Three - santoshayogainstitute.edu.au · He used to say, ‘Practice without right knowledge of theory is blind. This is also This is also because without right knowledge, one can

ThreeModule

P H I L O S O P H Y

PHILOSOPHY

Module03 Learning Objectives

1. Provide students with an understanding of the eight limbs of yoga

2. Orient students regarding the placement of asana within the eight limbs of yoga

3. Provide a brief description of the underlying philosophy of yoga, Samkhya

4. Provide an understanding of the evolution of yoga from ancient times to modern day

5. Provide discussion of key texts that have contributed to and are regarded as the foundation upon which yoga is taught and practiced

Module 3

Copyright Santosha Yoga Institute v3 All Rights Reserved 2015 4

Introduction

According to Krishnamacharya, practice and knowledge must always go together. He used to say, ‘Practice without right knowledge of theory is blind. This is also

because without right knowledge, one can mindfully do a wrong practice.’ - A.G. Mohan

We begin this section with self-reflection. The eight limbs, sometimes referred to as the ‘Eight Steps toward True Yoga’, are outlined in the second chapter or ‘pada’ of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. These sutras are foundational texts of yoga and a key component of Indian philosophy. The eight limbs are in fact, the broad structural framework of yoga itself. They are often described as a path toward the union between mind, body and spirit that the practice of yoga inspires amongst its practitioners.


The Eight Limbs of Yoga

Eight Limbs of the Yoga

1. Yama – or universal morality2. Niyama – or personal

observances and observations 3. Asanas – or body postures 4. Pranayama – or control of

breath 5. 5. Pratyahara – or control of

the senses 6. 6. Dharana – or cultivation of

inner perceptual awareness

Journal Entry 3

1. What do you consider to be an ethical lifestyle? How have you dealt with ethical challenges in the past?

2. How has your yoga practice affected your personal spirituality?

Importantly, only one of the eight limbs pertains to physical postures

and exercise. The other seven focus heavily on mediation, spirituality and the cultivation of wisdom. Our training begins with the study of the eight limbs because of their multifaceted nature. For in concentrating on the eight limbs, we automatically begin to cultivate the mind-set and spirituality of a competent yoga teacher. As you study the eight limbs, reflect upon how you might incorporate these principles into your daily life, and consider how you might convey this spiritual wisdom to your students.


1. Yama

Yama, or universal morality, is comprised of five ethical guidelines for moral behaviour towards others. These guidelines are:

1. Ahimsa – or non-violence. This includes non-violence in thought, word and deed. In other words, do not think about or engage in harm toward yourself, or anyone else.

2. Satya – or truthfulness. As was the case in Ahimsa, the truthfulness requirement also pertains to your thoughts. Don’t just speak the truth; seek out the truth in your own mind, and do not trick or manipulate yourself.

3. Asteya – or non-possessiveness. You should not steal from others, and you should not even desire things that are not your own.

4. Brahmacharya – or non-lust. This has traditionally referred to celibacy amongst the unmarried, and, in the case of marriage, to abstaining from sexual intercourse with people other than one’s spouse. Many modern yogic practices have adopted a more liberal interpretation of the Brahmacharya guideline.

5. Aparigraha – or non-coveting. This refers to material objects, the people around you, and even your own thoughts.

2. Niyama

While Yama provides guidelines for how to treat others, Niyama is comprised of five ethical guidelines governing moral behaviour towards oneself. These include:

1. Saucha - or cleanliness. This pertains to cleanliness of both body and mind.

2. Santosha – or contentment. When one is content, one is satisfied with what one has.


3. Asanas

‘Asanas’ or body postures comprise the third of the eight limbs and are an important aspect of yoga. It is a part of yoga that in these modern times, tends to be mistaken for the entire practice of yoga. Given the fascinating, beautiful and challenging range of asanas that have been developed over the course of history, combined with the tangible benefits of increased strength, flexibility and balance that they inspire, it is unsurprising that asanas have achieved such widespread popularity. However, the eight limbs demonstrate that the physical and mental exercises of yoga are inextricably interconnected, and asanas must be performed only in conjunction with the other seven limbs in order to achieve a truly rich and complete yoga practice.

Asana is translated from Sanskrit as ‘staying’ or ‘abiding’. This means far more than physically staying in one posture. Asanas, when performed correctly, help to still and quiet the mind, and they also allow the practitioner to reflect upon a wide range of human emotions, as well as the interconnectedness of her or his body with the rest of the world. Later in this manual, we will be exploring asanas in great detail.

