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Anatomy and Dissection Through Time
Emma Antle & Keeley Hatfield
A History of Anatomical Research and Dissection
Overview● Prehistoric Times ● Ancient Egyptians; 3000-250 B.C.● Chinese; 1500 B.C. ● Hippocrates; 460-370 B.C.● Aristotle; 384-322 B.C.● Herophilus; 330-260 B.C. &
Erasistratus; 315-240 B.C.● Galen; 129-210● Mondino de Liuzzi; 1275-1326● Leonardo Da Vinci; 1452-1519
Overview● Vesalius; 1514-1564● William Harvey; 1578-1657● Nicolaes Tulp; 1593-1674● Georges Cuvier; 1769-1832● Henry Gray; 1827-1861● Anatomy Act; 1832 ● 20th Century Anatomy● Gunther von Hagens;
1945-Present● Major Dissection Bans
Prehistoric Times
AncestorsIt was known which part of an animal was beneficial for food, clothing or implements.
Using this knowledge comparisons were drawn to their own human bodies.
● Skin: protective covering and warmth
● Muscles: locomotion and major source of food
● Skeleton: frame; can be used to make weapons and tools
Trepanation
Ancient surgical intervention in which a hole is drilled into a human’s skull.
Completed to…
● Treat intracranial diseases● Release pressure due to buildup of
blood ● Release evil spirits from the person
Paleopathology
Division of science that is concerned with the pathological conditions of ancient human and animal remains.
● Skeletal remains: indicates age, injuries and disease
● Fossil teeth: indicates diet and dental conditions
Ancient Egyptians; Year 3000-250 B.C.
Ebers and Edwin Smith Papyri: Where physicians transcribed their notes for future knowledge
Mummification: Seven step process - the liver, lungs, stomach and intestines were placed in canopic jars and “protected” by the four sons of Horus
Paving the Road
DiscussionGo to www.slido.com
Event Code: 4251
QUESTION: What organ do you think Ancient Egyptians referred to as a “waste of space”?
A) HeartB) Brain
C) AppendixD) Spleen
Chinese; Year 1500 B.C.
Yin and Yang: A balance of Yin (negative, female energy), Yang (positive, male energy), and the Five Phases (earth, water, metal, fire, wood) - circulation in the arms and legs followed this pattern
Agriculture: As a country rooted in agriculture they compared the body to a plant - the forest of the body symbolizes the bodily functions - the flowering of the face meant a functioning body, while illness showed wilting, and fading
Comparing the Body to the Universe
Da Shu (great numbers)
● Four limbs for the four seasons and directions
● Five zang (liver, gall bladder, heart, spleen, kidneys) for the five planets
● Twelve vessels circulating blood and air for the twelve rivers running
toward the Central Kingdom
● Three hundred and sixty-five meridian sites for every day of the year
Comparing the Body to the Universe
AcupunctureUsing the 365 meridian sites
Needles were inserted in the skin about this path which qi (life-energy) flows through
This allows for the release of bad secretions and tissues of obstructions
Hippocrates; Year 460-370 B.C.
Founding Anatomy in Ancient Greece...
The Hippocratic Ideal
Natural approach and treatment of diseases, highlighting the importance of understanding the patient’s health, independence of mind, and the need for harmony between the individual, social and natural environment.
“Healthy mind in a healthy body”
How Anatomy Could Help
Hippocrates believed physicians should study anatomy, especially the spine and the nervous system, as it controls all functions of the body.
He was the first who believed that this observation helps recognize the symptoms of each disease.
The “Father of Medicine”
An important claim as cadaver dissection was forbidden in Greece at this time.
Hippocrates disciplined the Humoral Theory during his time
1. Blood2. Choler/Yellow Bile3. Phlegm4. Melancholy/Black Bile
Humorism
Aristotle; Year 384-322 B.C.
Pupil of Plato. Teacher of Alexander the Great.
Zoologist who accounted embryology, and wrote several books including:
History of Animals, Parts of Animals, Generation of Animals, Motion of Animals, Progression of Animals, Parva Naturalia, and De Anima
Aristotle is often regarded as the “founder of comparative anatomy” due to his overall comparative approach and incorporation of anatomical and morphological description - his scope is comprehensive, and his methods are rigorous and systematic
Aristotle
● The extent of his knowledge of particular animals is enormous - never overlooking aspects of an animal’s life
● From the feeding habits of torpedo fish to the breeding behavior of catfish - his knowledge of many anatomical features seems possible only from direct observation and dissection
● Aristotle's description of the unusual placental structure of the smooth dogfish is a great example of this
Aristotle
Aristotle's reliance on animal analogies for some human anatomy, especially internal structure, produced mixed results
Herophilus and ErasistratusYear 330-260 B.C. 315-240 B.C.
