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TITLE PAGE
EFFECTS OF COMPUTER ASSISTED CONCEPT MAPPING AND
DIGITAL VIDEO INSTRUCTION ON STUDENTS
ACHIEVEMENT IN CHEMISTRY
BY
SANI, ISAH DANTANI
PG/PhD/2008/48467
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS
EDUCATION IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Ph.D) IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
OCTOBER, 2011.
2
Approval Page
This project has been approved for the Department of Arts Education,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
By
----------------------------------- -----------------------------------
Prof. Q.J. Nwoji Supervisor Internal Examiner
--------------------------------- -----------------------------------
Prof. U.C. Umo
Head of Department External Examiner
-------------------------------------
Prof. S.A. Ezeudu
Dean of Faculty
3
Certification
Sani, Isah Dantani a postgraduate student with registration number
PG/Ph.D/08/48467 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for research
work for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Technology. The
work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part full
for any other diploma or degree in this or any other university. We accept it as
conforming to the required standard.
------------------------------------ -----------------------------------
Sani, Isah Dantani Prof. Q.J. Nwoji (Student) (Supervisor)
4
Dedication
-To my children, Victoria, Franklyn and Favour that they may aspire to and
attain heights even greater than the one I attained.
-To God almighty for His guidance and providence.
5
Acknowledgements
In executing this study, I received invaluable assistance from a number of
people which I am bound to acknowledge. In this regard, my thanks are due to
my supervisor, Prof Q. J. Nwoji who saw me through this work. Her willingness
to offer suggestions and guidance at all times helped greatly to the completion
of this work. I am greatly indebted to Dr I. Gambari with whom I first discussed
the viability of this study. My discussion with him helped to sharpen my focus
on the study and his encouragement as well as assurance of the viability of the
study remained a source of courage to me.
I am equally indebted to Dr (Mrs) T. Ofoegbu, Dr K.O Usman and Dr U. Eze
for their interest and invaluable assistance which helped a lot in the completion
of this study.
I am grateful as well to my wife Mrs M.N Dantani, my children, Victoria,
Franklyn and Favour for their constant encouragement and support. Lastly, to
the computer operator Miss Angela who produced this work and many others
who helped in one way or the other in the execution of this work but whose
names I cannot mention here, I express my gratitude.
6
Table of Contents
Title Page……………………………………………………………………………..ii
Approval Page……………………………………………………………………….iii
Certification………………………………………………………………………….iv
Dedication……………………………………………………………………………v
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………vi
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………….vii
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………ix
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………x
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………….xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………............1
Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………9
Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………..10
Significant of the Study……………………………………………………………..11
Scope of the Study…………………………………………………………………..13
Research Questions………………………………………………………………….13
Research Hypotheses………………………………………………………………..14
CHAPTER TWO……………………………………………………………………………15
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE………………………………………….15
Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………………..16
The need for science and technology education in Nigeria………………………...16
Concept of Chemistry……………………………………………………………….19
Importance of Instructional Media in education…………………………………….23
Information and Communication Technology and Education………………………25
Nature and Scope of Computer Assisted Instruction………………………………..31
Nature and Scope of Concept Mapping……………………………………………..42
Computer Assisted Concept Mapping as an Instructional Media…………………..47
Digital Video Disc as an Instructional Media……………………………………….47
Gender and Achievement in Science and Technology………………………………51
Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………63
Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning……………………………………………………..63
Application in CAI…………………………………………………………………..65
Cognitive Theories…………………………………………………………………..66
Empirical studies on Computer Assisted Concept Mapping, Digital Video Instruction
and Gender influence on Academic Achievement in
Science……………………………………………………………………………….72
Summary of Literature Reviewed……………………………………………………91
7
CHAPTER THREE………………………………………………………………………….95
RESEARCH METHOD……………………………………………………………..95
Design of Study……………………………………………………………………...95
Area of Study………………………………………………………………………..96
Population of the Study……………………………………………………………...97
Sample and Sampling Techniques…………………………………………………..98
Instrument for Data Collection………………………………………………………99
Development of the Learning Instrument for the Treatment……………………….100
Validation of the Instrument/Packages……………………………………………..102
Item Analysis……………………………………………………………………….104
Reliability of Instrument……………………………………………………………105
Control of Extraneous Variables……………………………………………………106
Experimental Procedure…………………………………………………………….107
Method of Data Collection………………………………………………………….110
Method of Data Analysis……………………………………………………………110
CHAPTER FOUR…………………………………………………………………………..112
RESULTS…………………………………………………………………………..112
Summary of Findings……………………………………………………………….122
CHAPTER FIVE……………………………………………………………………………122
DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS,IMPLICATIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY………………………………………123
Discussion of the Results…………………………………………………………...124
Findings on the effect of CACM on Achievement in Chemistry…………………..124
Findings on the effect of DVI on students Achievement in Chemistry……………125
Findings on the effect of CACM on Achievement in Chemistry by Gender………125
Findings on the effect of DVI on Achievement in Chemistry by Gender………….126
Findings on the treatment-gender interaction effect on students Achievement in
Chemistry…………………………………………………………………………...126
Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………127
Educational Implications……………………………………………………………127
Recommendations…………………………………………………………………..129
Limitations of the Study…………………………………………………………….130
Suggestions for further Studies……………………………………………………..130
Summary……………………………………………………………………………131
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………..134
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………...151
8
List of Tables Pages
1. Means and Standard Deviations of Students in CACM………………112
2. Mean and Standard Deviations of Students in DVI……………………114
3. Mean and Standard Deviation of Students in CACM by gender………116
4. Mean and Standard Deviations of Students in DVI by gender………….118
5. Analysis of CoVariance (ANCOVA) of posttest scores of Students in
CACM ,DVI & LM………………………………………………………….120
9
List of Figures
1. Cognitive Learning theory model…………………………………….68
2. Research Design Layout………………………………………………..96
10
Abstract This study determined the effects of Computer Assisted Concept Mapping (CACM)
and Digital Video Instruction (DVI) instructional strategies on student‟s achievement
in chemistry. It also sought the effects of CACM, DVI on gender academic
achievement of students. The performance of students taught with CACM and DVI
were compared with those students taught with lecture method (LM). To carry out the
study, four research questions were asked and three hypotheses, were formulated and
tested. Related literatures were reviewed. A quasi experimental design specifically
the non-randomized control group design involving three intact classes was used. The
sample of the study consisted of 210 senior secondary two (SSII) chemistry students
from three government owned secondary schools drawn using purposive and simple
random sampling techniques from 16 government schools that offer chemistry in
Chanchaga and Bosso local government areas of Niger State. The three schools were
assigned to the two experimental groups CACM and DVI and one control group
(LM). One instrument, the Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) was developed and
validated. An internal consistency of CAT was computed and found to be 0.95 using
Kuder –Richardson formular 20 (KR 20). Before treatment commenced, the CAT
typed in white coloured paper was administered as pre-test to the three groups in the
sampled schools. The treatment lasted for one month of seven lesson periods for each
group. The actual teaching was done by the regular chemistry teachers who were
given special training for both experimental and control groups. After treatment
session, the same instrument (CAT) which was retyped in yellow coloured paper and
the questions reshuffled was re –administered to the subjects to obtain posttest scores.
Means and standard deviations were used to answer the research questions.
Hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), at 0.05 level of
significance. The result of the analysis indicated that CACM and DVI had significant
effects on student‟s achievement in chemistry, but students in the CACM group
achieved more. Gender was a significant factor in the student‟s achievement in
chemistry when treated with CACM and DVI. These findings imply that there is the
need for chemistry teachers to adopt the use of CACM as well as DVI in teaching
since they are effective in improving student‟s achievement in chemistry. Thus, it is
recommended among others, that state governments or their ministries of education
and professional associations should organise workshops, seminars and conferences to
train teachers on the use of CACM and DVI techniques. Finally, the limitations of the
study, conclusions of the study and the summary of the study as well as suggestions
for further studies were highlighted.
11
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
The growth and development of most nations are dependent on science,
technology and mathematics education. Science is that organized body of
knowledge, which enhances the ability to acquire skills. It is a search for
meaning or exploration of events in nature (Ifeakor 2006). Science and
technology related subjects that would enable students have a substantial
understanding of science and be able to apply scientific knowledge in solving
problems in their ever changing society are Mathematics, Physics, Biology,
Health Science, Introductory technology and Chemistry.
Chemistry is one of the compulsory subjects for one to study science/
technology related courses in tertiary institutions. It is the science that deals
with the properties of different atoms, the ways in which they join together to
form molecules, the interaction of various kinds of molecules with one another
and the accompanying energy changes. It is the heart or nucleus of science
(Adeyemo, 2005). The science of chemistry includes properties, composition
and structure of matter as well as structural, compositional and energy changes
involved in chemical reactions. From the foregoing therefore, the major
objective of teaching chemistry in our schools is to enable the students interpret
the universe, since the great variety of materials in the universe can be classified
12
into two great entities: energy and matter. Chemistry has developed knowledge
in all these areas of energy and matter which will significantly help in achieving
the objective of interpreting the universe (Adeyemo, 2005).
The technological development of any nation lies in the study of science
especially chemistry. The role of Chemistry in national development is
acknowledged in the whole world (Udofia and Udo, 2006).The significance of
chemistry in all fields of science and technology has made chemistry imperative
to be included in the curriculum of senior secondary school to be offered by
science oriented students. The Nigerian secondary school Chemistry curriculum
has the following objectives:
(i) Facilitate a transition in the use of scientific concepts and techniques
acquired in Integrated Science with Chemistry.
(ii) Provide the students with basic knowledge in chemical concepts and
principles through efficient selection of content and sequencing.
(iii) Show Chemistry in its inter-relationship with other subjects;
(iv) 12Show Chemistry and its link with industry, everyday life, benefits and
hazards;
(v) Provide a course which is complete for students not proceeding to higher
education while it is at the same time, a reasonably adequate foundation
for post-secondary Chemistry courses. (FME & CESAC, 2009p.