The eight limbs of yoga were created in the Yoga Sutras by Sage Patanjali several thousand years ago. In the 195 sutras, only three sutras were discussed by Patanjali on the topic of asana and were mostly in reference to meditation postures. Asana is defined as Sthira Sukham or a steady, yet firm and comfortable posture. The modern-day definition would tell us that asana should allow our bodies to feel relaxed, strong, and steady for the duration of all the poses.

3. Tapas – or sustained practice. The ‘tapas’ requirement refers to discipline over the mind and body.

4. Svadhyaya – or self-study. This involves study of the scriptures and meditation, with the goal of fostering an awareness of one’s soul.

5. Isvara pranidhana – or surrender to God.


4. Pranayama

Pranayama is awareness and control of the breath and must be practiced in conjunction with asanas and when meditating. Pranayama brings about the benefits of increased health and relaxation, and it stimulates the process of evolution as it fosters concentration. We will be reviewing a number of Pranayama techniques in a later chapter.

5. Pratyahara

Pratyahara, or control of the senses, is described as a ‘withdrawal of the senses from external objects’. It actually translates as the act of ‘withdrawing oneself from that which nourishes the senses’. Our senses are nourished by sounds, sights and smells. Therefore, to practice pratyahara, it is necessary to meditate, and to focus the mind and, therefore, the senses, away from everyday external distractions. Overt reliance upon external objects brings about an almost perpetual state of discontentment, and therefore interrupts our path to inner peace. It is said that through Pratyahara, our senses cease to be our masters, in a sense, and it becomes easier to look inside to find all of the nourishing stability and tranquility that we need.

6. Dharana

Dharana is the cultivating of inner perceptual awareness. It has also been translated as ‘immovable concentration of the mind’. As part of Dharana, we create the appropriate conditions to enable the mind to focus its attention in one specific direction, as opposed to stemming out into several different directions. Dharana is achieved through meditation, contemplation and reflection. As stated by B.K.S. Iyengar, the objective of Dharana is to achieve a mental state in which the mind, intellect and ego are ‘all restrained and all these faculties are offered to the Lord for His use and in His service.’ He says that, under Dharana, ‘There is no feeling of “I” and “mine”’.


7. Dhyana

Dhyana is devotion to or meditation on, the Divine. Like Dharana, Dhyana is achieved through meditation. Once the mind is clear and focused through Dharana in the first instance, it then becomes possible to direct one’s focus onto the Divine spirit. It becomes clear through Dhyana that the external world, as we have traditionally known it, is in fact unreal, and that the real world is the Universal Self, or God.

8. Samadhi

Samadhi, the last of the Eight Limbs and the final step in the yogic path, signifies a complete union with the Divine, or ‘oneness with the object of meditation’. During Samadhi, there is absolutely no distinction between the act of meditation and the object of meditation. The mind ceases to distinguish between the self and the non-self, and, as stated by Doran, ‘there is only the experience of consciousness, truth, and unutterable joy.’ In Samadhi, the liberated soul enjoys a pure identity, and what is called ‘True Yoga’ is achieved. Samadhi can only be achieved as a result of great discipline and practice, with asanas and pranayamas paving the spiritual pathway that in turn, helps the practitioner to achieve Dharana and Dhyana.


Journal Entry 4

• Close your eyes. Picture each of the eight limbs connected together like small steps leading towards True Yoga. Contemplate the eight limbs as an impending journey.

• Now make a list of what you perceive as challenges that you might face on our journey towards Samadhi. How might you overcome these challenges?

• Why do you think this spiritual path is called ‘The Eight Limbs’? • How could you teach your student’s lessons about the eight limbs? • Are you practicing Yoga if you perform less than or only part of the eight


Samkhya Theory and Related Philosophies

Samkhya philosophy originated from the six schools of Indian philosophy. It is thought that Sage Kapila is the founder of the practice. Currently, the philosophy

is used in many yoga and Vedanta schools, but has no actual school solely for the philosophy itself. It is thought that more recent practices of the philosophy in combination with yoga and Vedanta have created a more atheistic approach to Samkhya. The philosophy does not practice the belief in a God, but rather focuses on the duality of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (physical matter).

Samkhya philosophy teaches that all knowledge can be obtained through three methods. The first is direct sense of perception which is classified into two categories. The first, indeterminate perception, is similar to how a baby perceives the world; they are sensing a lot but have no means of categorizing what they are sensing into particular sources of input. The second, determinate, is similar to how an adult perceives the world; having a perception, identifying it, and being


capable of categorizing it by source and purpose. The second method of obtaining knowledge, known as Anumana, or logical inference or assumptions. The third is Sabda, or verbal testimony.

