Threats Status to the Mangrove Ecosystem Along the Coastal ...kau.edu.sa/Files/320/Researches/63757_34925.pdfThreats Status to the Mangrove Ecosystem Along the Coastal Zone of Yemen

JKAU: Mar. Sci., Vol. 24, No. 1, pp: 101-117 (2013 A.D. / 1434 A.H.)

DOI : 10.4197/Mar. 24-1.8

101

Threats Status to the Mangrove Ecosystem Along the

Coastal Zone of Yemen

Hisham M. Nagi* and Mohammed M. Abubakr

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science,

Sana'a University, Sana'a, Yemen

[email protected]

Abstract. Coastal zone of Yemen on the Red Sea harbors luxuriant

growth of mangroves, whereas that of Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea

are barren except for few patches mainly because of the exposed

nature of the habitat. Mangroves in Yemen have been subjected to

continuous threats and anthropogenic stresses, which include

urbanization, aquaculture, tourism, wood cutting, oil pollution,

dumping of solid wastes, cattle grazing, fishing activities, land fill and

domestic sewage.

Introduction

The coastal strip of Yemen is well above 2,200 km in length. It extends

from the border with Saudi Arabia in the northern west to the border with

the Sultanate of Oman in the southern east. The coastline of Yemen could

be divided into three coastal strips, the western Red Sea coast, the

southern Gulf of Aden – Arabian Sea coast, and Socotra Archipelago

coasts in the Indian Ocean. The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of

Yemen includes some of the most productive waters with high primary

productivity and rich marine resources as well as a variety of important

ecosystems such as coral reefs, sea grass beds and mangroves (Hariri,

2010).

Most of the coastal zones of Yemen are characterized with several

wide stretches of sandy coastal plains backed with high mountains. These

coastal plains are intercepted with several wadies bringing water from

102 Hisham M. Nagi et al.

top of the mountains towards the sea during the rainy seasons, and

remain dry in the rest of the year. Some rocky headland and high cliffs

are located in the southern coastal line of Yemen, particularly in Ras

Fartak of Al Maharah Governorate (Elliott and MSRRC, 1995; and Hariri

et al., 2009). This was formed by undercutting and subsequent fall of

large rock masses due to the active strong waves in this area.

Mangrove swamps are tidal swamps that grow in tropics and

subtropics, which are formed by deposition of alluvial sediments of

recent origin, and characterized by dense and fringing growth of shrubs

and trees. They are also referred to as mangrove forests or tidal forests

(Knox, 2001). Mangroves are evergreen sclerophyllous, broad leaved

trees with aerial roots called pneumatophores or stilt roots and viviparous

germination (Naskar and Mandal, 1999). This ecosystem is considered to

be one of the most productive ecosystems known so far (Singh and

Odaki, 2004; Kathiresan and Qasim, 2005; and Ranade, 2007).

Recently, mangrove habitats, as a part of the coastal zone, have

been subjected to human pressure due to increasing population growth

and its consequences of raising demands for shelter and livelihoods

(Jagtap and Nagle, 2007). Several unpublished reports mentioned

different damages to those habitats in Yemen (Khalil, 2002; and Al

Hemiari, 2004). The present study aims to highlight the threats and their

impacts on mangrove habitats of Yemen, and their remedial measures.

Materials And Methods

This study is based mainly on visual observations during field visits

to mangrove areas throughout the coastal strip of the Republic of Yemen

during the period 2009 - 2010. Also, it depended on meetings with local

communities and fishermen living near mangrove habitats.

Easy access of roads allowed using vehicles in order to reach the

mangrove areas, while boats were used to reach the mangroves in the

islands. Mangrove habitats of Socotra have been evaluated through aerial

images observations taken by Google Earth website.

Location of mangrove habitats and constructions in the vicinity

were determined using GPS instrument. Related toposheets and aerial

images were also used to measure distances between mangrove habitats

and its close anthropogenic features. Dealing with toposheets as well as

Threats Status to the Mangrove Ecosystem Along the Coastal Zone of Yemen 103

measuring features were conducted using remote sensing and GIS

programs.

Results

Mangrove habitats occur in several parts of the Yemeni coastline.

They are concentrated densely in the coastal strip between Al Saleef and

the northern border of Yemen with Saudi Arabia. The remaining patches

are growing north and south of Hodeidah City in Several parts of the Red

Sea as well as the Gulf of Aden Coasts in addition to Socotra Island (Fig.

1). Avicennia marina is the dominant species in the whole area.