With the importance of chemistry and provisions made by the Federal
Government of Nigeria for effective teaching and learning of chemistry, the
13
objectives of its teaching and learning as stated in the Nigerian secondary
school chemistry curriculum is yet to be achieved. Chemistry is one of the
science subjects which have been taught using different methods for instance,
Ifeakor, (2005) used commercially produced Computer Assisted Instructional
package to teach chemistry, while Olorundare, (2009) used Concept mapping
and analogy to teach chemistry yet student‟s performance in chemistry is not
encouraging. The reasons for poor performance in chemistry as identified by the
following researchers include: poor instructional strategies (Bajah, 2000;
Olorukooba, 2007); abstract nature of science concepts (Nsofor, 2006; Ojiaku,
2003); lack of qualified teachers (Biodun, 2004); poor infrastructure and
inadequate laboratory facilities (Shalw, 2003); and non-availability and
utilization of instructional materials (Yusuf, 2004). Their findings are similar to
that of Olorundare, 2007 who found that inadequate laboratory facilities and
non-availability and utilization of instructional materials affect the teaching and
learning of chemistry in the secondary schools. Also the chief examiner, West
African Examination Council (WAEC, 2007), identified some areas of
weaknesses of the students/candidates which were reported as a contributing
factor to student‟s poor performance. The areas identified include: Poor
understanding of general principles and concepts, heat, energy changes, rates of
chemical reactions, reversibility of reactions and chemical equilibrium.
The federal government of Nigeria made special provisions and
incentives through the provision of laboratory facilities, instructional materials,
14
training and retraining of teachers, provision of research grants and adoption of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to improve the teaching and
learning of science chemistry inclusive in our secondary schools. Since as part
of the requirements for any school to be enrolled for WAEC and NECO is that
the school must have science laboratories and with the importance of ICT in
nation building, schools have been provided with computer systems through the
school net programme. Furthermore, the federal government stated that “In
recognition of the prominent role of information and communication technology
in advancing knowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning in the
modern world, there is an urgent need to integrate information and
communication technology into Education in Nigeria (FGN, 2004:17). In
furtherance to government support for science education, information and
communication technology is adopted by the policy to apply to all levels of
education. Such provision for secondary level of education is contained in
section 5 number 30. She further states that “Science shall be taught in an
integrated manner in the schools to promote in the students the appreciation of
basic ideas”. For instance, schools in Minna are no exceptions as government
have provided the computers in almost all senior secondary schools in Minna.
Despite all the effort made by the Federal government, chemistry teachers and
researchers, students perform very poorly. In order to improve the teaching and
learning of chemistry the researcher is of the view that the use computer assisted
15
concept mapping and digital video to teach chemistry may lead to better
performance by the students.
Computer assisted instruction refers to instruction or remediation
presented on a computer. Computer assisted instructions are interactive and can
illustrate a concept through attractive animation, sound and demonstration. It
allows students to progress at their own pace and work individually. Computers
provide immediate feedback, letting students know whether their answer is
correct or not. If the answer is not correct, it shows how the students can get the
correct answer. So many researchers have used computer assisted instruction in
different subject areas to improve effective teaching and learning. For instance
Hall, Hughes, and Filbert, (2000), examined the effect of computer assisted
instruction in reading by students. Their findings indicated an improvement in
reading when computer assisted instruction is used for students. Also, Tapscott
(2008) investigated the effect of computer assisted instruction on academic
achievement in sciences; the result was also positive. Also Ifeakor (2005)
examined the effects of commercially produced computer assisted instructional
package on student‟s achievement and interest in secondary school chemistry.
In her study, she found that the commercially produced computer assisted
instructional package had positive effect on the students‟ achievement and
interest.
Concept maps are forms of graphical organizers which allow learners to
perceive the relationships between concepts through diagramming of keywords
16
representing those concepts. These concepts are usually enclosed in circles or
boxes of some type and relationships between concepts indicated by connecting
lines linking two or more concepts. The process of using these graphical tools
for organizing and presenting knowledge is referred to as concept mapping. For
some years now, the researches on the effectiveness of using concept mapping
instructional strategy to teach chemistry has been in place. These studies
includes that of Czerniak and Haney (1998) who used concept mapping to
improve achievement in physical sciences which includes chemistry, Nicoll,
Francisco and Nakhleh (2001) investigated the effect of concept mapping on
general chemistry achievement. Their findings showed a positive effect.
Concept mapping has been found to be a good instructional strategy used by
teachers to teach chemistry yet students fail the subject, this is evident in the
results of students in the WAEC and NECO, hence the researcher used
computer assisted instruction which incorporates concept mapping for teaching
chemistry concepts anticipating that it may improve the teaching and learning of
chemistry.
Computer assisted concept mapping is an instructional strategy that
incorporates the use of computer instruction with concept mapping. Not much
work known to the researcher have been done using these instructional strategy
to improve teaching and learning, even where it has been used, it is outside the
shore of Nigeria and no study has been found for chemistry. For example,
Chien-hsun Tu (2006), conducted a study on the effect of computer assisted
17
concept mapping learning in social studies. There was a positive effect on the
students‟ achievement in social studies.
Digital video instruction is an instruction presented through the use of a
television monitor and a digital video disc or digital versatile disc (DVD).
Digital video disc is an optical disc with storage media format. Its main uses are
video and data storage. The digital video disc has a player which it uses to
retrieve what has been stored into it. Both the digital video player and the
television monitor require electricity to power them. The influx of home
video‟s/CD‟S is an issue of great concern that needs to be addressed. The
situation is such that parents and even youths of school age go after home
videos instead of getting/purchasing educational DVD/CD; S. These students
are allowed to watch these home videos for hours. It is therefore, the intention
of the researcher to see how this ability to watch home videos can be utilized to
achieve academic excellence in the classroom setting. Most researches that have
been conducted are on videotape instruction. For instance, Osokoya, (2007)
investigated the effect of video instruction on secondary school students‟
achievement in History. The findings showed a positive effect on student‟s
achievement. Also, Orisabiyi (2007), who determined the effect of videotaped
package on students achievement in biology found videotape instruction to be
effective. Furthermore, Gbodi and Laleye (2006), found videotape instruction to
be effective on students‟ achievement in Integrated Science. Digital video
instruction has been found to be effective in the learning of mathematics
18
(Adebayo, 2008) and so the study considered its effectiveness when used to
teach chemistry. From the studies made so far, no research known to the
researcher has been carried out on the comparative effects of computer assisted
concept mapping, digital video instruction and lecture method of teaching on
student‟s achievement in chemistry.
Historically, in most countries of the world the educational provision for
boys and girls was clearly differentiated. This difference in treatment through
education created and sustained gender gap, which also became visible in the
science, technology and mathematics education provided. The historical
background of the provision of education in Nigeria serves to give a picture of
how tradition and culture has placed women and girls at a disadvantage, and
restricted them to a narrow range of occupation and careers. Njoku (2009), in
his study on enhancing the relevance of chemistry curriculum delivery using
science, technology and society (STS), stated that female students under-
achieve in science, technology and mathematics education relative to their male
classmates. Gender has been identified as one of the factors influencing
student‟s achievement in the sciences at senior secondary school level
(Anagbogu & Ezeliora, 2007 and Nsofor, 2007). Researchers (Ifamuyiwa, 2004;
Iwendi, 2009) have shown that males achieve higher than females in science
and technology concepts. It has been noted that males perform better than
females in chemistry (Ifeakor, 2005). No gender difference in student academic
achievement has also been observed (Yusuf and Afolabi 2010). The
19
contradictive evidences in academic achievement due to gender had necessitates
the need to verify how computer assisted concept mapping and digital video
instructional strategies can influence student‟s achievement in chemistry. This
study therefore, examined the effects of computer assisted concept mapping and
digital video instruction on students achievement in chemistry.
Statement of the Problem
The performance of students in science generally and chemistry in
particular has been quite unsatisfactory over the years (Olorukooba, 2007;
WAEC, 2010, NECO, 2010). The external examining bodies such as West
African Examination Council (WAEC) and National Examination Council
(NECO) have repeatedly reported poor performance in chemistry.
The report of the chief examiner, West African Examination Council
2004-2005 revealed that candidate‟s performance was poor. For the years 2006
and 2007 the report is that there is no improvement in the performance of
candidates who sat for Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) in
chemistry. Furthermore, a critical look at the statistics of candidates‟ enrolment
and performance in chemistry in Nigeria between 2002 and 2007 (appendix A),
and candidates enrolment and performance in chemistry in Niger state for the
years 2000 to 2007 (appendix B), shows that the performance of the candidates
was poor. The percentage failure of chemistry students in the secondary school
certificate examination (SSCE) for the years 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and
2005 are 67.42, 60.99, 53.67, 41.40, 53.28 and 46.40 respectively while the
20
years 2006 and 2007 recorded 50.73 and 70.77 percentage failure. Also, WAEC
chief examiners report for 2008-2010 indicated poor performance. In the report,
2008 recorded 77% failure, 2009 recorded 79.67% failure while 2010 recorded
80% failure. The persistent poor performance, according to the chief examiner
for the years 2008- 2010 was as a result of: Poor understanding of general
principles and concepts, heat, energy changes, rates of chemical reactions,
reversibility of reactions and chemical equilibrium. This poor performance as
indicated by the results can be attributed to many factors which includes lack of
appropriate and effective use of media. This is evident from the results of the
senior secondary school certificate examination for chemistry in Niger state. See
appendix B. Despite all that has been done to improve students‟ achievement
especially in chemistry, students still perform poorly. Therefore, as a result of
this evident poor performance by students, the study determined the effects of
computer assisted concept mapping and digital video instruction on student‟s
achievement in chemistry.
Purpose of the Study
This study determined the effects of computer assisted concept mapping
and digital video instruction on secondary school students‟ academic
achievement in chemistry.
Specifically, the study determined, the
i. Effect of computer assisted concept mapping on secondary school
students‟ academic achievement in chemistry.
21
ii. Effect of digital video instruction on secondary school students‟
academic achievement in chemistry.
iii. Effect of computer assisted concept mapping on secondary school
student‟s achievement in chemistry by gender.
iv. Effect of digital video instruction on secondary school student‟s
achievement in chemistry by gender.
Significance of the Study
Theoretically, the findings of this study will help teachers to give students
task in hierarchical order. It will help teachers to move from simple to complex
task. Since learning new knowledge is dependent on what is already known,
curriculum planners will always consider the entry behaviour of students as they
plan the curriculum.