Although Samkhya philosophy identifies with the duality of Purusha and Prakriti, there is still a plurality of Purushas. There can be several levels of this transcendental self (pure consciousness). Purushas are absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, and unknowable. Prakriti, however, can only be a single entity. It includes everything but the Purushas, the physical matter and force, all unconscious and unintelligent. Prakriti is constituted of three strands: Sattva, representing balance and equilibrium, Rajas, representing expansion and activity, and Tamas, representing inertia or resistance. It is thought that the balance and tension between these three constituents makes evolution itself, possible. The potential of these three constituents gives rise to twenty-four principles defining how life emerges.


The History of Yoga

The word ‘Yoga’ means ‘union’ in Sanskrit and refers to a union of mind, body and soul. Yoga as both a philosophy and a practice, is prehistoric in origin. The

practice began to evolve in the Indus Valley of India over 5,000 years ago.

Archaeological excavations in the region of the Indus Valley, which was an urban, extremely powerful civilization (circa 3300-1700 BC) unveiled fascinating stone slabs depicting humans and god-like figures positioned in yoga postures. Indian archaeologists have referred to these images, of which 16 have been found altogether, as yoga-glyphics. Importantly, the findings demonstrated that contrary to popular belief, the early development of yoga actually predates that of Hinduism.

The exact time-period of yoga’s origins remains subject to scholarly debate. Some date the origins of yoga back to stone-age shamanism. However, most scholars agree that Yoga ought not to be recognized as a complete, complex tradition until approximately 500 BC.

Regardless of precisely how we choose to date the origins of yoga, it is clear that throughout its long, rich history, the yogic tradition has always been passed on individually from teacher to student, through oral teachings and practical demonstrations.

We should bear in mind, therefore, that the various formal techniques of yoga are actually based upon the collective experiences of many individuals over many thousands of years. For this reason, the history of yoga ought to be explored in

They must change often, who would be constant in happiness

and wisdom.

– Confucius


of the human evolution that both prompted and was guided by its development. This chapter aims to do precisely this, as it also provides an overview of preeminent yoga thinkers and texts that helped to shape yoga’s own evolutionary path.

Naturalism or Vedic Period (exact time period is subject to debate)

Naturalism marks the period of time during which the venerable vedas were created. Vedas, which are said to have inspired the origins of modern-day Hinduism, are sacred scriptures of Brahmanism. They are the oldest written yogic teachings that have ever been found and are characterized by intense meditative rituals and ceremonies. The most important of these scriptures was the Red Veda, featuring hymns devoted to a robust appreciation of life, the body, and the Earth upon which we live.

It was said that during this period of time, people lived in a state of harmony with nature, and with themselves. People were also in touch with Divine nature, and therefore did not require the analytical tools of religion or philosophical enquiry in order to obtain spiritual advancement. For the most part, people lived with a suspended mind, called ‘nirodha’ and only used their mental faculties when it was necessary. Over time, people began to lose-touch with the pure and simple nature-characteristic of Naturalism, and this era was eventually ushered out of the course of human development.

Mysticism or Pre-Classical Yoga (ca. 800-100 BC)

The period of Mysticism, a term that refers to a communication of the inexpressible and hidden, began when a great number of people turned their backs on society, and went into the forest to meditate. They wanted to search within themselves for the happiness they felt they had lost over time. Most of these people had lost the suspended mind that was characteristic of Naturalism, and instead possessed a single- pointed mind (ekagra chitta), which thinks constantly.

During this phase, there were many yoga masters called rishis (seers), who had attained freedom through meditation. Therefore, the students in the forest


Upanishad

• The oldest date back to the Brahmana Period around the first millennium BCE.

• Are philosophically complex, and have been analyzed in many different ways, leading to the development of different yogic schools.

• Speak of both a universal spirit (Brahman) and an individual soul (Atman)

• Contain the first explanations of the divine syllable OM, considered the cosmic vibration that underlies all existence.

• Upanishadic thinkers considered change to be a mere illusion.• Contain the mantra ‘Aum Shanti Shanti Shanti’ – or, ‘the soundless

sound, peace, peace, peace’.

