Intermediate

Rowing Physiology

Auth

or:

Thor S. Nilsen (N

OR)

Edito

rs:Ted D

aigneault (CA

N), M

att Smith (U

SA)

2

34

1.0 INTRO

DU

CTIO

N

The FISA C

DP booklet titled BA

SIC RO

WIN

G PH

YSIOLO

GY

provided information about the energy requirem

ents of a rowing

race. The information included a description of aerobic and

anaerobic metabolism

with an em

phasis on the major system

sand com

ponents of aerobic metabolism

.

As this booklet w

ill expand and not extensively review that m

ate-rial, the reader is encouraged to review

the FISA C

DP Level I

booklet.

This booklet will present m

ore information about m

etabolism, the

effects of training on metabolism

and some sim

ple tests to meas-

ure those effects. 2.0 ENERG

Y FOR RO

WIN

G

The human body acts as an engine to propel the row

ing boatacross the w

ater. As explained in level I, the boat is pried for-

ward across the surface of the w

ater by an athlete seated in theboat and m

oving forward and backw

ard on a sliding seat while

pulling on an oar placed intermittently in the w

ater.

The body, acting as an engine, produces power by the appli-

cation of force which provides the boat w

ith a forward velocity

(see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Production of Power

35

2. INTERM

EDIA

TERO

WIN

GPH

YSIOLO

GY

36

a contraction of a few seconds, it is necessary to replace the

ATP. The other substances are indirect sources of energy sincethey supply energy for the resynthesis or replacem

ent of ATP.

The relationship between ATP and the principal sources of ener-

gy, glucose and fats, to replace ATP is illustrated in figure 2.

3.0 THE REPLA

CEM

ENT O

F ATP

The replacement or resynthesis of ATP is generally considered to

involve three processes:

1.ATP-C

P Reaction. 2.

Anaerobic G

lycolysis. 3.

Aerobic M

etabolism.

3.1 The ATP/CP

Reaction

The stored CP in the m

uscle cell is a high energy substance sim-

ilar to ATP. It can provide the energy to resynthesize ATP rapidlybut the am

ount stored is only sufficient for less than twenty sec-

onds. Since this process is conducted in the absence of oxygenand does not produce lactic acid, it m

ay be referred to as alac-tic anaerobic m

etabolism.

Although this process w

ill provide energy for the start phase ofthe race, its contribution is a sm

all percentage of the total ener-gy requirem

ents of the body during the 2000 meter row

ingrace.

3.2 Anaerobic G

lycolysis

The production of energy in the absence of oxygen which does

produce lactic acid may be referred to as lactic anaerobic

metabolism

. This was presented in BA

SIC RO

WIN

G PH

YSIOL-

OG

Y as an important source of energy during the start and fin-

ish phases of the rowing race.

This process results in the production of energy for the resynthe-

37

2. INTERM

EDIA

TERO

WIN

GPH

YSIOLO

GY

Figure 2. Production of Energy

Force is applied by the contraction of muscles w

hich requiresenergy. The source of the energy for m

uscle contraction is thebreakdow

n of chemical bonds in the m

uscle cells. These chemi-

cal bonds are provided by chemical substances stored in the

muscles:

1.ATP (adenosine triphosphate),

2.C

P (creatine phosphate), 3.

glucose (stored as glycogen), and 4.

fats.

ATP is the only substance that can directly supply energy for mus-

cle contraction. As the m

uscle cells only contain enough ATP for

38

Figure 3. The Importance of A

erobic Metabolism

It takes about 60-90 seconds to activate these two system

s toprovide sufficient oxygen to aerobically m

eet the energy require-m

ents of the muscle cell during a row

ing race. The continual suf-ficient supply of oxygen during the m

iddle or distance phase ofthe row

ing race enables the body to replace the ATP almost

exclusively from aerobic m

etabolism. U

nlike anaerobic metabo-

lism w

ith its debilitating waste product, lactic acid, the by-prod-

ucts of aerobic metabolism

, water and carbon dioxide, are

either eliminated to the atm

osphere or partially retained (water)

to assist in body functions.

It should be noted that aerobic metabolism

is actually two

processes:

1.Lipid m

etabolism (the breakdow

n of fats), and 2.

Aerobic glycolysis (the breakdow

n of glycogen).

Since lipid metabolism

provides abundant energy, it is an impor-

tant source of energy for training; but, due to the fact that thereactions are very slow

, it is generally not useful during a 2,000m

eter rowing race. For this distance, aerobic glycolysis and its

complete breakdow

n of glycogen is utilized.