Also, it is expected that the teaching and learning process, students,
teachers, teacher trainees, curriculum developers, policy makers, parents,
government and the nation at large would benefit from the findings of this study
in the following ways:
The result of this study will have positive impacts on teaching and
learning of chemistry in secondary schools, as it will re-emphasize the need for
teachers to always enrich the teaching and learning process with instructional
media. This will encourage head, hand and heart co-ordination and promote
harmonious interaction between learners and materials to be learnt. This in turn
would relieve passivity, monotony, excessive verbalism, thereby preventing
22
chemistry from being taught in a manner that produces in the mind of learners a
feeling of boredom and distaste for chemistry.
The results of this study is expected to be useful to the learners as it will
provide opportunities for students to practice basic skills, learn some basic
concepts on their own and at their own pace. Also it can lead to arousing
students interest in science especially chemistry, make them to be creative and
help in the generation of ideas to solve world problems. By the use of digital
video instructional package, the interest of the learners for irrelevant movies and
entertainment programs could systematically be transferred to a more
productive and educative pursuit. Also the learners listening skill which is vital
to efficient learning would be improved upon.
Since students learn differently and at different pace, abstract concepts
are simplified and individualized learning will be encouraged. The result will
encourage teachers to use multiple media in presenting instructions to students.
It will also help teachers to vary their instructional approaches, develop creative
skills and help in making their lesson interesting as well as making their
instructional objectives to be achieved.
The findings could hopefully assist curriculum planners to include in the
curriculum for secondary level instructional materials/strategies that would help
in bringing about meaningful learning. It may also provide locally produced
computer instructional package, the use of which would consequently build up
teacher‟s and learners confidence in the subject matter and to be information
23
and communication technology (ICT) compliant. This is to give direction and
confidence to the teacher whose job it is to put the curriculum into use and to
ensure the attainment of specific objectives of learning science.
The findings of this study would be of immense benefit to the nation as it
could lead to the turnout of learners with solid foundation in science (chemistry)
to meet the demands of science and technology of the new millennium. This
study may be a spring board for future researchers who might wish to embark
on a similar study in chemistry or other discipline such as biology or physics.
Scope of the Study
This research examined the effects of computer assisted concept mapping
and digital video instruction on the academic achievement of students in
chemistry. Minna metropolis was used and three schools were covered. Two
schools served as the experimental while the remaining one served as the
control. The study was limited to Senior Secondary II (SSII) of the Senior
Secondary Schools selected in Minna. The topics or subject matter covered are
energy effects Chemical equilibrium, reversibility of reaction and le chatelier‟s
principle which are topics in Senior Secondary II Chemistry syllabus.
Research Questions
The study was guided by the following questions
i. What is the effect of computer assisted concept mapping instructional
strategy on secondary school student‟s achievement in chemistry?
24
ii. What is the effect of digital video instructional strategy on secondary
school student‟s achievement in chemistry?
iii. What is the influence of gender on secondary school student‟s
achievement in chemistry using computer assisted concept mapping
instructional strategy?
iv. What is the influence of gender on secondary school student‟s
achievement in chemistry using digital video instructional strategy?
Research Hypotheses
The following research hypotheses were formulated.
HO1: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores
of students taught chemistry using computer assisted concept mapping,
digital video instruction and lecture method.
HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male
and female students taught chemistry using computer assisted concept
mapping, digital video instruction and those taught using lecture method.
HO3: There is no significant treatment-gender interaction effect on the
academic achievement of students in chemistry as measured by their
mean achievement scores in Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT).
25
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter reviewed the relevant literature. It is carried out under three
broad sections namely, conceptual framework, theoretical framework and
empirical studies.
Conceptual framework
The Need for Science and Technology Education in Nigeria
The Concept of Chemistry
Importance of Instructional Media in Education
Information and Communication Technology and Education
Nature and Scope of Computer Assisted Instruction
Nature and Scope of Concept Mapping
Computer Assisted Concept mapping as an Instructional Media
Digital video Disc as Instructional Media
Gender and Achievement in Science and Technology
Theoretical Framework
Behaviorism/S-R theory of learning: Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning
Cognitive theories of learning: Gagne and David Ausubel‟s theories
Empirical Studies
* Empirical Studies on Computer Assisted Concept Mapping
Empirical Studies on Digital Video Instruction and
Gender influence on Academic Achievement in Science.
Summary of reviewed literature
26
Conceptual Framework
The need for Science and technology education in Nigeria
Science and technology education are critical to national development
and the sustenance of such development. The world of today is dominated by
science and technology, so much so that almost everything is now scientific and
technological in nature. Technological artifacts and processes have so
dominated the home, workplace, and indeed the totality of the environment that
everybody needs at least, basic knowledge of science and technology to
contribute to development efforts and to at least, survive if not succeed in the
society of today. This implies that science and technology education should be
accessible to all citizens for conducive living in the modern society of today
(Njoku, 2007).
Nigeria is a developing nation with a vision to be one of the 20th
largest
economy nations in the world by the year 2020 (Yar‟adua, 2008). The
knowledge and application of science, technology and mathematics are
indispensable for the transformation of Nigerian economy into an industrial and
self-reliant one (FRN, 2004).
According to Nsofor 2006), for any nation to achieve the above and attain
the status of self-reliance, science and technology must be an important
component of the knowledge to be given to all citizens of that nation
irrespective of tribe/ethnicity, creed, or sex. She added that no nation can
develop technologically and otherwise as rapidly as she wants if her citizenry do
27
not have solid foundation in science. Oludare, Bajulaiye and Abiodun (2007),
opined that for any nation including Nigeria to attain sustainable development,
there is the need to recognize science education as a priority area of education
for her citizens. According to them, a scientifically literate person has an
adequate understanding of the nature of science including concept, principles,
theories and processes of science, technology and mathematic; and an
awareness of the complex relationships between science, technology and the
society with the ultimate purpose to describe and explain natural happenings
from their everyday life experiences. Nigerian government realized this facts
and stated the goal of science education thus
(i) Cultivate inquiring, knowing and rational mind for the conduct of a good
life and democracy,
(ii) produce scientists for national development,
(iii) service studies in technology and the cause of technological development,
and
(iv) Provide knowledge and understanding of the complexity of the physical
world, the forms and conduct of life (FRN, 2004).
The former South African President Nelson Mandela echoed similar
sentiments at the inauguration of the Science Academy of South Africa. He
remarked that the impact of science and technology was so glaring that no one
needed to be persuaded to behold its awesome utility to national growth and
prosperity (Mandela, 1994). Abilu (2005) expressed the opinion that Nigerian
28
citizens should pursue science, technology and mathematics education to
prevent Nigeria from being a perpetual slave to the developed world. Therefore,
Nigerian curriculum should be geared towards this mission.
In the new edition of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004), the
policy statement expresses an acknowledgement that we are living in a modern
age of science and technology where basic knowledge and the application of
science, mathematics and technology are very important for any meaningful
development.
Also, every successive Federal and State Governments in Nigeria had
made frantic efforts to improve the status of science teaching in Nigeria.
Presently, science and technology education is one of the seven point agenda of
Yar‟adua‟s Administration. Salami (2003), summarized government efforts to
integrate and intensify science and technology values in Nigeria education
system to include
(i) Establishment of several unity and special science schools, vocational and
technical schools in some states.
(ii) Establishment of technical workshops in secondary and technical schools.
(iii) Establishment of Federal Universities of Technology and Agriculture.
(iv) Establishment of the National Agency for Science and Engineering
infrastructure, to collate and distribute relevant research findings in
science and technology.
29
(v) Establishment of Technical Teacher‟s Training Colleges and Colleges of
Education for NCE (Technical)
(vi) Distribution of Science Equipment worth millions of naira to various
secondary schools.
(vii) Enforcing an admission policy into universities of 60:40 ratios in favour
of science and science related disciplines.
(viii) Popularization of science and technology through the formulation of the
Junior Engineers, Technicians and Scientists (JETS) clubs in post-
primary institutions all over the country.
(ix) Annual investment into teacher-in-service training, workshops, seminars
etc
(x) Payment of science allowances to science teachers and
(xi) Creation of Ministry of science and Technology are all aimed at
promoting science and technical education and Nigeria‟s technological
progress.
Concept of Chemistry
Chemistry is one of the science subjects taught at the senior secondary
school level of Nigeria‟s educational system. After the Junior Secondary School
three (JSSIII
) examinations, all students found suitable to study science in the
SSS class are enrolled to study chemistry at least during the first and second
year of the three years duration. The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004)
stated that chemistry can be taken as one of the “cores” among science subjects
30
(i.e. Biology, chemistry, physics or health science) with other one vocational
elective and two non-vocational elective subjects. Ihuahi, (2007) viewed
chemistry as the study of the properties, composition and structure of matter, the
changes in structure and composition which matter undergoes, and the
accompanying energy changes under different conditions. According to Njoku
(2009), chemistry is the study of matter, its structure transformations,
interactions and the energy consequences of the interactions and
transformations.
Chemistry is a basic science whose concerns are
(i) The structure and behaviour of atoms
(ii) The composition and properties of compounds.
(iii) The reactions between substances with their accompanying energy
changes.
(iv) The laws that unite these phenomena into a comprehensive system.
Chemistry deals extensively with energy changes which occur in
chemical processes, elucidation of the structure of materials and
identification of constituents of substances. Today, more than ever before,
the study and application of chemistry is essential to the scientific,
industrial, technological and social advancement of societies or nations.
The secondary school chemistry curriculum developed by the Federal
Ministry of Education (FME) in conjunction with Comparative Education Study
and Adoption Centre (CESAC) in 2009, has the following objectives.
31
(a) To facilitate a transition in the use of scientific concepts and techniques
acquired in integrated science with chemistry.
(b) To provide the students with basic knowledge in chemical concepts and
principles through efficient selection of content and sequencing.
(c) To show chemistry in its interrelationship with other subjects.
(d) To show chemistry and its link with industry, everyday life benefits and
hazards.
(e) To provide a course which is complete for students not proceeding to
higher education while it is at the same time a reasonably adequate
foundation for a post-secondary chemistry course.
According to Hordson, 1992, the main goals of chemistry education are
to engage students in scientific knowledge of chemistry, the nature of chemistry
and how to do chemistry that is scientific inquiry in chemistry. The nature of
chemical knowledge, how knowledge growth occurs in chemistry and how this
knowledge is structured and explained, that is chemical epistemology, are as a
central part of chemistry education (Erduran, 2001:Erduran and Scerri, 2002).
Chemistry has various unique features (Scerri and Mcintyre, 1997), but
also shares many features with other sciences. The philosophy of chemistry
describes the nature of chemistry for example, how different classification
schemes help explain qualitative aspects of matter, how different class concepts
for example acid, salt and element, are used as a means of representation, how
some concepts play very specific roles in chemistry explanations, such as
32
chemical compositions molecular structure and bonding and how electrons in
particular orbital are employed in “level specific explanations (Erduran and
Scerri, 2002).
To promote scientific understanding of chemistry (meaningful chemistry
learning), requires an increased focus on secondary school level students higher-
order thinking skills (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001) that is, applying,
analyzing, evaluating and creating or synthesizing. Inculcating meaningful
learning in chemistry can help students understand basic principles of chemistry
that they also encounter in everyday life. Meaningful learning can occur when
students not only remember, but also make sense of and are able to apply what
they have learned (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001). An authentic chemical
education, which conforms closely to the actual practice of science, is realized
through an approach to meaningful learning (Crilbert, De Jong, Justi, Treagust
and Van Driel, 2002).
According to Minzes, Wandersee and Novak, (2000) meaningful learning
occurs when students seek to relate new concepts and propositions to relevant
existing concepts and propositions in their cognitive structure. Thus, meaningful
learning is knowledge construction, in which students seek to “make sense” of
their experiences. According to Jonassen (1999), meaningful learning is an
active, constructive and cumulative, goal-directed, authentic, and takes place in
a technology-rich environment. To improve and encourage meaningful learning
which can lead to not only students remembering the concepts and principles
33
taught in chemistry, but that will lead to greater achievement in chemistry
appropriate instructional material/strategies has to be employed in teaching and
learning of chemistry especially at secondary school level.
Importance of Instructional Media in Education
Lagoke, (1999) opined that in view of the importance of science to
mankind, efforts have been made to improve the quality of its teaching and
learning in secondary schools both by government and professional
associations. Also, Ezenwa, (1999) suggested that the quality of science
especially chemistry teaching and learning can be improved through the use of
appropriate instructional media. In science most of the concepts are acquired
during instruction. The instructional strategy employed by the teacher plays an
important role in concept acquisition and meaningful learning.
According to Ajelabi, (2000) media are channels through which
messages, information, ideas and knowledge are disseminated. They are
collection of materials equipment and approaches or strategies that can be used
effectively for communication. Whenever such materials, equipment and
strategies are used for teaching and learning, they are referred to as instructional
media.
Effective teaching and learning in any subject at any institution are
dependent on the instructional strategies used. The instructional method,
strategies and or material used is a major factor responsible for the level of
achievement as well as retention in any subject by students (Mahajan, Singh,
34
2003). According to Ofoegbu, (2008) teaching is changing and in many ways
becoming a more difficult job because of increasingly numerous contradictory
expectations which according to her as stated in Fox, (2005) include that
We are living in an age of information overload with the expectations that
students will learn higher level skills such as how to access, evaluate,
analyze and synthesize vast quantities of information.
Teachers are expected to teach students to solve complex problems that
require knowledge necessary across many subject areas even as they are
held accountable for the teaching and learning of isolated skills and
information.
Teachers are expected to meet the needs of all students and more than
toward fulfillment of their individual potential.
According to Ofoegbu, (2008), technology, can assist with some of these
expectations and make teachers and their students more successful.
Technological progress impacts on our everyday life with an ever increasing
frequency and effect. How advances in technology might influence teaching and
learning must be of special importance to all chemical educators. According to
Hollingworth, (2002), there is the need to adopt a proactive and informed
attitude towards our teaching to make most effective use of emerging
technologies. The effective use of these emerging technologies will lead to an
improved teaching and learning in our schools. Such technologies as computer
35
and digital video when used effectively, will lead to the improvement of
teaching and learning process.
Information and Communication Technology and Education
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is defined as
computer based tools used by people to work for the information and
communication processing needs of an organization. It encompasses the
computer hardware and software, the internet and several other devices such as
video, audio, photography, camera etc, that convert information, images, sound,
motion, and so on into common digital form (Milken Exchange on Education
Technology, 1999) as quoted by Yusuf and Onasanya (2004). It is an eclectic
application of computing, communication telecommunication and satellite
technology (Yusuf, 2005).
Information Technology (IT) which is a component of ICT refers to the
creation, storage and processing of data including hardware system and software
application. Rahman (2002), defined Information Technology as the technology
of creating, processing, storage, retrieval and transmission of data and
information. These include telecommunication, satellite technologies, electrical,
and electronic computing which allow users to communicate and manipulate
information electronically.
Yusuf (2005) suggested that ICT can help students to
(i) Ask questions, predict and hypothesize
(ii) Observe, measure, record and manipulate variables
36
(iii) Interpret their results and evaluate scientific evidence and
(iv) Present and communicate their findings in a variety of ways. The use of
ICT can extend and enhance students understanding of science through -
simulations and modeling. It will help students to understand phenomena which
may be too slow, too fast, too dangerous or too expensive to carryout in the
school laboratories (Owen, 2003). The National Policy on Education of Nigeria
(FGN, 2004), and with particular reference to Science and Technology,
considered ICT as an important tool for laying a solid foundation of Science,
Technology and Mathematics Education at all levels of the Nigerian Education
System. ICT includes radio, television, videos, computers sensors, satellite
connections, internet and all the software which are used by teachers for
teaching and learning in order to achieve a meaningful learning by the students
(Ajagun, 2003).
Literature dealing with technology and pedagogy attests to the powerful
impact ICT can have on the teaching and learning process (Akudolu, 2003). ICT
has three positions in the curriculum and these are:
i. l Learning about ICT.
ii. Learning with ICT and
iii. Learning through ICT. Learning about ICT refers to ICT concept as a
subject of learning in the school curriculum while learning with ICT is
concerned with the use of ICT as a medium to facilitate instruction. While
sharing this view Pelgrum and Law (2003) maintain that learning through ICT
37
refers to the integration of ICT as an essential tool into a course curriculum,
such that the teaching and learning of that course/curriculum is no longer
possible without it.
The use of information and communication technology is becoming an
integral part of education in many parts of the globe. Nigeria is not left behind
as ICT is gradually finding its way into the educational system (Olaofe, 2005).
Despite the limitations brought about by economic disadvantages (Nwachukwu,
2006). It is observed that the influence of ICT on education is to enhance the
ability of each learner to generate access, adopt and apply knowledge and
information to solve complex problems (Ajayi, 2001).
Liverpool (2002) discussed the uses of ICT in teacher education and
divides them into four forms: ICT as object, ICT as assisting tools, ICT as a
medium for teaching and learning and ICT as a tool for organization and
management in schools.
(a) ICT as object: It refers to learning about ICT, mostly organized in
specific courses such as “computer education. Learners familiarize
themselves with hardware and software. Here what is being learned
depends on the types of education and the level of the students. The aim
is computer literacy.
(b) ICT as an assisting tool: ICT is used as a tool, for example, while
carrying out assignments, collecting data and documentation,
38
communicating and conducting research, typically, ICT is used
independently from the subject matter.
(c) ICT as a medium for teaching: ICT serves as a medium through which
teachers can teach and learners can learn. It may be in form of drills,
simulation, practice tutorials, exercises and educational networks.
(d) ICT as a tool for organization and management: This refers to the use
of ICT in handling school records, like timetabling, attendance, fees
collection, examination result and general communication.
Barton and Haydn (2004), opined that the new ICT facilities could allow
teachers and learners to move into the role of guidance and facilitator in
assisting students to gain the required skills and utilizes the knowledge available
in various forms. Shehu, (2006) highlighted the following benefits of ICT in the
classroom environment.
(i) Providing students with chance of studying, investigating and practicing
complex skills, procedures and concepts in a realistic but non-risky
situation. Complex skills at a realistic level can be tried by the students
without actual risk to people, capital or other sources.
(ii) Increasing student‟s access to information. Access to instruction is so
flexible and ensures broad viability and availability of educational
opportunities. It is a cost-effective system of instruction and learning
materials can be accessed irrespective of time and space.
39
(iii) Adapting instruction to the abilities and preferences of the individual
students and increasing the amount of personalized (individualized)
instruction a student receives. Many students benefit from the immediate
responsiveness of computer interactions and appreciate the self-paced and
private learning environment.
(iv) ICT helps teachers to supplement their lessons using drill and practice
software and provides primary instruction in learning centers through
tutorial or simulation software.
(v) It also helps teachers to improve upon their performance and enable them
to enhance the achievement of their students. This will result in
improvement of teachers overall efficiency and saves valuable time.
(vi) ICT to some extent helps to minimize the problem of teacher‟s scarcity in
certain areas of socialization. Many teachers can make use of computer-
assisted software as an aid to interact with a group or the whole class of
students.
ICTs are one of the major contemporary factors in shaping the now global
economy and producing rapid changes in the society. They have fundamentally
changed the way people learn, communicate and do business (UNESCO, 2002).
Considering the important role played by ICT, Ajagun, (2003) strongly
recommended that Nigeria should do something to overhaul its educational
sector or it would continue to produce “analogue graduates” who cannot fit into
the practice of modern technology.
40
However, in recognition of the prominent role of information and
communication technology in advancing knowledge and necessary skills, it is
stated in the national policy on education that for effective functioning, in
modern world, there is an urgent need to integrate information and
communication technology into Nigeria Education System (FRN, 2004). In fact,
it was observed by mac-Ikemenjima (2005) that, Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) have become key tools that have had a
revolutionary impact on how we see the world and how we live. ICT is having a
revolutionary impact on educational methodology globally. However, this
revolution is not widespread and needs to be strengthened to reach a large
percentage of the population. Therefore, there is need for Nigeria to borrow a
leaf from developed countries like the United States of America and Australia
on the type of modern methods of delivery they adopt and use in teaching and
learning processes.
The Federal Government realized the need for ICT and approved the
National Information Technology Policy. This policy focuses on the use of IT
for education, creation of wealth, poverty eradication, job creation and global
competitiveness. Thus, it is important to note that the rapid growth of ICT in
Nigeria presents a number of prospects for the advancement of the industrial
sector in Nigeria by providing more effective ways of developing human
resources that lubricate the machinery for industrial growth and development
(NITDA, 2003).
41
Nature and Scope of Computer Assisted Instruction
The computer is an electronic automatic machine which is capable of
receiving, storing, recalling or retrieving information put into it. It is the fastest
processing machine ever invented by man. According to Ezeliora (1997),
Computer is useful in almost all spheres of life such as in hospitals for keeping
records of patients, drugs, staff and accounts, instruments for diagnosis and
treatment. It facilitates the banking system and help in rendering quick banking
services to clients. It is very useful in professional services such as engineering,
chartered firms and business. Thus computer is regarded as an all-purpose
machine.
Brightman and Dunsdate (1986) defined a computer as a combination of
hardware devices and programs assembled to accomplish some specific tasks.
Computer is a technological information process device which can be used to
present instructional events that are designed, developed and produced for an
individualized learning situation. The computer has been adopted and adapted
for this purpose because it can perform numerous mathematical and logical
operations without the intervention of a human operator during the run.
Computer has been found to be the most suitable, reliable and versatile medium
for individualizing instruction. It is able to deal simultaneously with large
number of students on individual basis and this tends to lower the cost, in the
long run (Becta, 2005). From the foregoing, the application of computer
42
technology to classroom environment has a significant role in the present
dispensation. However, adequate consideration should be given to Computer
Assisted Instruction (CAI) software for the upliftment of frontier of knowledge
of science. Abimbade (1998) asserted that “since this is the era of instructional
technology where computer is playing an important role in industry and
commerce, attention should be focused on the use of computer in school
settings” (p.34).
With the advent of computer-based learning, instructions are shifting
from traditional methods of instruction to computerized methods of instruction
in developed nations. As new ideas and methods of doing things are changing,
majority of educators are increasingly being faced with the challenges of using
modern technology (computer) for teaching in their institutions (Hennessy,
Deaney, & Ruthven, 2005). Through the use of computer, the roles of many
teachers are changing from the traditional lock-step giver of information to that
of presenter, manager and facilitator of learning. For instance, in the United
States, computers have been described as “the new basic” of education and the
internet as “the blackboard of the future” (Becta, 2003). Today, teachers are
expected to make use of modern instructional methods which are appropriate for
the students and which contribute to the development and employment
conditions, and can assist them to carry out swiftly, efficiently and effectively
what has to be done in the teaching-learning environment (Mohammed &
Ekpunobi, 2003). Yusuf (2005) and Maruf (2007), noted that the full potential
43
of computers is yet to be exploited within the Nigerian school system.
Successful implementation of computer education can only be assured through
teachers who have acquired necessary knowledge and skills. If computer
education is to succeed in Nigerian schools, teachers must be competent in the
use of computers.
Computer has wide application in education. Computer-Based Education
(CBE) and Computer-Based Instruction (CBI) are the broadest terms and can
refer to virtually any kind of computer used in educational setting, including
drill and practice, tutorials, simulations, instructional management,
supplementary exercise, programming, database development, writing; using
word processors, and other applications. These terms may refer either to stand-
alone computer learning activities or to computer activities which reinforce the
materials introduced and taught by teachers (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, & Kulik,
1985).
Onasanya and Adegbija (2007) identified some of the ways the computer
can be effectively used in instructional system as an instructional tools, as a tool
for providing payrolls for teaching and non-teaching staff, as a managing
administrative and library records tools, and as a tool for automation of some
simple level of instruction (drill and practice, tutorial, animation, simulations,
demonstration etc). Actually, the use of computer in education is an extension
and a rather sophisticated level of programmed instruction.
44
Batey (1986) viewed Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) as a narrower
term and most often refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation activities
offered either by themselves or as supplements to traditional, teacher-directed
instruction. Abimbade (1998) defined CAI as an automated instruction in which
the computer is used to deliver instruction to the learner through interactive
process. Several researchers (Amanda, 2005; Kini, 1994; Schacter & Fagnano,
1999; Xin, 2000) have compared the effects produced by all forms of computer-
assisted instruction sometimes alone and some other times as a supplement to
traditional instruction. Here, results are too mixed to permit any firm
conclusion. Some have found CAI superior, some have found conventional
instruction superior, and still, others have found no difference between them.
For example, Edwards, Norton, Taylor, Weiss, and Dusseldorp (1975) reviewed
research on the effects of CAI on achievement, retention and learning rate and
its effects on students of different ability levels. CAI, as a supplement to
traditional teacher-directed instruction, was found to be very beneficial. On the
contrary, Campbell, Peck, Horn, and Leigh (1987), compared the mathematics
performance of third graders using a commercial computerized drill and
practice program with that of similar students using a conventional print drill
program. There were no statistically significant differences between the groups.
Yaakub (1998) summarized from his meta-analysis that on the average higher
gains are produced when using CAI rather than just traditional teaching
45
methods. His findings revealed that the effect size is likely to double from 35%
to 64% when CAI is utilized.
In general, the literature reveals that the use of CAI as a supplement to
traditional teacher-directed instruction produces achievement in most cases
superior to those obtained with traditional instruction alone (Dalton & Hannafin,
1988; Fletcher-Flinn & Gravatt 1995, Schacter & Fagnano, 1999). These
findings are relevant to students of different ages and abilities learning in
different curricular areas.
According to James and Barbara, (2002) CAI promotes intrinsic
motivation to learn for graduate students. This is in line with the classrooms of
developed nations where students utilize interactive technologies which
encourage active learning to take place in most of their classrooms. They learn
with modern technology, as opposed to what is being practiced in Nigeria
(Egbezor, 2004).
Several researchers (Batey, 1986; Capper & Copple, 1985; Fletcher,
Flinn, & Gravatt, 1995; Liao, 2005; Xin, 2000) have also found that CAI
enhances learning rate. Students‟ learning rate is faster with CAI than with
conventional instruction. In some research studies, the students learned the same
amount of material in less time than the traditionally instructed students; in
others, they learned more material in the same time. While most researchers
don‟t specify how much faster CAI students learn, the work of Capper and
46
Copple (1985) led to the conclusion that CAI users sometimes learn as much as
40 percent faster than those receiving conventional, teacher-directed instruction.
If students receiving CAI learn better and faster than students receiving
conventional instruction alone, do they also retain their learning better? The
answer, according to researchers (Akpinar, 2006; Kulik, 1985 & Rupe, 1986)
who have conducted comparative studies on learning retention, is „yes‟. In their
findings, student‟s scores on delayed tests indicate that the retention of content
learned using CAI is superior to retention following traditional instruction
alone. Kulik (1985) reported the results of three meta-analysis of research on
Computer-Based Education at the elementary, secondary, and post secondary
levels. He found CBE superior to traditional instruction in its effects on
achievement, retention, learning rate, and attitudes toward computers and
courses.
Much of the research that examined the effects of CAI and other
microcomputer applications on student learning outcomes also investigated
effects upon students‟ attitudes. This line of inquiry has brought most
researchers to the conclusion that the use of CAI leads to more positive
students‟ attitudes than the use of conventional instruction. This general finding
has emerged from studies of the effects of CAI on student‟s attitudes toward
computers and the use of computers in education, course content/subject matter,
and quality of instruction, self-as-learner, and the school in general (Batey,
47
1986; Bialo & Sivin 1990; Dalton & Hannafin, 1988; Mahmood, 2004; Kulik,
1985; Rupe 1986; Yusuf, 2006).
The effects of CAI on other students‟ outcomes have not been as
extensively researched as CAI‟s effects on achievement, learning rate, retention,
and attitudes. Some researchers have, however, investigated CAI‟s influence on
other variables and found it to confer benefits on learners‟ control, large class,
learners‟ ability levels, disabled learners, gender, and various disciplines.
Capper and Copple (1985) and Kinnaman (1990) found that CAI students have
more of an internal locus of control/sense of self-efficacy than conventionally
instructed students. CAI students had better attendance to class in Capper and
Copple‟s (1985) study, Liao (2005) meta-analysis and Rupe‟s 1986) review
study.
Is CAI more effective with some students‟ population than others? Many
researchers have conducted comparative analyses to answer this question and
have produced findings in several areas. Similarly, most comparative studies
have shown that CAI is more beneficial to younger students than to older ones.
While research shows CAI to be beneficial to students in general, the degree of
impact decreases from the elementary to secondary and to post-secondary levels
(Becker 1992; Bracey 1987; Fagbemi, 2004).
Becker (1992) summarized the result of his research to determine the
nature, extent, and effectiveness of computer use in public schools. He showed
disappointing results and attributed these to individual and institutional
48
resistance to the kinds of changes that would lead to more productive use of
computer technology. Other researchers (Mevarech & Rich, 1985; Ragosta,
Holland & Jamison, 1982) noted that CAI confers greater benefits on
economically disadvantaged students than those from more privileged
backgrounds. Lower achiever students, too, benefited greatly from opportunities
to interact privately with CAI drill-and –practice and tutorial programs.
Computer can, therefore, be seen as a tool for effective teaching and
learning of cognitive structure, psychomotor and affective abilities. When
taking into account cognitive growth, some studies have shown an increase in
this learning when CAI was infused with the instructional delivery. One
particular study analyzed the incorporation of interactive media to aid students
in a science course. At the end of the six-week unit, there was an overall
improvement of 24% in the number of correct responses, mainly higher level
thinking skills between pre and posttests. The findings revealed observable
growth in both students‟ social and thinking skills. By providing media enriched
examples of plant and animal fossils, students were able to better identify and
classify them (Henderson, Eshet, & Klemes, 2000). That the use of CAI
software increases the cognitive domain of higher-order thinking skills were
also reported. Adeniyi (1997) found that students taught mathematics and
physics with computer achieved higher cognitively than those taught without
computer. This was supported by Gambari (2004) who found that students
taught physics with CAI package performed better than those taught without it.
49
Fagbemi (2004) found that pupils taught social studies with CAI performed
better than those taught with conventional teaching method.
Closely related to the above are the findings by Ehman and Glen (1987)
and Hasselbring (1984) that CAI is more effective for teaching lower-cognitive
materials than it is for teaching higher-cognitive materials. This research makes,
essentially, the same point that CAI is particularly effective for reinforcing the
basic, fact-oriented learning most often engaged in by younger and low achiever
students. Also, Ong (1999) investigated the effects of a computerized drill- and
practice program on the achievement and attitudes of third and fourth grade
students of different ability levels. Participants outperformed control, and low-
ability students gained more than middle-or high-ability students. No attitude
difference was noted.
CAI is also useful for disabled students. For example, Bahr and Rieth
(1989) compared the effects of conventional instructions, computerized drill and
practice, and computer games on the mathematics achievement of learning of
disabled junior and senior high school students. Students in the drill-and-
practice condition outperformed other students to a modest degree. Similarly,
Hall, McLaughlin, and Bialozor, 1989) reported the results of a study in which
computer-assisted instruction was used with mildly handicapped elementary
students. The spelling achievement scores of CAI participants were significantly
greater than the scores of conventionally instructed students, and half the CAI
students had scores equal to those of their non-handicapped peers. Other
50
researches (Bialo & Sivin, 1990; Kinnaman, 1990; Roblyer, 1988) conducted
with learning disabled, mentally retarded; hearing impaired, emotionally
disturbed, and language-disordered students indicated that their achievement
levels are greater with CAI than with conventional instruction alone. In some of
these researches, handicapped CAI students even outperformed conventionally
taught, non-handicapped students.
Research on gender is always inconclusive because this comparison was
not addressed by enough researchers to draw firm conclusions. The 1988 meta-
analysis of 82 studies of CBE conducted by Roblyer, Castine, and King
concluded that effective differences slightly favour boys over girls, with
differences falling short of statistical significance.
Research evidence showed that CAI enhances students‟ performance in
all areas of discipline. A few researchers (Kulik, Kulik & Bangert-Drowns,
1985, Rodriguez & Rodriguez, 1986) compared the effectiveness of CAI in
different curricular areas. Their findings, though not conclusive, indicated that
CAI activities are most effective in the areas of science and foreign languages,
followed, in descending order of effectiveness, by activities in mathematics,
reading, language arts, and English as a second language, with CAI activities in
ESL found to be largely ineffective. Many of these studies point to students‟
appreciation of the immediate and positive feedback provided by computer
learning activities in comparison with teacher-directed activities. While cost
considerations are not a major focus of this report, it is worth noting that some
51
of the research on effectiveness also addressed the cost-effectiveness of CAI
and other computer applications. Ragosta, Holland, and Jamison (1982)
concluded that equal amounts of time of CAI reinforcement and the more-
expensive one-to-one tutoring produced equal achievement effects. Niemiec,
Sikorski, and Walberg (1996) also found CAI activities significantly more cost-
effective than tutoring and suggested that computers be used more extensively
in schools and in their 1999 study of costs, effects, and utility of CAI, Hawley,
Fletcher, and Piele noted that the cost differences between CAI and traditional
instruction were insignificant and concluded that “the microcomputer-assisted
instruction was the cost effective alternative of choice” for the grades addressed
in the study (p.22).
Cotton (1991) summarized various researches on CAI and found that:
(i) Computer-Based Education (CAI and other computer applications)
produced higher achievement than conventional instruction alone. Also,
students learn material faster with CAI than with conventional instruction
alone and retain better what they have learned with CAI than they do
what they have learned with conventional instruction alone.
(ii) The use of CAI is associated with other beneficial outcomes, including
greater internal locus of control, school attendance, cost effective,
motivation/time-on-task, immediate feedback and student-student
cooperation and collaboration than the use of conventional instruction
alone.
52
(iii) CAI is more beneficial with lower-achieving students than with higher-
achieving ones and there were no significant difference in the
effectiveness of CAI with male and female students.
From the literature reviewed on computer assisted instruction (CAI), it
shows that CAI is beneficial to the lower-achieving students than the higher-
achieving ones and its effect on gender is inconclusive. It is therefore,
imperative to consider the possibility of having an instructional medium/
strategy that will benefit all the groups of students.
Nature and Scope of Concept Mapping
Concept mapping is a type of knowledge representation. It is a technique
for representing the structure of information visually (Schie, 2002). According
to Novack, (1983) concept mapping is a technique for visually representing the
structure of information.
A concept map is a graphical representation where nodes (points or
vertices) represent concept, and links (arcs or lines) represent the relationships
between concepts. The concepts, and sometimes the links are labeled on the
concept map. The link between the concepts can be one way, two-way or non-
directional. The concepts and the links may be categorized, and the concept
may show temporal or causal relationship between concepts. Novack‟s work is
based on Ausubel‟s theory of meaningful learning which stresses that learning
new knowledge is dependent on what is already known. More specifically, new
knowledge gains meaning when it can be substantively related to a framework
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of existing knowledge rather than being “processed and filed” in isolation
according to more or less arbitrary criteria.
A concept map consists of hierarchically arranged nodes or cells that
contain a concept, item or question and labeled links. The relationship between
nodes/ concepts is indicated by “linking” words and an arrow to describe the
direction of the maps. Concept mapping supports the visualization of such
conceptual framework and stimulates prior knowledge by making it explicitly
and requiring the learner to pay attention to the relationship between concepts
(Jonassen, 1996). Concept maps are particularly useful for representing
networks of concepts, where links do not only connect adjacent concepts but are
often linked to concepts in different sections of the concept map. The resulting
web of concepts increases the number of relationships that connect new
information to existing concepts increasing the stability of the new information.
This type of structural flexibility makes concept mapping highly suitable for
hypermedia environments, since the type of linking employed in concept maps
is an excellent representation of hypermedia‟s non-linear paradigm. Concept
maps can be useful as a tool for conceptual development of hypermedia,
navigational structures within hypermedia applications, and interfaces for the
indexing and retrieval of hypermedia objects (Plotnick, 1997).
According to Okafor and Okeke, (2006), concept mapping is a
pedagogical strategy/meta-cognitive tool based on Ausubel-Novack-Gowin
theory of meaningful learning. It is based n the idea that meaningful learning
54
occurs when new knowledge is consciously, explicitly and deliberately linked
with relevant concepts which the learner already knows. That is, teaching from
known to unknown concepts and from concrete to abstract concepts. It
encourages students to learn difficult concepts. Concept map is a schematic
representation of a set of concept meanings embedded in a framework of
propositions. Concept mapping is a tool that promotes meaningful learning as
opposed to rote learning. The hierarchical order of concept mapping integration
therein as well as its explicitness makes it an approach that concretizes abstract
knowledge. Its application therefore in linking the principles and concepts in
science is a welcome departure from algorithmic methods and conventional
methods in solving problems in science.
Concept mapping has become increasingly useful as an instructional and
meta-learning tool to facilitate meaningful learning that results when students
consciously and explicitly tie new concept to relevant knowledge they already
possess (Chen, 1998). Wang, (2007) opined that concept mapping can be use to
organize classroom teaching in order to achieve a three-dimensional objectives
of teaching and help teachers to understand students knowledge structure,
evaluate students development and also promote students self reflection,
knowledge construction and make them grasp the knowledge structure entirely
and form the strategy of cognition and meta cognition. Concept maps have been
used successfully over a range of ages and educational levels from children as
inexperienced as kindergarten (Stice and Alvarez, 1987) to sophisticated adult
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graduate students. They proposed that if students begin the use of concept maps
at a younger age before their learning pattern are firmly established, mapping
will be easier and more influential in their achievement and attitude.
Concept mapping puts concepts into perspective, analyzes relationships
and prioritizes information (Landsberger, 2001). Since mapping promotes
meaningful learning rather than rote learning, the information will likely be
retained longer (Rafferty and Fleschner, 1993). Gabel, (2003) sees concept
mapping as a successful technique that improves the understanding of science.
That concept maps are schematic diagrams that use words to show the
relationship of one concept to another. Concept mapping helps students focus
on the relationship among concepts so that students‟ long-term memories will
accord with the scientific view. Concept mapping can be very boring, but it can
be effective when used with other teaching techniques.
Schie, (2002), highlighted several purposes that concept mapping can be
used,
(i) Creativity tool: Drawing a concept map can be compared to participating
is a brainstorming session. As one put ideas down on paper without
criticism, the ideas become clearer and the mind becomes free to receive
new ideas. These new ideas may be linked to ideas already on the paper,
and they may also trigger new associations leading to new ideas.
(ii) Communication tool: A concept map produced by one person represents
one possible way to structure information or ideas. This is something that
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can be shared with others. A concept map produced by a group of people
represents the ideas of the group. In either case, concept mapping can be
used as a communication tool for people to use to discuss concepts and
the relationships between the concepts. They may try to agree on a
common structure to use as a basis for further action.
(iii) Learning tool: Novack‟s original work with concept mapping dealt with
learning. Constructivist learning theory, argues that new knowledge
should be integrated into existing structures in order to be remembered
and receive meaning. Concept mapping stimulates this process by making
it explicit and requiring learner to pay attention to the relationship
between concepts. Jonassen (1996) argues that students show some of
their best thinking when they try to present something graphically, and
thinking is a necessary condition for learning. Experiments have shown
that subjects using concept mapping out perform non-concept mapping in
longer term retention tests (Novack, Gowin and jonassen, (1983).
(iv) Problem solving: Concept mapping is also gaining inroads as a tool for
problem solving in education. Concept mapping may be used to enhance
problem-solving phases of generating alternative solutions and options.
Since problems-solving in education is usually done in small groups,
learning should also benefit from the communication enhancing
properties of concept mapping.
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Despite studies results showing the effectiveness of CAI as well as
concept mapping , students still perform poorly in science especially chemistry.
This gap in knowledge calls for this study. Hence, there is the need to evaluate
the effectiveness of computer assisted concept mapping in chemistry.
Computer Assisted Concept Mapping as an Instructional Media
Computer assisted concept mapping is a relatively new strategy in
instructional design. It incorporates concept mapping into computer assisted
instruction. Computer assisted concept mapping is an instructional strategy that
incorporates the use of computer instruction with concept mapping. Not much
work have been done using these instructional strategy to improve teaching and
learning, even where it has been used, it is outside the shore of Nigeria and no
study has been found for chemistry. For example, Chien-hsun Tu (2006),
conducted a study on the effect of computer assisted concept mapping learning
in social studies. There was a positive effect on the students‟ achievement in
social studies. Also Wongsatit, (2001), examined the effects of computer-
assisted instruction lesson with different concept mapping presentation methods
on learning achievement and retention in science subject. The results of this
study show that there were no difference in learning achievement and retention
in the science subject.
Digital Video Disc as an Instructional Media
Digital video is one of the technologies that offer a great deal of
flexibility in imparting knowledge. It is a type of motion picture which uses
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films. Video technology has been in existence in industrialized societies for
decades now. Its notable characteristics include its ability to record a
performance instantly and display “live what it has recorded, portability, show
action mechanism and self-pacing for individual learning activities (Adebayo,
2008). Video package are instructional materials that use the stimuli of sight and
hearing. According to Isiaka, (2007), video is a powerful tool for instruction in
the classroom. By means of it, students could learn about lands and people they
can never visit. Video is a potential window that can expose the minds and heart
of students to scientific concepts. Video enhances comprehension and retention.
Real life activities,illustration, demonstration and specimen are brought into the
classroom in a neat and exciting package. Learning experiences that would have
cost much (in terms of field trip) could be recorded with a video camera and
shown on a television through VHS or VCD or DVD at much less cost. Video
package have the ability to motivate and sustain learners attention at high level
(Onyegegbu, 1999). According to Ayogu (2000), the use of video in instruction
stimulates learners and induces meaningful learning on them. Video package
can be used as core or supplementary learning materials and can be used to
teach difficult Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM) concepts. Ayogu,
(2000) came up with evidence that there is hardly any subject matter, which
could not be taught effectively and learned when the individual considers the
subject matter interesting. Video package is an added advantage to teaching and
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learning in that, the video package could be used for distance learning
(Adebayo, 2008).
According to Olarewaju and Jimoh, (1995), a well recorded programme
help to meet the challenges of not only representing the event, but also offering
the viewer a functional equivalence of the experience.
The video package gives the learner the ability to see and hear an
instructor, offer opportunity for behaviour modeling, demonstration and
instruction of abstract concepts. It offers a popular easy-to-use format for
instructional materials. Almost all students have access to a video player in the
home and are also used in schools. Ayogu, (2000) stated that when video
package is used to compliment instruction they can
(i) reduce abstraction in class lesson
(ii) reduce boredom among students and teachers
(iii) conserve the teachers energy
(iv) Restructure the learning environment.
(v) Make learning interesting and motivating to students.
(vi) Minimizes the problems of large class size.
(vii) Promote students participation in Science, Technology and Mathematics
(STM) lessons.
(viii) Reduce the problem of insufficiency of learning resources and
(ix.) Encourage individualized learning: video package are not only used for
instruction in the classroom, but can as well be used for conferencing.
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Digital video provides visual illustration to supplement written
instructions or text and provides consistency of information to
supplement students note taking (MIC Science Educators Portal, 2009).
According to Mayer, (2002) the combination of visual and audio should
help create the most useful multimedia learning situation. Knowledge enters the
human brain mainly through two major senses of sight and hearing. Sight covers
between 75-90% and hearing 10-15% and that the percentage of knowledge
which enters the human brain through sight and hearing is such that we can
remember 30% of what we hear, and 50% of what we hear and see
simultaneously (Gbodi, 1998). Nwoji, (2000) opined that video and television
have the potentials of enhancing quality learning of science. According to her,
they can be used to arouse interest, modify attitude, clarify concepts, stimulate
thinking, summarize contents, demonstrate and concretize knowledge that could
otherwise only be talked about in abstract terms.
Also, according to Nwoji (2000) video instruction can transmit verbal and
non-verbal kinds of information since video instruction is a multi-media
instruction with the combination of Audio and Visual materials, and that video
offers a reality of experience that stimulates self-activities on the part of the
students. It develops the continuity of thought. Video instruction is a form of
non-directive teaching techniques. The teacher produces an instructional video
package which is played on a video player connected to a television monitor
which is put on, for the learner to view. At interval he may choose to stop
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playing and explain certain points or factors or probably wait till the end of the
lesson. Learners have the opportunity to view the production over and over
again (Orisabiyi, 2007).
However, in spite of the usefulness of video instruction, if not handled by
right personnel, video as an instructional technique could be misused. If it is not
properly used, students may enjoy just viewing as any other film or probably
documentary or entertainment rather than a learning experience. Content should
be selected, so as to ensure that it goes along with the line of instruction.
Emphasis should be placed on relevant facts or ideas.
Another major problem with the video instruction is that it is not easily
adapted to the rural areas especially where there is no electricity. Even in urban
areas the teacher/instructor is at the mercy of Power Holding Company of
Nigeria (PHCN), who may or may not provide electricity. Another problem is
cost in terms of purchase of the video machine and production of the video
instructional package. Video is also very fragile, that needs handling with care.
It should not be entrusted to an untrained person. Trained personnel are needed
in handling and use of video machine during classroom presentation. Lack of
spare parts is also responsible for its non-readily use in schools. Often, when
damaged, it is usually very difficult to put it to good use again.
Gender and Achievement in Science and Technology
The Concept “gender “ has attracted the attention on many researchers,
biologist, psychologist: as a result a lot of literature exists on different
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aspects such as gender and social role, gender and work role. In this study
the differential gender achievement in science was reviewed. The term “gender
was defined by Oakley (1993) as the amount of masculinity and feminity
found in a person and obviously while there are mixtures of both in most
human beings , the normal male has a preponderance of masculinity and
the normal female has a preponderance of feminity.
Gender difference is one of the factors affecting learning and many
researchers have focused their attention on studies relating to its effect on
students achievement in science. Studies on the influence of gender on
achievement have not produced conclusive results. Some findings indicated that
significant differences existed between the achievement of male and female
students while other findings showed that gender factor had no influence on
students achievement (Yusuf, 2004).
Jimoh (1992) carried out a research work on the influence of teacher, school
variables and gender on student‟s achievements in chemistry in Nigeria
Secondary schools. He used one hundred and ninety (190) final year chemistry
students and forty four (44) chemistry teachers randomly selected from twenty –
four (24) secondary schools in five (5) local government areas of Kwara State.
He used a 19-item questionnaire administered to the chemistry teachers while
30-items chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) was given to the sampled
students. The statistical procedures used were mean, frequency, chi-square and
t-test in analyzing the data collected, the result revealed that
63
I Laboratory facilities, teachers‟ qualification, school location,
teaching experience had significant influence on students „level of
Achievement
II Nature of the school and gender had no appreciable influence on
students level of achievement in chemistry.
Adebayo (1997) carried out a research work on gender, environment and co
education as factors of performance in the raven‟s standard progression
matrices”. He used a non-verbal figures test of reasoning called the raven
standard progressive matrices. The test was administered to a total of four
hundred and eighty (480) students comprising of two hundred and forty (240)
boys and two hundred and thirty six (236) girls all of Mean age of 14.5
years. They were selected from eight (8) secondary schools in Lagos State,
Nigeria. The schools were single sex and co-educational and were also located
both in rural and urban areas. The results obtained were analyzed with respect to
gender environment and type of school. The findings showed that:
i. The boys performed significantly better than the girls.
ii. Students from Urban areas had high mean than those from
rural areas.
iii. Students from single-sex school had higher mean scores than
those from mixed schools with the difference being statistically
significant. The result in Nigeria is comparable to the one from
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Britain. This is because geographical location and environment do
not have effects on ravens standard progression matrices test.
Awoniyi (2000) carried out a study investigate the relationship of gender
to academic achievements. Data were collected on six course offered at college
of Education Technical, Lafiagi using 1997/98 NCE III students. Proportional
stratified systematic sampling techniques were used and the data collected were
analyzed using mean score statistical method. The result revealed that there
was a significant difference between the academic achievement of male and
female students. Balogun (2000) carried out a research work to determine
whether gender has positive effects on achievement in the productive and
receptive skill among the secretariat students. He used proportionate satisfied
random sampling method to select a total of sixty-two (62) students
comprising forty –nine (49) female and thirteen male of first year secretariat
students of Auchi Polytechnics, Auchi , University of Ibadan Modified Needs
Analysis questionnaire (UIMNAQ) was used to collect relevant date. Mean
and standard deviation were used to analyze research question while the t-test
statistics was used to test the level of significance. The result revealed that
gender does not have positive effect on the performance of the skills.
Mohammed (2000) in his study titled “assessment of female student‟
performances in selected science courses” carried out a pilot study using
selected female students offering statistics and Science Laboratory Studies. In
65
his research he compared the performance of both sexes in the courses.
Statistical chart like multiple bar charts was used for the presentation while test
of significance of correlation, regression and time series were used. The result
shows that there was a significant difference between male and female
performance. In continued concern for influence of gender on student‟s
performance, Okeke (2001) observed that in Nigeria and many other countries,
women are grossly underrepresented in the science and technological fields.
In trying to find explanations for low participation of women in science,
Okeke (2001) attributed the trend to the following factors: biological factors,
environmental inputs, such as childrearing practices, societal expectations, and
instructional strategies. To add to this fact, Erinosho (1998), pointed out that
girls usually start with positive attitude and enthusiasm towards the
sciences, but their interest diminishes as they proceed in the programme.
This occurrence led many researchers to examine the possible factors that deter
girls; interest in science. Erinosho went further to state that girls do not
experience science activities and skills in the classroom to the extent boys
do. Oakes (1990) remarked that girls are treated differently from boys by
teachers in their instructional strategies and expectations. Teachers are harder
on boys than on girls and so boys learn better and faster. Also another factor is
the use of sex-biased text-book that girls read, with more examples and
illustrations focused on males in science careers and females on stereo typed
roles with the use of generic nouns or pronouns. This is commonly seen in
66
books illustrating engineers and technicians with “male pictures and using the
pronoun “He and a clerk or typist with a picture of a female and using the
pronoun She”. These brain – wash the girls, making them believe that science
related course are not for them. Odunusi (2001) observed that the role models
provided are more male science teachers and professionals, than females. They
observed that the males receive more from teachers and dominate classroom
activities moiré than the females most importantly , there every inequalities
occurring inside and outside the classroom. These include denying girls‟
access to some subjects and also subtle differences in treatment which may
also have cultural undertone or backing.
Annetta, Mangrum, Holmes, Colazo and Cheng (2009) examine students‟
learning of simple machines, a fifth-grade (ages 10 – 11) forces and motion unit,
and student engagement using a teacher created Multiplayer Educational
Gaming Application. This mixed method study collection pre-test/post-test
results to determine student knowledge about simple machines. A survey
ascertained the time spent using the computer for general purposes, and the time
spent playing computer games as a function of gender. The pre-test design
involved 74 students, 31 males and 43 females, who played the “Dr. Friction”
Multiplayer Educational Gaming Application for several days in the middle of
the unit. Results showed the females using the computer more than their male
counterparts and males played video games more than females. Analysis of
covariance suggested no significant difference between the factor gender (p
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greater than 0.05) but statistically significant differences in gain scores (p =
0.001).
Kost, Pollock and Finkelstein (2009) examine gender differences and
factors responsible for such in introductory physics. The collection of
background factors is analyzed to determine the extent to which each factor
correlates with performance on a conceptual post-test and with gender. It was
observed that males and females with similar pretest scores do not have
significantly different post-test scores (p greater than 0.2). The post-test data are
then modeled using two regression models (multiple regression and logistic
regression) to estimate the gender in post-test scores after controlling for these
important prior factors. These prior factors account for about 70% of the
observed gender gap. The results indicate that the gender gap exists in
interactive physics classes is largely associated with differences in previous
physics and math knowledge and incoming attitudes and beliefs.
Iwendi (2009) investigated the influence of gender and age on the
mathematics achievement of secondary students in Minna metropolis, Niger
State. 195 students intact classes selected by stratified random sampling from
purposefully selected schools were used. 50-item mathematics achievement test
(MAT) was administered to the students. Mean, standard deviation and t-test
were used to analyze the data obtained. The findings showed that: (i) younger
male students performed better than the younger female students, (ii) the older
male students performed better than older female students, and (iii) no
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significant difference in the performance of younger and older students
(overall).
Adeyemi (2008) investigated the effect of thee teaching strategies
(cooperative, problem – solving and conventional) on junior secondary school
students‟ achievement in social studies. Pretest, posttest control non-randomized
quasi-experimental design was used. The study made use of 150 students (80
boys and 70 girls) that were selected using stratified sampling technique from
three public secondary schools in Ife Central Local Government Area of Osun
State, Nigeria. The unit showed that students exposed to cooperative learning
strategy performed better and their counterparts in the groups. The results of the
study also indicated that the effect of teaching strategies were gender sensitive.
However, the study did not nation the type of cooperative learning strategy
employed.
Ifamuyiwa and Akinsola (2008) investigated the effects of self and
execrative instructional strategies on senior secondary school students‟ attitude
awards mathematics. The moderating effects of locus of control and gender
were also investigated. 350 SSS II students from six purposively selected
secondary schools in Edu-North Government Areas of Ogun State participated
in the study. Three comments were developed, validated and used for data
collection. Findings showed that the treatments had significant main effect on
students‟ attitude towards mathematics. The participants exposed to self-
instructional strategy had the highest post-test mean attitude score. The study
69
found no significant main effects of locus of control and gender on the
participants‟ attitude towards mathematics. Cooperative aiming strategies are
more effective in improving students‟ attitude towards mathematics than the
conventional method.
Geist and King (2008) reviewed the assessment data, literature and
research on gender differences in mathematics. The question of whether boys
are better at mathematics has been an issue in education for the past five (5)
years. The assumption is that there is a biological difference between boys and
girls that make boys predisposed to do better in mathematics. Data from the
National Assessment of Educational Progress disputes this assumption. The
NAEP shows a gap of only 2 points between girls and boys and that has
developed only in the last decade. Findings from the reviewed literature and
research on differences in boys and girls concludes that their differences in the
way boys and girls learn and process mathematics and that this difference is not
being taken into account by our educational system.
Anagbogu and Ezelira (2007) conducted a research to examine gender
differences in scientific performance of boys and girls in some selected
secondary schools in Awka Education Zone, in Anambra State using the study
of Anagbogu (1988). The boys and girls were assigned to experimental and
control groups respectively. The research instrument was a combination of three
level tests namely cognitive skills test, affective skills test, and psychomotor
skills test. The three levels were predominantly visual materials related to
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school science practical material capable of eliciting student‟s attention. In order
to test the hypothesis the scores of boys and girls were subjected to Analysis of
Covariance (ANCOVA) on the pretest and posttest scores. The study showed
that girls performed better than boys do using categories that are human
oriented.
Orabi (2007) examined the gender differences in student academic
performance and attitudes toward their education and themselves in an
introductory engineering course. Student academic performance was evaluated
by comparing course work scores between the two genders using assignments,
projects, exams and class participation. Analysis of the academic performance
and attitude of 52 male students and 49 female students enrolled in an
introduction to engineering course sight by the same instructor was carried out
in four semesters. The results showed that there were no significant difference
between mean scores in the academic performance of the genders in the course,
and this was evident in the coursework and examination performance analysis.
Average marks scored by students of either gender were almost equal. The
attitude survey showed that men reported higher gains than women on the
technical skills, including confidence on engineering knowledge as a career and
problem solving skills while women indicated higher gains in teamwork and
design skills. Female students were able to learn the material as effectively as
the male students.
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Rodger, Murray and Cummings (2007) investigate gender differences in
achievement for 80 female and 80 male university students who were randomly
assigned to either cooperative or competitive teaching methods. After viewing a
videotaped instruction on research design, participants completed a mini-
assignment either individually in the competitive or with a same-gender partner
in the cooperative condition. All participants individually completed a multiple-
choice test to assess achievement. Although no differences were found on the
multiple-choice test, on the mini-assignment, women scored significantly higher
in the cooperative than in the competitive condition, whereas men performed
equally in both conditions.
Ifamuyiwa (2004) examined the relationship between students‟
performance in JSS Mathematics and SSS Mathematics, Further mathematics
and physics. 288 senior secondary students comprising 164 boys ad 124 girls
selected from 4 public secondary schools in Eti-Osa Local Government Area of
Lagos State. Results of the analysis of collected data for the study showed that a
significant correlation exists between students‟ performance in JSS mathematics
and their performance in SSS mathematics, further mathematics and physics
respectively. A positive relationship was found between JSS Mathematics and
SSS Mathematics and SSS Physics (r = 0.59), Further mathematics (r = 0.52)
and Mathematics (r = 0.50) respectively. The study further found that while
there is no significant gender difference in students‟ performance in JSS
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Mathematics, their performance in SSS Mathematics is significant in favour of
the boys.
Olson (2002) examined the effectiveness of cooperative learning in the
liberal mathematics course. He also examined gender-related differences in the
effects of cooperative learning in terms towards mathematics, attendance, and
retention. The quasi-experimental design compared a control section using
individualized learning methods with three treatment sections using cooperative
learning methods based on the learning together model. The finding revealed
that: (i) cooperative learning and composition of groups had no significant
effect on achievement, (ii) the differences between individual group grades
were insignificant, and the group grading method benefited the grades of only
five students, (iii) attendance had a large effect on achievement, and the
achievement score and the mathematics attitude posttest were significant
predictors of achievement, (iv) in each of the four research groups, the
individual course grades were higher for females than males, (v) females had a
larger increase in mathematics anxiety with a drop of 22 points compared to the
males drop of 10 points, (iv) also, female had smaller attitudes change than
males. All these constraints and misconceptions need to be removed and
corrected respectively in a learning situation in order to improve on female
participation and achievement in science, technology and mathematics.
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Theoretical Framework
Theoretical framework that influences this study will examine two areas
of theories that contribute to the growth of computer –assisted instruction,
digital video instruction and concept mapping learning strategies. The
theoretical framework for computer-assisted instruction applies to digital video
instruction since both are seen as teaching machines.
Learning is a construct which is not directly observable but only inferred
from the behavior or activities of the learner. Learning can be defined as a
relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience in the
environment and is manifested in performance (Mallum and Haggai 2000).
Therefore, many psychologists have formulated theories meant to explain the
processes of learning. Learning theory is a tested model that explains the
process of learning in animals and human beings. These theories may be
broadly divided into two among others, namely:
Behaviorism/S-R theories of learning: Skinner‟s Operant
Conditioning
Cognitive theories of learning: Gagne‟s theory and David Ausubel‟s
theory.
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Skinner‟s view grew out of observations of the performance of animals in
a device that he invented. It consisted of a small box with a lever at one side.
Whenever the animal depressed the lever, a pellet of food (positive
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reinforcement) was delivered. This came to be known as Skinner box, and has
been widely used in learning studies for more than 50 years.
Skinner concerned himself in the early years predominantly with the
study of low-level behaviours of animals, and as a result contributed
significantly to our knowledge of how simple behaviours are both learned and
weakened (extinguished). Skinner then applied these concepts to complex
behaviour and its modifications. His assumption was that high-level behaviour,
when properly analyzed, could be interpreted in terms of the complex interplay
of elementary concepts and principles. He entirely rejected cognitive
explanations of behaviour as well as any explanations attributing behaviour to
internal factors within humans or animals. Skinner‟s later years were concerned
with testing his theories concerning complex behaviour through the study of
learning in human subjects. He developed teaching machines and programmed
learning based on his response/reinforcement model.
Skinner (1968) strongly emphasized positive reinforcement throughout
his writings. Early studies indicated that punishment only temporarily
suppressed behaviour. Later studies did indicate that punishment can be
effective. In general, a combination of strong positive reinforcement for a
correct response and mild punishment for an incorrect response has been found
to provide optimal support for learning.
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Application in CAI
Skinner‟s views are directly applicable to the drill and practice and
tutorial forms of CAI, and have been used successfully in these areas for many
years.
Once mastery is reached, skinner emphasize that students must be
weaned from this approach in order to avoid rapid extinction (weakening) of the
response. To do this, he recommended shifting from continuous reinforcement
to a pattern of intermittent reinforcement. The most effective pattern yielding
the greatest retention of learning appears to be a shift first to a fixed-ratio
schedule (in which every fifth or tenth, etc, response is reinforced), and finally
to variable-ratio schedule (in which every nth response is reinforced with
delivery on a random basis). