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Three Pacific Mission PressesSUSAN WOODBURN

1111111111111111111111200400146

This paper describes printing in three of the more remote and perhapsunexpected islands of the Pacific - Norfolk Island, and Abaiang and Beru inthe group formerly known as the Gilbert Islands, now the republic ofKiribati. The printing operations and productions of these presses haveintrinsic interest and undoubtedly they brought books to people who hadnever experienced books (or indeed written language) before. Whether theycontributed to a lasting 'print culture' is another matter, which will beaddressed briefly at the end - more with a view to stimulating debate andleading into the paper by Linda Crowl, who has direct experience of thecontemporary situation.

Norfolk Island

Printing came to Norfolk Island - previously better known as a convict stationand for the resettlement of the Pitcaim Islanders - after the transfer there fromNew Zealand in 1866/67 of the headquarters of the Melanesian Mission. Likeall the Protestant missions of the nineteenth century the Melanesian Missionwas concerned to learn the languages of its various mission fields, to establish awriting system for languages that were previously purely oral, and to translatescripture, prayer and hymn books and develop vernacular teaching materials toassist in the evangelical undertaking.' This emphasis was heightened in the caseof the Melanesian Mission because of the extraordinary language diversity of itsfield' and because of the linguistic abilities and interests of two of its early mis-sionaries - John Coleridge Patteson, the pioneer selected for Melanesian servicein 1854 and subsequently the first Bishop of Melanesia, and Robert HenryCodrington, headmaster of the training college on Norfolk Island from 1867.

Patteson had a natural gift for languages and is reported to have preparedgrammars in fourteen languages, though these were inevitably very preliminaryefforts. This initial work was reinforced by the less diverse but more academiccontributions of Codrington, who did much less travelling in the islands andmuch more labouring over translations: his book The Melanesian Languages

1. Susan Woodburn 'Making Books for God: Mission Printing in the P.cific Islands .nd Austra-lia', BSANZ Bulktinvol. 27 nos 1 &2,2003, pp.91-106.2. Assessments of the number of languages vaIy from over 1000 to up to 4000, depending on thedefinition oflanguage 'Us dialect, some spoken by populations of only a few hundred.

BSANZ Bulletin vol.27 nos 3 &4, 2003, pp.10-21

Three Pacific Mission Presses 11

(1885) covered 34 languages and dialects and his subsequent Dictionary 0/ theLanguage 0/Mota (1896), prepared with John Palmer on Norfolk Island butcompiled after his return to Cambridge, is still considered the most completedictionary available for any New Hebrides language.

Only a handful of later missionaries (notably Henry Welchman, W.G.Ivens and C.E. Fox) produced written work of comparable qualiry, but all wereexpected to study the language(s) of their particular station(s) and to contributetranslations to aid their own and their colleagues' work in the field. In order tofacilitate the circulation of this vernacular material, the Mission had acquired itsown press while still based at St John's College in Auckland,' and on the moveto Norfolk Island the press went with them and printing became integrated intothe daily life of the mission. Construction of the printing house was completedin 1868 and the first extant publication with the St Barnabas or Norfolk IslandPress imprint appeared that year, a translation by Patteson of the Gospel ofJohninto Mota, 0 Turlea amon]ohn me rave.'

The Rev. John Palmer initially supervised the press operation as he haddone in New Zealand but soon it came increasingly under Codrington's charge.Codrington's letters reveal something of the difficulties of attempting to run aprinting operation remote from supplies and the particular problems associatedwith printing in languages other than English with type fonts made for Englishprinting - inadequate supplies of the letter 'a' for example, much more frequentin Mota, and of italic 'g' used to indicate the common ng sound - though inter-estingly there were few references to the lack of paper, and in this cooler situa-tion there were not the problems with sticky rollers or rapidly perishing rubberor tropical rust that were noted by field printers in the more equatorial islands.'The actual press work seems to have been done by the boys and young menbrought to Norfolk Island to train at the Mission school; work in the printinghouse was part of the students' day along with gardening and other self-supporting jobs. Edward Wogale, an associate ofPatteson and one of the earliest'native deacons', was described in 1872 as having been head of the printing officeuntil beset by eye problems, but it is not clear ifhe did actual work as a composi-

3. Whence it moved in 1859 with the printing press to Kohimarama on the southern shore ofAuckland harbour, where the establishment was dedicated to St. Andrew.4. W.J. Pinson, How Can You Sing tbe Lord', Song witbout a Book: A Cbeck List ofBooh Printed1855-1975 by the Anglican Church in Melanesia on the Mission Press, Honiara, 1976 [photocopy oftypescript] .5. RH. Codrington, Journals and leners 1867-1882' (AJCP microfilm), journal entry for 31 Janu-ary 1877.

