2 >mission. orrected in the second version.


Subject I2 >mission. orrected in the second version.

13" 0the last t5o nights

Subject B2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.


Subject E2 Q deu4 *ours %Htwo days(. orrected in the second version.

Subject F2 >mission. orrected in the second version.


Subject H2 >mission. orrected in the second version.

1," 0Theyre really e9'iting

Subject B2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.Subject D2 >mission. No available second version.



1#" 0ninety per'ent: 0ten per'ent


Subject J2 >mission. orrected in the second version.

16" 0my ideas

Subject E2 Q ces ides %Hthese ideas B no indication in the target seech that these are thesea0er's ideas(. No available second version.

Subject I2 Q 7ue l'on imagine %Hthat one imagines B no indication in the target seech that

these are the sea0er's ideas(. orrected in the second version.

1%" 0that 5ill be 4illers

Subject A2 >mission. orrected in the second version.

Subject B2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.


Subject E2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.

Subject F2 >mission. orrected in the second version.Subject G2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.


Subject J2 >mission. Uncorrected in the second version.

#"2 ;e5 e/os in the se'ond version


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%Hbut I am tal0ing about scientists and engineers who would not be very hayV B omission o!

the idea e4ressed in Hwell enough(

lets concentrate on that

a. QVle cXt imagerie che< 1oda0 concentrons)nous sur cet asect

%H+he imaging side o! 1oda0 let us concentrate on this asectV(

b. Q Vle domaine imagerie che< 1oda0. Il !aut reconnaYtre lZ 7ueV %HVthe imaging side o! 1oda0. /ere$ we must ac0nowledge thatV B omission o! invitation to

!ocus on Hthis asect in the second version(


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mission


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#"3 Buantitative analysis

Sub*ect

Source)seech segment

& > C E ? @ H A e&o's in "strendition

" I'm sure my # # # # # ")# # # # # "

I don't even 0now these

eole yet

# #)" #)" " ")# ")# # ")# # ")" 9

3 Scientists and engineers # ")# # # # # # # ")# #)"

; Cell enough #)" #)" # # ")" ")" # # # #

9 6ut since I don't 0now what

the roducts are

")" ")# # " # ")" ")" ")# ")" # 8

J I can sea0 loosely # ")# ")# # # # # # # #

8 +he imaging side o! 1oda0 # # # " ")# # # # ")# ")# ;

: ?et's concentrate on that #)" ")# ")" " # # # #)" # #)" 3

Aor the !oreseeable !uture # # ")# # # # ")" # # #

"# =s !ar as cature goes ")# # # # # # # # # ")#

"" /ighest resolution ")" ")# ")" " # ")# ")" ")" # # 8

" ause mine sure does with

me

# # # # # ")# ")" # ")# # 3

"3 +he last two nights # ")" # " ")# ")# ")" ")# # # J

"; =nd they're really e4citing # ")" # " # # ")" # ")# #)" ;

"9 Ninety ercent$ ten ercent # # # " # # # # # ")#

"J -y ideas # # " # # # # # ")# #

"8 +hat will be 0illers ")# ")" # " ")" ")# ")" # ")# ")" :

Perhas %ndversion only( # #)" # # # # #)" # # #

+otel e&o's$ in "stand ndrendition

;); :)J 9)3 9) :) 8): ;) 8)" 9)9

Number o! Hnew' e&o's %inndrendition only(

3 " # # " " # 3

+able "2 ,rrors and omissions in the !irst and second renditions %#2 correct "2 error or omission(

+able " summari


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the rosody r the 7uality o! the interreter's voice. I! the low sensitivity o! the tool had made it

imossible to obtain convincing !indings$ more sensitive tools would have had to be designed$

and reliability could have become a roblem. Aortunately$ the tool roved to be su!!icient$

illustrating the idea that at the beginning o! an e4loration$ it is o!ten ossible and even desirable

to use rimitive tools rather than resorts to !iner and more !ragile tools.

+he !indings o! this study strengthen the case !or the tightroe hyothesis and thus give

some suort to the ,!!ort -odels as a concetual tool to e4lain the interreter's cognitive)constraints)based limitations. /owever$ the use!ulness o! the ,- as an oerational tool and

rosects !or !urther develoment deend on more recise 7uantitative measurement

ossibilities$ in articular on online measurement o! attentional resource consumtion during

interreting. Chen more is 0nown about how close to saturation interreters wor0$ how much

additional caacity is ta0en u by triggers$ and what the e4act time)course o! !ailure se7uences

is$ both better testing and more ower!ul uses can be !ound !or the ,!!ort -odels. -eanwhile$ I

can only agree that the indirect$ mostly rather gross methods used so !ar cannot be said to have

led to systematic testing or validation o! the models %see -assaro and Shlesinger "82;3(. >n

the other hand$ as illustrated in section B also see Sch*oldager "J and Sabatini ": B they

have insired emirical studies !ocusing on cognitive issues(. +hey have thus contributed to

enhancing the 0nowledge we have on the interreting roduct$ and may give some credibility tothe idea that the use!ulness o! a concet or model in scienti!ic e4loration is not necessarily a

!unction o! its degree o! sohistication.


14/16

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Si%ultandol%etschen& Eine Fallstudie a% Beis!iel gelesener 1eden. Unublished

doctoral dissertation$ 1arl)Aran


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-ilron$ P. /. Nanon. "J9. Q 5echerches sur la traduction simultane .Journal de

!s"chologie nor%ale et !athologi3ueJ. 83);.

>sa0a$ -ari0o. ";. H5iidingu suan no 0en0yuu %9( B Dou*itsuuya0u tesuto to waa0ingu

memory %Simultaneous interreting tests and wor0ing memory(.5ihon shinri gakkai dai

9: kai taikai ronbunshuu ;6roceedings o# the 9:thConention o# the Ja!an 6s"chological

Societ"non

standard? English& Graduation thesis$ SS?-I+$ UniversitZ degli Studi di 6ologna$ Sede

di Aorl_.

Sch*oldager$ =nne. "J. Si%ultaneous Inter!reting( E%!irical Inestigation into 0arget*te$t

Source*te$t 1elations. Unublished PhD dissertation$ =arhus School o! 6usiness$

Aaculty o! -odern ?anguages.

Setton$ 5obin. "8.A 6rag%atic 0heor" o# Si%ultaneous Inter!retation. Unublished doctoral

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,nglish&=lied ?inguistics.

&ppendi9


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o! a whole array o! ossibilities. >nce you start thin0ing in a broader conte4t o! 1oda0's imaging

business really being to reserve visual memories$ and to communication them$ and to distribute

them$ in erhas ways that are totally di!!erent than eole envision today$ then I'll let your

imagination run o!! with you$ cause mine sure does with me. I laid awa0e the last two nights

thin0ing about those ossibilities$ and they're really e4citing but ninety ercent o! my ideas may

never wor0$ but there's ten ercent that will be 0illers.

Silver halide2 halog4nure dargent

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