Alexandrian PhysiciansHerophilus (Father of Anatomy): Physician known to be the first anatomist - was the first to perform systematic scientific dissection on a human cadaver
Erasistratus (Father of Physiology): Physician and anatomist credited with much of the understanding of the heart’s anatomy
Their work complemented one another, allowing for the founding of a School of Anatomy in Alexandria
Galen; Year 129-210
Galen: Anatomy and Medicine
● Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher● Galen’s invaluable insights come from treating
the wounds of gladiators● He was principally influenced by the
then-current theory of humorism that had been advanced by Hippocrates
● Many of his anatomical descriptions were wrong because of his reliance on animal dissection, specifically of monkeys and pigs
● His reports remained uncontested until 1543 when Vesalius published his seminal work
His Theory Dominated for 1300 Years
Based on his observations of animals, Galen pioneered a model for the study of the human spine.
His research allowed for an accurate description of the vertebral column and spinal cord - even describing nerves emerging from the spine.
Describes the consequences of spinal cord damage at different levels and dealing with spinal tuberculosis and the injuries of the spine and the spinal marrow.
Observed loss of sensation and paralysis of all muscles supplied by nerves originating from the spinal cord following complete resection below that level.
Pioneering Spinal Research
Galen had a clear understanding of how important the pulse is and that blood moved around the body.
Yet, he did make some mistakes.
He thought that:
The liver made blood for the veins and the heart made blood for the arteries.
Understanding Blood
Mondino de Liuzzi; Year 1275-1326
Italian physician, anatomist, and professor of surgery
His major work, Anathomia corporis humani, is considered the first example of a modern dissection manual and the first true anatomical text.
When dissection of a cadaver become a norm in the study of anatomy in the 14th century, Anatomia was used as a handbook to guide the process It was the most widely used anatomical text for 250 years.
The book follows a description of organs in the order they appear during the dissection process.
Yet, this work is not without errors. For example, he attempts to reconcile the teachings of Galen and Aristotle when he describes the heart, giving an incorrect conclusion.
“Lesson in Anatomy”
His dissections were guided by his adherence to a tripartite division of the human body. Theorizing the body was comprised of three distinct containers:
1. Skull; superior ventricle which enclosed the “animal members”
2. Thorax; middle ventricle which contained “spiritual members” such as the heart and lungs
3. Abdomen; inferior ventricle, which contained “natural members” including the liver and other visceral organs
From this he asserted that the abdomen should be dissected first because its organs are the “most confused and least noble”
Dissection Method
Leonardo Da Vinci; Year 1452-1519
Artistic Form of Anatomical Structures
Areas of interest included art, writing, inventing, engineering, mathematics, and more...
As a successful artist, he was given permission to dissect human corpses at hospitals in Florence, Milan, and Rome.
He quickly became a master of topographic anatomy; 240 detailed drawings and 13,000 words, showing structural relationships of various body organs.
Drew the heart and vascular system, the sex organs, various internal organs, and one of the first scientific drawings of a fetus in utero.
His work was far ahead of the time, and if it had been published, it would have made major contributions to medical science.
Anatomical Sketches
● Made wax casts of ventricles of the brain to study its structure
● Constructed models of the heart valves
● Used water and grass seed to watch how liquid would flow through
Models in Anatomy
Andreas Vesalius; Year 1514-1564
Illustrating the Human Body
● Flemish physician, anatomist and author● At the time, this branch of medicine was
regarded with little importance● Vesalius believed surgery had to be
grounded in anatomy● He performed many dissections himself,
and would create charts of the blood and nervous system for his students to follow
● Vesalius also wrote a pamphlet on bloodletting which was supported by his knowledge of the blood system
Surgery and Anatomy
● At age 28, Vesalius published De Humani Corporis Fabrica
● The book was based mainly on human dissection, and transformed anatomy into being a concept that relies directly on human dissection
● After this, Vesalius left anatomical research to take up medical practice
De Humani Corporis Fabrica
William Harvey; Year 1578-1657
Known for discovering the double circulatory system.
He was the first person to completely describe the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped from the heart to the body.