However, Rhizophora macronata was found in small patches in Kamaran

Island and north of Hodeidah.

Fig. 1. Distribution of mangrove habitats along the coastal zone of Yemen. Stars indicate

location of mangrove sites.

Mocha

Al-Luhayyah

Hodeidah

ThobootMidi

Bir Ali


The following section describes the present threats to 29 mangrove

habitats (S1 – S29; Table 1) on the Yemeni coasts.

1) The Red Sea Coast

Midi

Midi village is located right on the northern border of Yemen with

the neighboring Saudi Arabia. Mangrove habitats exist in Midi village in

two locations. The first location (S1) is about 4 km north of Midi village,

which is a thick stand of tall trees, which extends close to the island of

Al-Doaimah. Mangrove habitat in this area is threatened by land filled

wastes from nearby construction of a port. Other threats observed include

wood cutting, grazing, and pollution imposed from fishermen activities

within the mangrove area. A tourism project is also under way close to

the mangrove area which may impose further stress to this area.

The second fringing stand of mangrove habitat (S2) is stretched

along 1.5 km in front of Midi village, and about 3 km south of the S1.

This patch is threatened by wood cutting and intensive grazing. A large

area of muddy flats near this mangrove habitat toward the sea is

considered to be a perfect place for mangrove habitat afforestation and

expansion. Other small patches of dwarf mangroves also bear great

potential for this purpose.

Oqm Al-Aati

A dense mangrove habitat (S3) is located about 6 km to south of

Midi Village in an area called Oqm Al-Aati. Despite observation of

camel footprints and dung near the area, which indicates grazing

activities, however, the habitats looked in a good state as it is located far

from any residential area.

Another fringing and long mangrove thick patch (S4) is located

about 2 km south of the S3. This habitat appeared in good condition due

to low pressure of anthropogenic pressure as it seems to be isolated from

residential area.

A patch of thick mangrove trees (S5) is located in creeks in front of

Al Oqm Nakhlan village 3 km south of S4. It is located close to a project

of aquaculture, which may become the main threat to this habitat if it

operates without considering the environmental impacts of its outflow.


Habl

A long thick fringing mangrove habitat (S6) covers approximately

4 km of Habl coastline. It looks in a very good condition as it is located

far away from the residential areas. This long patch of mangrove ends

with a fishers' village, which forms the only anthropogenic threat to this

area due to pollution coming from fishing activities including changing

their boats' engine oil and throwing their destroyed fishing gears in the

mangrove vicinity. About 200 meters south from the fishermen village in

the end of a creek, another pocket of thick mangrove is located, which is

subjected to the same threats from fishing activities.

Still another long patch (S7) of fringing mangrove extends about 6

km in length. It is located approximately 1.5 km farther south of the

fishermen village previously mentioned. In between the two long patches

of mangrove, some small patches of mangroves are also scattered on the

beach.

Sahel Al-Gar (Al-Gar Coast)

Scattered patches of mangrove trees (S8) are located in front of a

small local tourist village, where local people usually visit for recreation

and rest. Being close to a tourist area, mangrove habitats are affected by

solid waste (plastic and cans) pollution in addition to other tourists waste.

Also, grazing and wood cutting was observed in the area. Sand dunes

have been noticed to cover the roots of mangrove trees which are close to

the beach.

About 80 meters south of the above mentioned village, the longest

fringing patch (S9) of mangroves in the Red Sea Coast of Yemen starts.

It extends approximately to 25 km in length. In some parts of this patch,

a severe wood cutting has been observed during the present study. The

mean anthropogenic threat to this patch is a tourism village project under

construction in front of Buhees village. The tourist village is constructed

by dumping stones and boulders nearby the mangrove habitat. An

entrance passage constructed through about 100m thickness of mangrove

trees caused a severe damage to several trees by cutting them to make

way for entering the tourist village.

Al-Luhayyah

Several mangrove patches are distributed in front of Al-Luhayyah,

from the north until the south of the town. The first stand of mangrove

habitats (S10) starts from 15 km north of the town at Khor Al-Alawy,


and extends south until it reaches the northern fish landing market of Al-

Luhayyah. It starts with thin and scattered trees of fringing mangrove and

ends in Al-Khor with very dense and thick patches of mangrove forest.

Its northern tip is threatened by oil pollution and wastes from fishing

boats, and also from a proposed aquaculture farm planned near the area.