For example, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, dated approximately 900 BCE, contains one of the earliest specific, textual references to meditation in history. Another extraordinarily significant Upanishad is the famous Bhagavad Gita, dated around 200 BCE, which is a Sanskrit Hindu scripture that is now considered to be one of the most important religious classics in world history. Indeed, the Bhagavad Gita is sometimes referred to as the ‘Upanishad of the Upanishads.’ The text is an allegory and uses colourful examples and analogies to teach lessons about various yogic philosophies. Importantly, the ‘Gita’ describes three concepts that must be brought together in our lives: Bhakti, or loving devotion; Jhana, or knowledge and contemplation; and Karma, which is actually a guide for selfless actions.

gathered around them, to learn from them. In this phase, many students could quiet their busy minds simply by listening to their teachers, who taught from a suspended mind, and offered a spontaneous insight into the nature of reality.

The scriptures compiled in those days were the Upanishads, which are mystical dialogues between teacher and student. For this reason, this particular period of yogic history is also sometimes referred to as the ‘Upanishadic Era’. The term ‘Upanishad’ means, literally, ‘sitting near the Master’. These texts are useful tools for determining the many paths of development in the history of yoga.


Philosophy or Classical Period (ca. 100 BC-300 AD)

When the Age of Philosophy dawned, most people had lost their ability to focus almost entirely, and now had a distracted mind. As a result of this, they could not grasp the truth spontaneously. Importantly, from a pedagogical perspective, a person with a distracted mind cannot understand a teacher with a suspended mind. Therefore, during the period of philosophy, students needed a teacher with a single-pointed mind to explain systematically, what needs to be done.

Recognizing this difficulty for students, Rishi Kapila, one of history’s greatest yoga teachers, created the very first systematic philosophy of mankind: the Samkhya.Recognizing that the truth could no longer be grasped spontaneously, the Samkhya describes how it can be reached in systematic steps, which is why we refer to this period as the Era of Philosophy. As part of this project, Kapila created a concise meditation system that guided students to freedom by means of a purely rational, scientific method. The method proved to be successful amongst yoga practitioners, and several new schools of philosophy emerged in response to the Samkhya, including Buddhism, Yoga, Vedanta and Tantra.

Samkhyas

• One of the six schools of Classical Indian philosophy• The major text is the Samkhya Karika, written by Ishvara Krishna,

circa 200 AD• Regards the universe as consisting of two realities: Purusha

(consciousness) and Prakriti (phenomenal realm of matter). All objects fall into one of the two categories.

• Espouses cause and effect theory of existence• Regards ignorance as the root cause of bondage and suffering• The author, Sage Kapila, was called ‘the greatest of all perfected

beings’ by


It was also during the Age of Philosophy that another highly important yoga text was created. This was none other than the Yoga Sutras, created by Patanjali in the second century. It is comprised of 195 sutras and is particularly noteworthy because of the text’s heavy emphasis on meditation.

Sutra means thread and in this context the term is a reference to the thread of Japa Mala, which are Hindu Prayer Beads. The aphorisms that make up the Sutras are, in a sense, strung together like beads. In this text, the sutras are made up of four books, or pada, containing a total of 95 aphorisms. They are divided as follows:

(1) Samadhi Pada – or blissful state.The first chapter contains 51 sutras that are considered to be most fundamental to yoga. It emphasises that yoga is about discipline, and the ability to master emotions and thoughts. Many of the most famous sutras are in this particular book. This book describes the nature and means to achieve Samadhi and contains the definitional verse ‘Yoga Chitta Vritti Nirodha.’ In English, this means ‘yoga is the restraint of mental modifications.’

(2) Sadhana Pada – or discipline and practice.This chapter contains 55 sutras, and mostly concerns yogic practice. The Sanskrit word ‘sadhana’ actually means ‘practice’. The Sadhana Pada is where the notion of the Eight Limbs of yoga first appears, and it is also the chapter in which the terms ‘Kriya Yoga’, or Action Yoga, and ‘Ashtanga Yoga’, or the Eight-limbed path, first appear.

(3) Vibhuti Pada – or power and manifestation.This chapter contains 55 sutras. The roles of the sutras in this particular book are to describe and help the yogi achieve full awareness through yoga. It is essentially about attaining higher levels of awareness of one’s true self, because supra-normal powers can be acquired by the practices of yoga. The temptation of these powers should be avoided, instead one’s attention should be fixed on liberation.


(4) Kaivalya Pada – or isolation.This chapter contains 34 sutras, and concerns achieving liberation. ‘Kaivalya’ literally means ‘liberation’, but in the sutras it stands for ‘emancipation’ and is used interchangeably with moksha (liberation). Moksha is the goal of yoga, and so this book describes in great detail, the nature of liberation and the reality of the transcendental self.