12 Expanding Horizons - Print Cultures across the South Pacific

tor or was essentially a supervisor - Codrington does not mention him in rela-tion to printing in his journals.

In 1880 the Mission managed to engage a professional printer, HenryMenges. Little is known ofMenges apart from the fact that he was born in Ba-varia in 1855 and migrated with his parents in 1857 to the United States, wherehe learned printing in service with the New York Herald. Some time later heseems to have joined a whaler and by this means found himself on Norfolk Is-land, where Bishop Selwyn (who had succeeded Patteson) regarded him as agodsend and prevailed upon him to remain. He was to be the Mission printer for40 years, retiring only when headquarters were removed to the Solomon Islandsin 1920 to be closer to the scene of the Mission's evangelical activities. As anemployee and living at the other end of the island rather than on the Missionestate Menges is rarely mentioned in official reports or accounts of visits, butPinson records that he was a good and careful printer, patient with the alterationand correction of copy and able to find solutions to compensate for the limitedfacilities at his disposal.'

For many years Menges seems to have had only the assistance of the stu-dents in bookbinding, with some help from missionaries in distributing type. AMr Dow is mentioned as having come out to assist him in 1909, but thereafterdisappears from the record. Then Fred Isom, a fully trained pnnter, came as as-sistant in 1913, as a lay member of the Mission, and ultimately succeededMenges. Isom also served for some 40 years, though much of this was not onNorfolk Island but in the Solomon Islands.' A few years after Menges took over,the original Columbia press was supplemented by a demy Albion press, withnew founts of Pica, Long Primer, Brevier and Nonpareil type. A Crown Wharf-dale cylinder machine with a further collection of type was received in 1896' -operated by hand until a small motor was purchased in 1925 - and on a visit toEngland in 1921 Isom raised funds for a new foolscap-folio platen.

6. Pinson, How Can You Sing the Lord's Song. Menges was described as 'a roughish old sailor' [sic]in A VISit to Norftlk Island by Rev. Stacoy Waddy (1903) and as 'the essence of fun and good hu-mour, with an endless store of yams' by F10rence Coombe (1909). His devotion to cricket is sug-gested by anicles in the Mota newspaper 0 sala ususur and in the account of Charles Fox, Lordofthe Southern Isles, being the Story 0/theAnglican Mission in Melanesia 1849-1949 (London, 1958).7. Norfolk Island as Mission headquaners was uncler discussion/threat from the time of the ap-pointment of Cecil WLlson as Bishop in 1894 and the Mission would have moved earlier exceptfor the war.8. The gift of two Ot three friends in England, aided by a grant ofDO from the SPCK.'

Three Pacific Mission Presses 13

Both the Albion and VVharfdale presses of the Melanesian Mission can be seen in thisphotograph of the printing house on Norfolk Island ca. 1900. Frances Awdry, In the Isles

ofthe Sea: The Story ofFifty Years in Melanesia (London: Bemrose & Sons, 1902).Barr Smith Library, University ofAdelaide.

Calculating from contemporary official accounts, a brief summary preparedby Menges for John Ferguson in 1915, extant publications listed in Australianlibraries and Pinson's invaluable check list, the printing program on Norfolk Is-land turned out 150 or so titles (gospel and other Scripture translations, hymn,prayer and service books, lesson and reading sheets), annual almanacs and atwice yearly newspaper 0 sala ususur, in the period from 1868 to 1920.' Manywere in Banks Island Mora, which as a practical measure had been adopted asthe lingua franca of the Mission for services and teaching on Norfolk Island andinitial communication in the islands, but overall works were published in some30 different languages and dialects as well as in English. Most editions were be-tween 300 and 1000 copies and modest publications of less than 100 pages,though the various editions of Bible selections, prayers and hymns in Mota andthe first prayer books in some other languages were more substantial: the Ulawaprayerbook of 1904 was 206 pages, that in Raga of 1911 was 216 pages, whilethe 1889 edition ofMora Old Testament selections was a massive 764 pages.