The second stand located in front of the town, as a very dense and

thick mangrove forest (S11). Fishing boats harboring or sailing out of the

town are using water channels of this forest for navigation. It is exposed

to severe anthropogenic threats from the nearby town. Fishermen discard

their boats' engine oil into this habitat. Dumping of solid wastes by local

people, and construction of buildings, pose other serious threats to the

area.

In the southern part of Al-Luhayyah Peninsula, a third patch (S12)

of thick mangrove habitat is standing close to an operational aquaculture

farm. This farm may impose a major threat to the mangrove from its

untreated waste waters.

In front of Al-Luhayyah, there are many scattered small islands, out

of which only four harbor mangroves. These are the eastern north of

Tuqfash Island, western south of Talaween Island, eastern south of

Humar Island, and eastern north of Al-Murk Island. All these stands are

grown in non-populated islands, which allow mangrove to grow

undisturbed. The only threat is oil pollution from fishing boats, where

fishers anchoring near those islands might change engine oil near the

mangrove habitats. Nevertheless, those patches are still exposed to

negligible threats.

Al-Khawbah

A small stand (S13) of mangrove trees located at about 5 km south

of Al-Khawbah town. Wood cutting and grazing by camels have been

observed during the team visit.

Ibn Abbas

Dwarf mangrove trees of about 1 – 1.5 m in height were scattered

in one location near the village of Ibn Abbas, whereas another one (S14)

shows profuse growth of dwarf trees. The last location is subjected to a

high pressure of heavy woodcutting, due to their close location to the

village.


Al-Haroonia

Small patches (S15) of dispersed short mangrove trees are growing

near fishermen village near Al-Haroonia. Other long patches of

mangrove habitats grow in several places about 70-85 m far from the

shoreline between Ibn Abbas and Al-Haroonia villages. Despite growing

far from the shoreline, there exist several indications of grazing effects in

the area.

Al-Saleef

The mangrove habitat (S16) consists of a dense forest of trees

located in the south end of Bahr Ibn Abbas (Ibn Abbas Sea), or what is

called Khor Al-Haroonia, near the entrance of Al-Saleef Peninsula. This

patch looks in a very good condition despite the paved road connecting

Hodeidah City with Al-Saleef goes in the border of this habitat’s mud

flat. Mud flats around the forest make a good chance for this habitat to

extend its area, except from the road side.

Kamaran and Al-Bude’a Islands

Several thick patches (S17) of mangrove forests grow in the north

of Kamaran Island, which is located in front of Al-Saleef Peninsula. This

habitat is located far from the residential areas, which allows the

mangrove to grow undisturbed. The area is used for tourist's recreation.

This habitat is one of two locations in Yemen where Rhizophora

mucronata grows.

Another patch of thick mangrove forest grows in a creek located in

the western side of Al-Budai’a Island to the west of Kamaran Island. This

forest is well growing undisturbed due to its location far from any

anthropogenic activities except few visits by fishermen to take rest for

few hours in the island.

Al-Urj

Dispersed trees of mangrove (S18) grow separately parallel to the

shoreline. This habitat is located 3.5 km south of Al-Urj village. It ranged

between small trees and very old ones. This habitat is located near a

recreation area where it is visited by local tourists from neighboring

Hodeidah city, and therefore is under stress. The old trees were dying

because of age or due to tourism.


Al-Hodeidah

Mangrove habitats grow in four locations in Al-Hodeidah city. The

first location (S19) is located to the north of Al-Hodeidah city, close to

Hodeidah harbor. It is a dense forest but shows signs of overgrazing by

camels. Many trees as a result were defoliated. Another problem was that

of wood cutting. A dense stand of R. mucronata occurred on Al-Gandal

Island close to the area. This patch looks very healthy and unspoiled due

to their location below the low tide, which prevents camels from reaching

the small island for grazing. Another main threat is caused by the

partially treated sewage outflow from the city sewage plant. A third patch

is located in the marine entrance of harbor in the extension of Ras

Katheeb. This location is isolated from any anthropogenic interference as

it grows in a military protected area, although, many camels have been

observed to go inside and graze on it.

In front of the marine drive road near the parade stand of Hodeidah,

less dense patch of dwarf mangrove grows (S20). The area is close to a

recreational site, where so many locals and visitors come to the area each

day. Hence, the habitat is heavily polluted with solid wastes such as

plastics, cans and bottles. The habitat is also infested with camels which

brought to mangrove for feeding and therefore they mostly lost their

leaves due to their exposure to heavy grazing. Another patch which is

denser grows in the nearby area. Both patches are influenced by landfill

wastes resulted from road construction.

A scattered patch of mangrove trees (S21) grows south of

Hodeidah at Al-Manzar area near the saltpans. Mangrove grows in mud

flat which is isolated from anthropogenic activities, except the saltpans. It

looks in healthy, and has an excellent chance to extend in area.

Yakhtol

Three stands of mangrove habitats grow near saltpans in Yakhtol

area. The first patch (S22) is a dense mangrove, which is exposed to

heavy grazing and woodcutting. The second patch (S23) forms dense

mangrove growth inside the saltpans. This habitat, as it is exposed to

heavy grazing and woodcutting in destructive manner, so it looks in a bad

shape. The third one (S24) appears in a good condition because there is

no grazing nor any woodcutting in the area. Near the habitat, saltpans are

in the process of establishment.


South of Al-Makha (Mocha)

Several patches of mangrove grow parallel to the beach to south of

Al-Makha city (S25). It is a relatively long strip of trees of 5-10 meters in

width along the high tidal mark. The stand is threatened by sand

movement, which covers its roots and lower parts of the stem. Goats

were observed grazing on mangrove trees and solid wastes were visible

in the area.

Ghorairah

This mangrove creek is located approximately 2 km north of

Ghorairah village near Bab-el-Mandab. The mangrove trees grow on the

banks of the creek (S26), which extend about 3.5 km inland in L shape.

Sand dunes were observed to cover the lower parts of mangrove trees of

the northern part of the creek bank. The eastern side of the creek which

forms the end of the creek was observed to be severely affected by wood

cutting. Some trees were observed to grow about 23 m far from the water

body.

2) The Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea Coast

Bir Ali Crater (Khor Shwran)

Bir Ali town is situated in the eastern side of Shabwa Governorate.

A mangrove stand (S27) is located inside a volcano crater more than 3

km east of Bir Ali Town. This crater (approximately 850 m in diameter)

is filled with tidal influenced seawater. The inner intertidal zone of the

crater is totally infested with fringing mangrove trees of A. marina

species. There were no signs of any deterioration of mangroves in the

area because of the fact that it is far away from any human settlements.

Thuboot

A patch of mangrove habitat (S28) grows in the opening of a valley

to the sea in Al-Maharah Governorate. This habitat is located about 3 km

far to the west of Thuboot village. Little wood cutting was noticed in the

area in addition to grazing effects on this habitat. The area is suitable for

culture and plantation of mangroves because of the absence of any

anthropogenic stress.

Socotra Island

Two patches of mangrove habitat (S29) grow in the south western

side of Socotra Island. This forest is far from residential areas and


reported to be in a very good condition. Unfortunately, it was difficult to

visit this area due to financial problems.

Table 1 shows degree of impacts of the various threats imposed or

might be imposed on the mangrove habitats in Yemen, observed during

the present study.

Table 1. Degree of impacts of the various threats imposed or might be imposed on the

mangrove habitats in Yemen. Numbers indicate intensity of threats (1= Negligible,

2= Minor, 3= Moderate, 4= Major, and 5= Intensive).

Visited Locations

Con

stru

ctio

n

Fish

ing

Activ

ities

Wood

Cu

tting

Grazin

g

Oil P

ollu

tion

Waste

Du

mp

ing

Tou

rism

Agric

ultu

re

Aq

uacu

lture

Salt P

an

s

San

d D

un

es

Midi (S1) 5 4 3 3 5 2 2 1 1 1 1

Midi (S2) 2 2 3 4 2 2 1 1 1 1 1

Oqm Al-Aati (S3) 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Oqm Al-Aati (S4) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Oqm Al-Aati (S5) 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 1

Habl (S6) 1 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

Habl (S7) 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Sahel Al Gar (S8) 3 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 1 1 3

Sahel Al Gar (S9) 1 1 4 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1

Al-Luhayyah - Khor

Al-Alawy (S10)

2 5 2 2 4 5 1 1 3 1 1

Al-Luhayyah (S11) 5 5 2 2 5 5 2 1 1 1 1

Al-Luhayyah (S12) 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 1

Al-Khawbah (S13) 1 1 3 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Ibn Abbas (S14) 1 1 5 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 1

Al-Haroonia (S15) 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Al-Saleef (S16) 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 1

Kamaran and Al-

Wade’a Islands (S17)