39

2. INTERM

EDIA

TERO

WIN

GPH

YSIOLO

GY

sis of ATP through the breakdown of carbohydrates (prim

arilyglycogen stored in the m

uscle cell, therefore this is termed anaer-

obic glycolysis). It can provide the energy almost as rapidly as

that supplied by the ATP/C

P reaction.

A great am

ount of energy may be supplied by this process but

the depletion of glycogen and the accumulation of lactic acid in

the muscle cells results in the reduction of the m

uscle's ability tocontract. The accum

ulation of lactic acid may also cause pain

in the muscle of the athlete. D

ue to these effects, it is not possi-ble to use this process for prolonged periods. Therefore, theprocess is utilized prim

arily during the start and finish phases ofthe race.

Although this system

may provide energy for up to 2-3 m

inutesof intense activity (for the period of 30-90 seconds after the startand during the 60-90 seconds of the finish phase), it w

ill onlyprovide about 20-25%

of the energy requirements of the row

ingrace.

3.3 Aerobic M

etabolism

Aerobic m

etabolism

provides about

75-80%

of the

energyrequirem

ents of the rowing race. It involves the com

bustion of afuel in the m

uscle cell in the presence of oxygen. The source ofthe fuel is generally from

either glycogen or fats stored in the mus-

cle, or glucose and fats stored elsewhere in the body, and deliv-

ered by the circulatory system to the m

uscle cells (see figure 2).

As this process depends on m

any more reactions in the m

usclecell, the energy is released m

ore slowly and depends on a suf-

ficient supply of oxygen being delivered to the mitochondria; the

power plants of the m

uscle cell (see BASIC

ROW

ING

PHYSI-

OLO

GY). Therefore, the respiratory and cardiovascular system

sm

ust be capable of delivering oxygen from the air w

e breatheto the m

uscle cell.

40

sents the maxim

al total aerobic metabolic rate.

This is an important m

easurement because of the relative im

por-tance of aerobic m

etabolism to row

ing. This is demonstrated by

the research findings illustrated in figure 3.

Although a generally accepted m

ethod to measure an athlete's

anaerobic capacity is not available or is impractical to perform

,m

easurements of lactate in blood after exhaustive exercise have

been used frequently as a gauge of the athlete's ability to toler-ate high concentrations (an ability that m

ay improve w

ith train-ing). A

measure of lactate concentration in the blood during

exercise at below m

aximal level is also used to gauge the fitness

level of the athlete.

Another m

easurement that m

ay be used to gauge the fitness levelof the athlete and is useful in providing training assistance is thedeterm

ination of the anaerobic threshold.

Essentially, the energy requirements of the body exercising at a

training load below this threshold w

ill be met prim

arily by aero-bic m

etabolism w

hereas exercising at a training load above thisthreshold places an increasing dem

and on the anaerobic gly-colytic process. This is illustrated in figure 5.

Figure 5. Anerobic Threshold

41

2. INTERM

EDIA

TERO

WIN

GPH

YSIOLO

GY

3.4 The

Interaction of

The ATP/PC

Reaction, Anaerobic

Glycolysis and A

erobic Metabolism

The replacement of ATP during a row

ing race is dependent onthe interaction of the three processes:

1.the ATP-PC

Reaction (less than 5%)

2.anaerobic glycolysis (20-25%

) 3.

aerobic metabolism

(75-80%)

These three processes do not operate in isolation or independ-ently during exercise but occur sim

ultaneously and are integrat-ed to provide the necessary energy to satisfy the requirem

ents ofthe row

ing race. This is illustrated in figure 4.

Adapted from

`Energy stores and substrates utilization in muscle

during exercise' by How

ald, H., et al in The Third International

Symposium

on Biochemistry of Exercise. F. Landry and W

.A.R.

Orban (eds.), M

iami Sym

posia Specialists, 1978.

Figure 4. The Output of Energy

The exact determination of the relative contribution of the three

processes is difficult to determine but m

ost physiologists agreethat the athlete's m

aximum

oxygen uptake or VO2 m

ax repre-

42

Although the determ

ination of this measurem

ent is not necessaryto produce w

orld class rowers, it does provide inform

ation to:

1.A

ssess the suitability of an athlete for the sport. 2.

Determ

ine the effect of a training programm

e. 3.

Measure the athlete's rate of im

provement.

The use of measuring physiological factors in determ

ining theeffect and rate of im

provement due to a training program

me has

been illustrated in figure 6. The determination of m

aximum

oxy-gen in various categories for international athletes in row

ing isillustrated in figures 7 to 10.

Although the direct m

ethod is better, an indirect measurem

entm

ethod may be used to predict VO

2 max. The prediction is

made from

the results of submaxim

al exercise and is based onthe assum

ption that a relationship exists between VO

2 and theother m

ore easily measured variables during subm

aximal w

orkloads and those extrapolations to m

aximal w

ork loads can bem

ade to estimate or predict VO

2 max. Tw

o predictive tests are:

1.a step test: a test requiring a step up to and step dow

n from

a bench (33 cm and 40 cm

high for wom

en and m

en, respectively) at a rate of 30 steps per minute for five

minutes; the pulse taken for one m

inute following the

conclusion of the test is used to read from the A

strand nom

ogram to predict VO

2 Max (see A

ppendix A).

2.a bicycle test: a test requiring a ride on a bicycle ergom

eter for a given submaxim

al work load that is

sufficient to maintain a heart rate in excess of 120 beats

per minute for a period of tw

o minutes; the average pulse

taken over the two m

inutes is used to read from the

Astrand nom

ogram to predict VO

2 max.

Although these tests do not use row

ing specific testing equipment

(such as a rowing ergom

eter), they do provide some inform

ationand m

ay be particularly useful for club level programm

es. Thesepredictive tests are inexpensive, easy to adm

inister and excellentfor group testing but are subject to error, particularly for very lowor very high VO

2 max categories.

43

2. INTERM

EDIA

TERO

WIN

GPH

YSIOLO

GY

It is obvious that the purpose in training for rowing w

ould be toenable the athlete to both increase the m

aximum

oxygen uptakeand to able to use a greater percentage of this level before obtain-ing the significant increases in lactate concentrations. In figures 5and 6, the result of a successful training program

me is illustrated.

Figure 6. Improvem

ents in Physiological Factors

Some other m

ethods to measure these processes and com

ments

about the effects of training will be presented in the follow

ingsections.

4.0 MEASUREM

ENTS

The scientific measurem

ent of the energy systems generally requires the

use of expensive equipment and experienced researchers but, through

the use of some sim

ple techniques, useful information can be provided to

assist the athlete and coach.

4.1 VO2 M

ax / Testing of Aerobic M

etabolism

The most com

mon m

ethod used in rowing to m

easure aerobicm

etabolism is the determ

ination of maxim

um oxygen uptake or

VO2 M

ax. The direct determination of this m

easurement does

require the use of expensive equipment and the assistance of an

experienced researcher.

44

Figure 7. Testing Results / Senior Men

Figure 8. Testing Results / Lightweight M

en

45

2. INTERM

EDIA

TERO

WIN

GPH

YSIOLO

GY

4.2 Testing of Anaerobic M

etabolism

It should be remem

bered that the anaerobic energy system pro-

vides energy for short term intense exercise from

the breakdown

of glycogen and energy rich substances. It is possible to performsom

e simple tests to provide som

e information about the capac-

ity of this metabolic system

. The testing procedures could be:

1.alactic anaerobic capacity: a m

aximum

effort for about 10 to 15 seconds.

2.lactic anaerobic capacity: a m

aximum

effort for about 30 to 90 seconds.

The method used w

ould be to either compute the am

ount ofm

echanical work that can be perform

ed in the specified time or

record the time required to perform

a given amount of anaero-

bic work by the use of:

1.the lifting of barbells,

2.the perform

ance of exercises/calisthenics, or

3.the row

ing or bicycle ergometer.

The computation of the am

ount of mechanical w

ork is generallythe preferred m

ethod and is a simple procedure that m

ay alsobe correlated w

ith a more com

plicated procedure of the com-

putation of lactic acid produced during the lactic anaerobiccapacity test. This latter com

putation must be determ

ined from a

sample of blood taken from

the athlete during or imm

ediatelyafter the test. The taking of blood is term

ed an invasive testingprocedure because it involves the taking of a physical sam

plefrom

the body of the athlete.

An exam

ple of a non-invasive testing procedure which does not

require the taking of a physical sample w

ould be the recordingof the heartrate by either touching the body or using an elec-tronic device attached to the body. This procedure m

ay be usedin the predictive m

easurement of VO

2 max or in a determ

inationof the anaerobic threshold.

46

4.3 Testing of Anaerobic Threshold

Anaerobic threshold, as explained in section 3.4, is a m

etabol-ic response to an increasing w

ork load when aerobic energy

production is augmented by anaerobic energy production to sat-

isfy the energy requirements of the exercising m

uscles. At this

point, there is a corresponding onset of blood lactate accumu-

lation. Although anaerobic threshold is a controversial scientific

measurem

ent, its determination m

ay have some practical appli-

cations in the sport of rowing.

The anaerobic threshold is observed by determining the change

in lactate accumulation in the blood or the change in ventilatory

response during periods of increasing work loads. (The volum

eof air going into and out of the lungs is called ventilation.)

Although not as exact, another m

ethod is recording heartrateduring increasing w

ork loads. This non-invasive technique isbased on the principle that, during continuous and progressiveefforts, the linear correlation betw

een heartrate and increasingw

ork loads will change (or deflect) at the anaerobic threshold

point. After this change, increasing w

ork loads will be accom

-panied by sm

aller increases in heartrate.

The increasing work load m

ay be either an increase in work per-

formed on an ergom

eter (rowing or cycle) or an increase in

velocity in rowing, skiing or running. A

gain, this procedure is notpreferred but it does provide som

e information w

hich is of prac-tical assistance, particularly during training. This assistance w

illbe explained in the next section.

5.0 TRAIN

ING

METH

OD

S

The FISA C

DP has em

phasized the importance of training the

aerobic metabolic system

as this system provides about 75-80%

of the energy needs of the body during a rowing race. In BA

SICRO

WIN

G PH

YSIOLO

GY, the follow

ing training advice was

presented:

47

2. INTERM

EDIA

TERO

WIN

GPH

YSIOLO

GY

Figure 9. Testing Results / Senior Wom

en

Figure 10. Testing Results / Lightweight W

omen

2.Interval training at high training loads w

ith sufficient restperiods to rem

ove all or most of the accum

ulated lactate im

proves the body's ability to tolerate lactate accum

ulation.

Since the alactic anaerobic metabolic system

accounts for limit-

ed contribution to the energy requirements of the row

ing race,the training of this system

is generally restricted to late in the sea-son and m

ay be accomplished by m

ultiple intermittent w

ork peri-ods of 10-15 seconds w

ith recovery periods of 30-60 secondsbetw

een each work period.

Further information about training m

ethods for these systems is

presented in the booklet titled SPECIFIC

FITNESS TRA

ININ

G of

the FISA C

DP Level II program

me.

6.0 SUM

MA

RY

You should now have expanded your understanding of the phys-

iological requirements of the sport of row

ing. With this inform

a-tion, you w

ill be able to provide better assistance to your athletesin the design and im

plementation of training program

mes.

7.0 APPEN

DIC

ES

7.1 Appendix A

. Astrand N

omogram

Adapted from

Textbook of Work Physiology, 2nd ed., by Per-O

lofA

strand and Kaare Rodahl from M

cGraw

-Hill Book C

ompany. 1977.

49

2. INTERM

EDIA

TERO

WIN

GPH

YSIOLO

GY

1.To im

prove oxygen utilization: long distance training (at a heartrate of 130-160 beats per m

inute and below

anaerobic threshold).

2.To im

prove oxygen transport: interval training (at a heartrate of 180-190 beats per m

inute and above anaerobic threshold).

The results of training the aerobic metabolic system

is illustratedin figure 11. Figure 11. The Results of A

erobic Training

Although the lactic anaerobic m

etabolic system accounts for only

20-25% of the energy requirem

ents during a rowing race, it

plays a crucial role during the start and finish phases of the race.Further, as stated in section 3.4, a purpose of training is to beable to use a greater percentage of the m

aximum

oxygen uptakebefore obtaining significant increases in lactate concentrations.The training m

ethods that most effectively influence these factors

appear to be:

1.Training at or near the anaerobic threshold point im

proves the body's ability to utilize a greater percentage of the VO

2 max. before the onset of lactate

accumulation.

48

51

2. INTERM

EDIA

TERO

WIN

GPH

YSIOLO

GY

50

The adjusted nomogram

forcalculation of m

aximal oxy-

gen uptake from subm

axi-m

al pulse

rate and

02-uptake values (cycling, run-ning

or w

alking and

steptest). In

tests w

ithoutdirect

02-uptake m

easure-m

ent, it can be estimated by

reading horizontally

fromthe

”body w

eight” scale

(step test) or ”work load”

scale (cycle test) to the ”02-uptake” scale. The point onthe

02-uptake scale

(V02liters)

shall be

connectedw

ith the

correspondingpoint

on the

pulse rate

scale, and

the predicted

maxim

al 02-uptake read onthe m

iddle scale. Afem

alesubject (61 kg) reaches aheart rate of 156 at steptest: predicted m

ax V02 =2,4 liters m

in. Am

ale sub-ject reaches a heart rate of166

at cycling

test on

aw

ork load

of 200

watts;

predicted max V02 = 3,6

liters m

in (exem

plified by

dotted lines). (From

I. Åstrand, 1960)

7.1 Appendix A

. Astrand N

omogram

Adapted from

Textbook of Work Physiology, 2nd ed., by Per-O

lofA

strand and Kaare Rodahl from M

cGraw

-Hill Book C

ompany. 1977.