He understood that for every one circuit of the body blood flows:
heart → lungs → heart → rest of body
Double Circulatory System
● William Harvey was often asked to examine women who were accused of being witches
● He was asked to examine them for suspicious supernatural marks
● Upon examination he thought the marks looked normal
● He saved many lives when he voiced his disagreement
Witches
Nicolaes Tulp; Year 1593-1674
Early Life
● Dutch surgeon and mayor of Amsterdam● Well known for his upstanding moral
character and as the subject of the famous painting “The Anatomy Lesson”
● Studied medicine 1611-1614
Career as a Physician
● In 1628, Tulp was appointed Praelector Anatomiae at the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons
● Wrote the first pharmacopoeia - a book containing directions for the identification of compound medicines
● Gave yearly anatomy lessons performed on victims of public hanging
Dr. Nicolaes Tulp
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp
Georges Cuvier;Year 1769-1832
Georges Cuvier and the Concept of Extinction
Georges-Leopold-Chretien-Frederic-Dagobert (Georges Cuvier)
● Published a book called Lessons in Comparative Anatomy
● Instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology through his work with fossils
● Expanded Linnaean taxonomy to include his findings
● Opposed evolution
Founder of Paleontology
Henry Gray; Year 1827-1861
Textbook of Human Anatomy Published 1858
Henry Gray● Gray’s Anatomy was first published in 1858 by
Henry Gray and aimed to cover the entire human body and all of its systems
● One of the most influential anatomy textbooks ever published
● Future editions became more and more exhaustive in an attempt to make the book completely comprehensive
● Newest edition has trimmed the info to be more concise and applicable to students
Dr. Vandyke Carter
Anatomy Act 1832
Body Snatching ● Illicit removal of corpses from graves/morgues ● Sold to medical schools for anatomy study● Prior to the Anatomy Act of 1832 in Britain, the
taking of corpses from graves was not considered illegal, as the corpse had no legal standing
● Body snatchers included:○ medical students themselves○ con artists who claimed bodies of the poor○ amateurs who stumbled upon a fresh grave○ murderers who produced corpses○ professional body snatchers
Precipitation of the Anatomy Act of 1832
Official Enactment
● The combination of body snatchings, murder, and resurrection riots let to the enactment of the Anatomy Act in Britain in 1832
● Similar acts came about in North America in subsequent years
● These acts recognized the need for bodies for medical education/research
1880s Body Embalming
● This act first allowed medical schools to take unclaimed bodies of the poor and ill
● Later was amended to require family permission
● The implementation of body embalming (1880s) allowed medical schools to keep bodies for months, leading to the demise of body snatching
Enactment of the Anatomy Act 1832
20th & 21st Century Anatomy
Important Events of the 20th CenturyGerman Anatomical Society - BNA approved 500 anatomical terms used in teaching and publications
International Congress of Anatomists (1960) - passed a resolution to eliminate proper names (eg. Stensen’s Duct) for the use of more descriptive names (eg. Parotid Duct) instead
Divisions of anatomy were well-established
Divisions of AnatomyGross Anatomy - oldest division; use of cadaver anatomical structures seen via the naked eye
Surface Anatomy - surface features of the body
Microscopic Anatomy - structures <0.1mm in size that can be seen with the aid of the microscope (further divided into cytology and histology)
Radiological Anatomy - structures seen as radiopaque via x-rays to provide greater contrasts (radiography, CT scan, MRI scan, PET scan, DSR scan)
Gross Anatomy Surface Anatomy
Microscopic Anatomy
Cytology Histology
Radiological Anatomy
MRI Scan PET Scan
Radiological Anatomy
CT Scan DSR Scan
Dr. Gunther von Hagens; Year 1945-Present
Invention of Plastination
● Entered medical school in 1965 at the University of Jena
● In 1975, while working as a resident/lecturer in pathology, von Hagens pioneered an invention that halts the decomposition of the body after death, preserving it for eternity - plastination
● Used reactive polymers ● Patented the method and dedicated the
rest of his life perfecting the technique
BODY WORLDS
● In 1992, von Hagens married Dr. Angelina Whalley who helped him design the BODY WORLDS exhibition
● A year later he founded the Heidelberg-based institute for Plastination - offers plastinated specimens for educational use and for BODY WORLDS
● To date, the exhibitions have been viewed by 46 million people in over 119 cities
Dr. Gunther von Hagens
BODY WORLDS - Original Exhibition of Real Human Bodies
BODY WORKS at Memorial University Faculty of Medicine
DiscussionGo to www.slido.com
Event Code: 4251
QUESTION: Do you think it is appropriate to plastinate human bodies for display?
A) YesB) No
Major Dissection Bans
Dissection BansArgentina, 1987: Dissection was banned from being performed in schools
Italy, 1992: A number of Italian laboratory workers campaigned for the law to recognize the legal right of conscientious objection - resulted in Italian Law 413 which permits workers to refuse involvement in animal experimentation
Slovakia, 1995: Dissection was banned from all primary/secondary schools
India, 1996: The High Court of Delhi bans animal dissections
Israel, 1999: Ban on all animal experimentation in schools
What do you think…… Ethical? Unethical? Necessary?
DiscussionGo to www.slido.com
Event Code: 4251
QUESTION: Do you think animal dissections should be banned?
A) Permitted at graduate level but not undergraduate or high schoolB) Permitted at graduate and undergraduate level but not high school
C) Permitted at all levelsD) Banned at all levels
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❖ http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/harvey_william.shtml
❖ https://www.biographyonline.net/scientists/william-harvey.html
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