9. Menges also printed on the Mission press 'under the direction of the Kingston Club' a laymonthly the NI Pioneer for 13 issues in l8SS?; it ceased publication after a 'misunderstanding' withthe editor Isaac Robinson.

1-I

14 Expanding Horizons - Print Cultures across the South Pacific

Gilbert IslandsAs against the single unbroken monopoly of the Melanesian Mission on NorfolkIsland, printing came to the Gilbert Islands in three distinct operations - thoughagain each motivated by evangelism and controlled by missionaries.

American Board, Bingham and the Abaian (Abaiang) Press 10

The first Christian mission to the Gilbert Islands was undertaken by the Ameri-can Board ofCommissioners for Foreign Missions from their base alreadyestab-lished in Hawaii; indeed the first resident missionary was Hiram Bingham jnr,son of the famous pioneer missionary to Hawaii. Bingham jnr and his wifeClarissa Minerva established themselves somewhat precariously on the islandAbaiang, in the north of the Gilbert group in 1857. Bingham's primary skillseems to have been as a linguist and he soon mastered enough Gilbertese to un-dertake translations and the preparation of school books. These he sent to Ha-waii, where the initial primer was printed at Ponape in 1858 and the gospel ofMatthew, a hymnal and further reading and spelling books in 1860.

Bingham was notwell pleased when the parent mission responded to receiptof his further manuscript translations by sending him a hand printing press. Hehad no desire to start his own printing, but had the extraordinary good fortuneto have wash up on his island shore a few days later some of the crew membersof a wrecked guano ship, among them not only a printer, but one willing to stayfor a while and set up the press! Itwas this sailor, W.D. Hotchkiss, who in 1864printed the first book in the Gilbert Islands, Bingham's translation of th gospelofMatthew; and, in spite ofvery limited paper supplies and the cramped 'print-ing office' Ca little room off Bingham's study} followed it with a very small edi-tion of a book of Old Testament narratives and Bingham's translation of thegospel ofJohn.

Bingham and his wife continued to be responsible for almost all Protestantevangelical works in Gilbertese right into the twentieth century, but after 1865they removed permanendy to Hawaii for health reasons, and their works wereprinted in Honolulu, New York or, later, Boston. Before they left the Gilbertsfor good, however, Bingham oversaw the transfer of the press to neighbouringTarawa, where Hotchkiss printed eight copies of a small catechism in 1865 be-fore the press was taken to the Marshall Islands.

10. The London Missionary Society used 'n' for the ngsound - Catholic publications used 'ng'.

Three Pacific Mission Presses 15

Sacred Heart Mission

The second appearance of printing in the Gilberts came with the establishmentof another operation on Abaiang, this time by the Roman Catholic Sacred Heartmission, which had first moved into the northern Gilberts in 1888. The date ofthe actual setting up of the press is given as 1903, though the first known publi-cation from this press is a 92-page arithmetic book of 1905. The printery wasunder Father Alexandre Cochet, who came to the Mission specifically to writeand appears to have brought the press with him. It produced some 30 books overthe first decade of activity (though not all were separate works, a number appear-ing in more than one edition), most written by Cochet and two other Brothers,Richard van derWouwer and Stephanus van de Zande. A quarterly newsletter teNutipepa begun in 1913 also proved popular and in these early years the fathersmanaged to support not only the press but the mission school on the sale of theirpublications.

On Cochet's death in 1918, though responsibility for the press passed toanother Father (Pouvreau), production apart from the newsletter seems to havefallen away, with only a dozen or so publications (and some of these re-printings) up to 1950." It is, however, more difficult to be sure of the press output because many of its publications are undated and because fewer have foundtheir way to Australian libraries than is the case with the Australian, New Zea-land and British-based Protestant missions, and one has to rely more heavily onKunz's bibliographyl2 and Streit-Dindinger's BibliothecaMissionum.