Yoga Sutras

• A new form of literary composition, based upon short, aphoristic statements

• Designed to help students memorize the text • Composed by Patanjali in the 2nd Century BCE, though this is a subject of

debate amongst scholars• Introduces the notion of the Eight Limbs, which is reminiscent of

Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path• Provide a thorough and consistent philosophical basis for Yoga,

particularly meditation

Technology (or Post-Classical Period)

Today we live in the Age of Technology, which is, for better or for worse, characterised by an infatuated, distracted mind. Yoga theorists note that the term ‘infatuated’ in this context refers to obsessed with the body or ‘look’, personal wealth, and familial relations (as opposed to a more general and selfless love of humanity).

The Age of Technology is also referred to as ‘tantra’, which literally means ‘technique’ in Sanskrit. Since the teachings of naturalism, mysticism and philosophy are now extremely difficult for people to grasp, there is a new obsession with ‘how to do things’. Accordingly, the scriptures of this age emphasize yoga technique and place less emphasis on the philosophical aspect of yoga. Most of the texts of this age are, indeed, tantras, including the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Shiva Samhita, and the Gheranda Samhita. We will be exploring the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in greater detail, shortly.


Gheranda Samhita

• Means “Gheranda” Collection• A manual of yoga taught by

Gheranda to Chanda Kapali • Unlike other yoga texts, it

speaks of a sevenfold yoga: (1) purification; (2) strengthening; (3) steadying; (4) calming; (5) lightness; (6) perception; (7) isolation

• Teaches somewhat different methods than those described by Patanjali

Modern yoga teachings, the lessons that you have probably become acquainted with in past yoga study, are somewhat different from the teachings of the past, in that they emphasize acceptance and ‘living in the present moment’, as opposed to liberation from our more immediate ‘reality’. Yoga was first introduced to the West in the early nineteenth century, as interest in Eastern Philosophy was becoming more widespread around the globe.

Journal Entry 5

Try to imagine the experience of yoga students throughout its’ historical development. Now, write a first-person, one-paragraph journal entry from the perspective of a yoga student during each of the four periods that have been outlined above. The entry should tell the story of a student’s experience in the particular yoga class of that era and contain details from that particular Era. For example, during Naturalism: ‘Today, during my session with my teacher, I was taught about a new Veda. I found it particularly interesting, because....’

Do the same, this time from the perspective of the teacher during each era.

Shiva Samhita

• A Sanskrit text on yoga written by an unknown author

• Believed to have been written in the seventeenth or eighteenth century

• Describes 84 different asanas• Encourages people from all

walks of life to practice yoga• Also deals with abstract

yogic philosophy, tantras and meditation


1. Define the following terms:Tapas, Asteya, Plavini, Saucha, Asanas, Seetkari, Bramarchary, Samadhi

2. Write the English translation of the Sanskrit term: Dhyana, Niyama, Satva, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha, Santosha, Svadhyaya, Nirodha, Surya Bheda, Shitari

3. Answer ‘True’ or ‘False to the statements below.

a) The Upanishads speak of a universal spirit, which is called Brahman.

b) Kundalini is a method of breathing outlined in the Yoga Sutras. c) The Shiva Samhita was written in the seventeenth or eighteenth

century. d) Naturalism in Yoga history refers to a time when people had

minds that were operating all the time and could not grasp the truth spontaneously.

e) The development of yoga is a relatively recent phenomenon. f) The Eight Limbs are also known as a path toward true yoga. g) Samadhi refers to the very first step in the path toward

enlightenment through yoga.h) The concept of the ‘Eight Limbs’ can be found in the Yoga

Sutras.

4. Imagine that one of your yoga students is struggling to understand the concept of the eight limbs and has come to you for assistance.

3ModuleComprehension Check


They want to understand: a) What the eight limbs are, and what they mean?b) How they can incorporate these lessons into their daily life?

And;c) How they relate to (in other words, how they are inspired by,

or are different from) other theoretical developments in the longer history of yoga?

5. In an essay, write what you would say to your student, to ensure that they would thoroughly understand the concepts in the eight limbs.

Explain how each of these have developed over the course of yogic history and how to practice the teachings of the lessons.

Documents

Three - santoshayogainstitute.edu.au · He used to say, ‘Practice without right knowledge of theory is blind. This is also This is also because without right knowledge, one can