1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1

Al-Urj (S18) 1 1 5 2 2 5 5 1 1 1 1

Al-Hodeidah (S19) 1 1 1 5 3 4 1 1 1 1 1

Al-Hodeidah (S20) 3 1 1 5 2 5 4 1 1 1 1

Al-Hodeidah (S21) 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 4 1

Yakhtol (S22) 1 1 5 5 1 1 1 2 1 5 1

Yakhtol (S23) 1 1 5 5 1 1 1 2 1 5 1

Yakhtol (S24) 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 5 1

South of Al-Makha

(Mocha) (S25)

2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 5

Ghorairah (S26) 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

Bir Ali Crater (Khor

Shwran) (S27)

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1

Thuboot (S28) 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Socotra Island (S29) 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1


Discussion

During the present study, mangrove habitats have shown various

degrees of destruction (Table 1), particularly those which are close to

populated areas. It has been found, in this study, that the major threats

imposed on mangrove areas in the Republic of Yemen are urbanization,

aquaculture practices, wood cutting, oil pollution, dumping of solid

wastes, cattle grazing, and fishing activities.

The destruction of mangrove habitat is mainly due to human

activities, which are the primary cause of mangrove losses (Kathiresan

and Bingham, 2001). Anthropogenic destruction of these habitats could

be attributed to the increase of coastal population and meeting their

needs. It also could be related to the economic development either

through governmental or private sectors (Blasco and Aizpuru, 2002; and

Kathiresan and Qasim, 2005).

Construction of infrastructure facilities (roads, ports, etc.),

commercial and residential houses has caused great damages to

mangrove trees in several places such as Midi, Al-Luhayyah, and Al-

Hodeidah city. Recently, urbanization in those highly populated cities has

been creeping towards the mangrove boundaries, especially in the

absence of mangroves protecting laws, and resulted in two negative

impacts. First, the needs for further construction towards the sea have

forced constructors to destroy or eradicate mangrove trees (Fig. 2a).

Secondly, construction of buildings and roads, in addition to dumping of

construction wastes has limited mangrove habitats from expanding its

areas.

Cattle grazing is one of the major problems in Yemen, which cause

destruction of mangrove trees. The ever greenery advantage of mangrove

trees throughout the year is attracting Yemeni coastal poor people to

bring their camels and goats to graze on mangrove leaves (Fig. 2b). Over

grazing of mangrove has caused a great loss of this significant habitat in

several areas of Yemen, particularly in Hodeidah city where mangrove

trees showed 100% removal of their green leaves in many places. Al-

Hemiari (2004) mentioned that most of mangrove habitats in Yemen are

influenced by camel grazing especially the trees which grow in the

border of the habitat, whereas the trees which grow in the middle or

toward the sea remain safely protected and are out of reach from camels

(Fig. 2c).


Wood cutting of mangrove trees has also been noticed in several

places of the study area. Mangrove wood has high calorific value, which

makes it useful as firewood. In addition to its richness of phenols, which

give it high resistant to deterioration and hence it is used as timber in

construction purpose (Kathiresan and Qasim, 2005). Traditional houses

in Tihama coastal villages are built from mangrove leaves and woods.

Poverty of coastal people and the absence of LPG cylinders supply in

many places have resulted in cutting mangrove woods to be used as fuel

for cooking or to build their traditional poor houses (Fig. 2d). In such

areas, people of the villages usually send their children to collect woods

for cooking. No wood cutting of mangrove was observed in civilized

areas where LPG cylinders are available and the people can afford to buy

for cooking (e.g. Al-Hodeidah and Al-Luhayyah).

Fig. 2. (a) Construction of Midi Port caused destruction to mangrove habitat. (b) Camels

brought to mangrove habitat for grazing. (c) Over grazing by camels and goats leaves

mangrove habitats leafless. (d) Wood cutting of mangrove for cooking and

construction by coastal poor people causes great damage to the habitat.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)


Pollution of mangrove habitats is obviously noticed in several areas

of the Yemeni coast. The major pollution threat to mangrove is from

solid waste dumping which could be noticed clearly in Al-Luhayyah

town because of lack of any management plan. People send their kids to

throw their kitchen and domestic wastes in mangrove areas (Fig. 3a). Oil

pollution imposes another severe threat to mangrove habitats located

close to fish landing ports. Pollution by oil is mainly caused by fishing

boats harbored in the port. The major source of oil pollution could be Al-

Hodeidah harbor, which is the second important port in the Republic of

Yemen, endangering mangrove habitats in the vicinity. Any incident of

oil spillage may also cause severe damage to the coastal ecosystems

including mangrove habitats. It is reported that once mangrove forest is

affected by oil pollution, it might take at least 10 years for its recovery

(Lamparelli et al., 1997). Sewage pollution from sewer pipelines

discharging to the sea near mangrove ecosystems is also a source of

organic pollution, which is very severe in Al-Luhayyah, and Al-

Hodeidah where the main sewage treatment plant is located near

mangrove area (S19).

The major impact tourism was observed in Buhees village.

Dumping of boulders in the mangrove habitats and cutting of trees to

make access for tourists to the site has caused severe damage to

mangrove trees (Fig. 3b). Tourism also has added to the problem of solid

waste pollution in mangrove areas in the shape of plastic bags, bottles,

and cans (e.g.Sahel Al-Gar, Al-Hodeidah, Al-Urj). Tourists’ behavior

could adversely effects the natural resources of coastal ecosystem both

deliberately and unintentionally (Lourenço and Jorge, 2003). Mangrove

area located in Khor Shwran crater near Bir Ali village (Shabwa

Governorate) is a major tourism destination in Yemen. Paved road was

recently constructed to allow people to reach the top of the crater. This

will certainly increase the number of visitors and increase their leftover

wastes.

Several mangrove habitats are threatened with the establishment of

aquaculture projects. Many mangrove trees could be cleared for

construction of new ponds. Kathiresan and Qasim (2005) reported that, in

Thailand, about 50% of mangrove forests of the country were converted

into aquaculture ponds in only 26 years (1961-87). Also, acidified pond

waters are discharged into the nearby mangrove system could kill aquatic


organisms. In Yemen, threats of aquaculture practices are observed in Al-

Luhayyah and south of Midi.

Salt pans impose a great threat to mangrove habitat in Yemen,

particularly near Yakhtol, where many salt pans were established on the

borders with mangrove forest (Fig. 3c). Many trees were cleared or

destroyed in order to build the ponds. Salt pans may affect the mangrove

habitat by increasing the salinity stress and altering the channels water

movement to the forest. Also sand dunes movements could crawl toward

the mangrove and cover its roots (Fig. 3d). Sand dunes are brought from

the surrounding arid mainland due to the shortage of rains and

desertification dominated in the vicinity. Sand dunes movement has been

noticed in several areas such as Sahel Al-Gar, South of Al-Makha, and

Ghorairah.

Fig. 3. (a) Dumping of domestic solid waste in mangrove habitats near Al-Luhayyah city. (b)

Construction of a tourism project road through mangrove habitat caused eradication

of mangrove trees. (c) Salt pans established near mangrove habitat in Yakhtol village.

(d) Movement of sand dunes towards mangrove trees south of Al-Makha (Mocha).

(d) (c)

(b) (a)


This has been observed in Sahel Al-Gar as well as south of Al-

Makha and Ghorairah. It is encouraging that conversion of mangrove

forests into agriculture lands has not been noticed on any area throughout

the Yemeni coastline.

However, mangrove habitats which are far away from human

activities have been found to be in very good conditions, and if left to

grow properly, it might expand in area and create a great chance for

related marine organisms to thrive undisturbed. This could increase the

opportunities of fish stock in Yemeni waters, which would lead to

improve socio-economic status of poor fishermen in the country.

During the present study, it has been noticed that there is a lack of

conservation and management policy related to mangrove habitats in

Yemen. It is suggested that Environmental Protection Authority (EPA),

the authentic official authority of Yemen, should start immediately to

take steps for protection and conservation of mangroves and other fragile

marine and coastal habitats in collaboration with research centers and

universities. Regulation of anthropogenic interference is required by

permitting environmental friendly development. Buffer zone should be

established around mangrove areas with a particular distance inland from

HTL (High Tide Line) of the mangrove ecosystem to prevent new

constructions from invading mangrove areas.

Government, local communities, non-governmental organizations

(NGOs), academic research institutions and other stakeholders (fish

traders, money lender, tourism promoters) should share their

responsibility and authority in the decision making of the sustainable

utilization and management of mangrove ecosystems. Such kind of

system is called as “Joint natural resources Management” or “Co-

Management” (Pomeroy & Katon, 2000).

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to Director and Deputy Director of Yemen

center for Remote Sensing and GIS for providing necessary facilities and

financial support to conduct this study. Authors also are thankful to Mr.

Aref Abdullah Hamoud for his kind advices during field visits.


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Threats Status to the Mangrove Ecosystem Along the Coastal ...kau.edu.sa/Files/320/Researches/63757_34925.pdfThreats Status to the Mangrove Ecosystem Along the Coastal Zone of Yemen