The emphasis of Catholic mission printing generally was on small books,especially catechisms" - 'small text-books that may be read over and over again'being 'the best means of imprinting the Word of God in the hearts of the na-tives' according to van der Wouwer. One might imagine the limitations of staffwould have reinforced this, for the Catholic stations in the Gilberts were scat-tered throughout the islands and usually had only one or two Fathers or Broth-ers." Unlike Bingham, Cochet had no printer washed up on his island, and had

11. A primer of 1925 listed 18 rides still in print, and this was largely unchanged from a 1918 list.12. E.F. Kunz, An Annotaud Bibliography oftht Langoagts ofth, Gilbert Islands, Elli" Islands, andNauru, Sydney: Trustees of the Public Library ofNSW, 1959.13. Father Sahatier wrote in his account of the mission that 'To take the Bible to the Gilbertesewithout any catechism was like offering them the whole lagoon to drink: they could only flounderaround in it'.14. During this period the Mission was also having books printed at Tillhurg in Holland - wherethere was Sacred Heart missionary novitiate - and earlier had a prayer book (1893) and a hymnal(1899) printed in Sydney by Finn Bros.

16 Expanding Horizons - Print Cultures across the South Pacific

to make do with the aid of the students who were recruited for the Mission'ssecondary school. We know the names of some of these from imprints like thatof the 1912 Geography, 'Printed by Ten Tem'aka, Ten Teata, Te Kirimauti &Co.', but nothing of their individual responsibiliry or level of contribution.Nonetheless the early Sacred Heart Mission or Abaiang publications included a170 page Bible history in 1907, a substantial hymnal and prayer book andChurch history (both 1908), and a 1912 geography of more than 500 pages(1912) and are surprisingly good !)'pographically, especially when on decent pa-per - albeit with some odd quirks like the use ofa small stock ofdecorated initialletters quite at odds with the !)'pe and content. It is not clear on what equipmentthey were printed: an interesting letter from Cochet's successor to John Fergusonin 1934 noted 'we were not able to install a real printing press until 1932', sopresumably the original was a small hand press.

Te Taetu n English...A. Slltcipiat Dominus aarnficill\D m..llibIlS"tai •. adIalldem, el .-Ion.m Ilolllilli. "I'i, Id IIlilitatcliI qULqUCn.,.tram, IDtlllacjDC Eeclcsi.ac IUI: Aacta-e.P. Per Clun,i. Pec1:l1. saeeulo:um. 4. Ameli.r. DoIlUUll. vobilleam.A. El cum spiritll tuo.P. Sunl:U1l eonU.A. H.'-'mlll ad. DomiUDID.P. G,.tia. IgIlIIlI1 Domiao Deo Ilostro.•. Dipam et jntum nl.o.... .. _ u.' p-b_.. _IM....... ,btDbipo ,_ ......O.u.- _1ri \0._=-':,1':'" ... _to;_ .i -.I.

P. Per _liP ace"l. aacnlnnulI. •. Ameli.:: iDdlll:u ill lel:llalio1H:m.r. Pu omuia __11. uec1Il,,",lII. A. AlIle1l.p, PIX Domiui fit ...",biaev.m.A. Et <:UIII apirita tllO.TriIUo' ,_ pa...bkl_ ..__ ......._ •.. _-..__ ....

... _ __ ..._'....1 ,.;• __ 1.......u._.._000v'i'-....... u. _ OM .. 1oMJ.

P. Dowillal Yobiaeum.A. Et c:alll lpirilll. hlo.,,.. PeT OD;lD.ia &KC1Ila a&eC1I1onIm. A. Ameo.,,.. DollliullI vobilc:am.A. El t'1Il11 apirita hlG.,.. IteM_.ftt. (__0-Iloo.) ....-,10_.A. Deo pli.u. ... _ .

r. ftlII,••• ...t SpiritllS Sallel1ll. •..4-meD,.. {/_iouE......-......]·A. !!t cum lpiritu lUG.

:'. aDCli E""Dre!i Rt'1IDdlllZl N..... [IIUi.uEZOVhnilo)"

ATrip to T.r••••Pl!TBII.. Goad mOf'lli.Dg,

Job.JOHli. Good IUDruiDg f>etcr1". It ill fiDe .u.y, to4ay.

1. A ft'l'J' fiDe .....11'. iDdffllP. WOIlld yDU lib 10 take• trip ID T.nWlwith llIe 1J. I woaldJike it toer)' 1II11cli.P. 11 tlIe IIet.mu ealliDfto th.t i.aDd.J. Ithiak 10.1'. Ask the capWD, will

He iI taIkiJIl wilh thetrader.J.IguUllfthilll.P. Very.tiL

2. J. Good day. C.ptaiD.C"PTAJIf. Good day, liT.J. AR yDUll;oilli to T...._,CapUill?C. 'Yes, .. have: _coJlTlo to tak' thue.J. Du}'DUm" hen to-dayt. NCIl t....uy. 'batto-mor.rrnr JIloru;lIf.t 6n'doek.J. Call)'DD._4 theto tak' ....C. Yts, 1'11 Httd it.t IWrP'!' fi......J. Thek JUII, CaplliL

T. P.......It. T.....LI'n'A. J[.o u ma"ri, TiOll.

Trolf. KDD' mSlIn, Pit&.,.. T, pD( le tamaraa lepogm.T. E pati ';l talDltOL .P. XD bill porau all piwo Tin... ?T. I tag;rillme.,.. EllallPO iai It t1llIakeeD"lr..i?T.TlOelllkow.,.. TitirakUla le bpna.

T. PeJllnu.iagbi?r. E G tatt.nika'WliIIlI le Iia PDJ-i.T. NIlIDl.kDlI-na.r. E noiroi.J. Ko_maDri,ltKspeo..kAPEIl. XOD.llIIwri,Nao.J. Ko Dl.1lIko Tara..... It",,..,x:.. Et. pa W It tabtab

uailio.i.J. KoIlllDl.PIIUJlIIII"'"?LTiakill upog.a JIlI.llippog D le _, la.J. Ko koDa Di uaakof letUti I pakira ,Ko N III bukOl DU_DiIll&D• .0 le iterallLJ. Ko rapa, U Kapu.

Opening from the Sacred Heart Mission reader of1925, reflecting a growing sensitivityto the everyday experience of island children in the teaching of English but also theadherence to Latin in religious instruction. Te Moa-ni-Boki n R.eirei (Gilbert Islands:

Sacred Heart Mission, 1925). Ban Smith Library, University ofAdelaide.

--------------------------

Three Pacific Mission Presses 17

The Sacred Heart Mission press on Buota, Abaiang. Ernest Sabatier, Sow I'Equateur duPatifique: les Isles Gilbert et la Mission Catholique (Issoudun, Indre, Archiconfrerie; Paris:

Editions Dillen, 1939). Barr Smith Library, University ofAdelaide.

London Missionary Society Ronorono (Rongorongo) Press

The third printing initiative in the Gilberts came from the London MissionarySociety, which had begun evangelisation in the southern islands using Samoanpastors from 1870 but had no resident European missionary until 1900, whenW.E. Goward was established on the island of Bern. In 1913, after the Societyagreed to trial arrangements to take over the whole of the Gilberts as a missionfield from the American Board, they were given a small printing press by theBoard. Kunz suggests this press was the same one that was initially used byBingham on Abaiang that had then gone to the Marshall Islands, though it isnot clear why he suggests this. In any case it was soon replaced with ·'an up todate machine with all the necessary accessories for good work ... paid for by ashipment of curios for sale in Sydney' - and Goward himselfwent to Sydney toget some training in using it.'s

15. It is not clear which printer, possiblyWilliam Brooks and Co. who did much of the Australianprinting forthe LMS in the period 1892-1911.

18 Expanding Horizons - Print Cultures across the South Pacific

The press was set up at Rongorongo on Beru where the central schools andtraining college of the Societywere alseady established. Kunz suggests in his bib-liography that the first LMS Press publication was a Church Manual by Cowardand the Samoan pastor (and later Vice-principal of the college) ]upeli in 1908,but though it has the Beru imprint it was printed in London. The first printingat Beru would seem to be the 1913 Lessonsfrom the Native School Primer, a mod-est 28-page reading and spelling book.

Three Pacific Mission Presses

12

19

ho-..._wDo AiDebeki Ainel.i3.nllom

LE-UtIli XI.

:: ·t:: :: t:jaW' )1,_ .,;I.. to)" ha,,1!'

. Tom had I\. to". It ...... to!'. It '0.1 De'W. Bemade it apiD. lOo;" hll bat! DO toy.. Hll ill w.au. HehP ODe co..- and hro ao..-.. He Wl1ll milk frow the OOa'.I .... IriJ""""andhW _. H",will W"lIonc IlO1O' to hi.boy. DaYI' like to haft ton. Tbe:v are fond of play.lai iroall To",,_ te bli ... tabkuo. BOIl le wanlai. E

boDi boa. E bntiL Aaubi UN i roup b'ai n tAkab-ro. Ta rorobaAb ilAu.. IILi i JOg,IIll te aao aline tllmallllA,AOllomall beki Ilib aiDe. EbrokAII. te I'IUl.Uimammlllnll1ltie DOaiDe. I 11 tia 11 DOri 1I.rl& kao Ain,-. IIlII. II.tlll beld nib.me. E pa. aiiaD llat:ina too lII'de te beld ail'e tellUln....A kimareireJ atuiDim'l.lI1I ni karelr.t\i b'a,j 11 tak&bn:l.A kukurei n tahkaro.

lte b4i n De"• toy ! taka.bro ,.:i.-c• thiDa: te b&i top:::ii ...

XII.n_t book wUll d_p IIOmllbeat (lOOk l.-ill f"",t muftiread look nUn ml/lllt ml',t

Thi8 _tit ra"'. We mUllt 00011: it more, Look, it iand 1 Pot it OD the 61l' &lid cook iL. I muJrt lfO to ItlMt&m. It will Rio. bat I must lI'J. Let me have th., mMtDl)'II'. Gift! JIIP. IIllmtl milk with my toIa.. I mwr,t bE. back

E maiol'llorn loP. irilul' .ei. Ti riai Ri hmaia tild. Tara-tlu'u., t .. bon urP.n Katoka. i aon to. ai, .0J riW 11 nako ni butilllJlllll TII.IIl. E PI. karau _ I tW!11"1."'0. Ailanal loP. iriko iibi. Aiia.Dai teutaDl/. r&1IlIl-1DlL1Jl1Dll.mallui.

raw maioraon. m$lt inkoeook kamai rikifl'K1 llrDun rain ):!moUpat it cm utah Iti"' aiiaIIDme tntalla tea imeet butilllM& teD teb1rill&PO'lf W<ni give me aii.all&l

XIII.<1l'M5 cuff call fullI.... puff llhall pllM_ .toff .ill dill

Jail. ha.. .. nl'1l' Linllll. It it ...i1k d.-. Silk ill dearShe bkell can of h..r dreu. Bb<! baa ..hite aafta too, ud.. Kood ho.t. 8he loob well. I hove ..he if; .. good girlA girl with aueh .. fine dffl8ll .boold try to be gODd..Ia.i iroun TieD l..iD& (H te hnDikail all boa.. Boo toe

tinki: bIiliuL E maten loP. tiftkll. E b_kiJla n.ui laiua.Iui i f(I1lIIA taboniIW aib ma.in&ifl&, _ W. bl:n aeE tamaroa t&nIlL I ha to! atM1D&Dl8 ae raou'Oliaia. &El i ItJIlDA babla a.e tluD.r.I'Ol\ni i ....an-lit, 11 riai ba e _ kekeiaki _ e ua ra.oiroi (&niDal.

too Il&bal. ailk Web.. j tfI ...hi... rnainniWl

) n lLIlll! cull' tabonibUj.,'OOCl ....,inoi girl ...k.....liD.. tamal'O'l try -hat ban 110f'" bntanW

Opening from the London Missionary Society primer of 1913, with text ludicrously re-mote from any reality in Gilbertese life. Lessomfrom the Native School Primer (Bern,

Roiioroiio, 1913). Barr Smith Library, University ofAdelaide.

For nearly 40 years subsequently the press produced translations of the gos-pels and other books of the Bible, hymnals, primers, Bible stories, geographiesand grammars, in editions mainly of 300 to 2000 but some as large as 4000 forprimers and hymn books. Perhaps 100 publications appeared in total (less interms of discrete titles as many went through a number of editions), rather lessthan the Norfolk Island press of the Melanesian Mission but this, it must berealised was for a total population of less than 34,000 at the 1931 census andspeaking a single language. Most of the publications were from manuscripts pre-pared by Rev. G .H. Eastrnan, who took over the mission from Goward in 1918,with help from his wife and another missionary teacher and head of the girls'school, May Pateman. In 1923 a lay missionary took charge of the business sideof the press and station generally and Rongorongo seems to have been a largerand more business-oriented operation than most. It stressed a practical pricingpolicy, printed for the Government and individuals, and made a clear distinctionbetween the role of printer and publisher. Sales of its publications in the first

20 Expanding Horizons - Print Cultures across the South Pacific

decade under Eastman raised nearly £2500, which was used to defray costs ofmaterial and plant and the salaries of staff, while in the following decade, in spiteof the disruption of war, it srill made enough profit to raise the salary of theprinters. Again trainee teachers were used as the actual printers and bookbinders,and the girls' school students contributed linocuts for use as illustrations. Ruteru,one of the original students at the theological college and later an ordained min-ister, was trained by Goward soon after the press was acquired and went on tobecome head printer and an excellent compositor, serving into the 1950s.

Print Culture?

Printing was thus a part of the experience of the Gilbertese and (through theNorfolk Island press) ofmany of the islands ofMelanesia for periods of 40 to 80years up to the Second World War. Many books were produced and distributed,and the work of the missions and their presses undoubtedly established writtenlanguage and literacy." Books were sought after, at least initially, as things ofintrinsic (and sometimes magical) value, and bibles and hymn books achieved animportant place in the religious and personal lives of many individuals andcommunities.

There were however many factors militating against the creation of a lasting'print cultuse', in the sense of some agreed and shared need to create and havebooks and to use or regard them as part of the cultural life of the communitygenerally. For a start the models available were all mission ventuses that pro-duced a limited range ofbooks closely associated with a specific evangelical pur-pose and an introduced cultuse. While the most ludicrous instances of the irrele-vance of teaching materials to the indigenous cultures were addsessed there re-mained barriers because of the inherent association of the introduced religionwith a particular cultural context." The creation of texts and the printing itselfwere largely under the control and ownership of missionaries and indeed manybookshops in the Pacific islands today are srill owned by the chusches. Therewas also the basic cultural problem of the lack of compatibility of writing andprinting as processes with traditional ways of life and traditional ways of knowl-edge transmission. On the practical front there was the early perception that

16. The question of impact on languages themselves, especially language integrity and diversity isanother matter, and much discussed by linguists, anthropologists and historians - of great interestbut not within the province of this paper.17. Not always though because of European prejudices: May Pareman undertook with PastorBataeru a translation of Gilbertese myths and legends, published in1942, but circulation was ap-parently discouraged by indigenous pastors as a threat to their position within the new structure.

Three Pacific Mission Presses 21

typesetting was not suited to islanders skills or competencies, and later the com-petition of alternative 'technologies' - the Government in the Gilberts and manyof the missions in Melanesia used mimeograph and duplicating machines fortheir 'printing'."

Possibly most significantly, there was the continuing dominance of'orality',of story-telling, and of oral communication generally in many island communi-ties. From contemporary accounts it was language fluency that always impressedislanders most on first contacts, and evangelists, whether European or other is-landers, who were skilled orators seem to have been more effective than thosewho relied on the written word in conversion and communication. The learningof Bible passages by heart, skill at recitation and the consistent popularity ofhymn books over other texts were widely reported and influenced both theteaching and printing undertaken by the local missions. This would be furtherreinforced by the advent of radio and especially television and video, often beforeprinting really had time to become part of local culture: in a survey of impact oftelevision in Micronesia by Michael Ogden19 in 1990 it is notable that the list ofactivities recorded as displaced by the new medium did not include reading - thelargest loser was 'story-telling'.

These suggestions are, however, impressionistic ones from documentarysources of the missionaries themselves and other non-Island observers, whichtend to obscure complexities like differences in responses within communitiesand the reasons for resistance or acceptance, and also largely relate to the first50-100 years of any particular community's exposure to printing. The nextspeaker, Linda Crowl, who co-edited with Ogden the issue of Pacific IslandsCommunication]oumalmentioned and who has direct experience of the contem-porary situation in the region, will no doubt be able to comment on this in moredepth and perhaps offer a wider and more positive view on the status and futureofprint culture in the Pacific islands today.

18. In the 1973 census of the Gilbert and Ellicc Islands Colony, previously home to three missionpresses and with a government policy of communicating officially in Gilbertese, only one personwas recorded as engaged in printing, and he was in the 50-59 age group.19. Television and video in the Pacifie Islands', Pacific Islands CommunicationJournal 16/1:7-28.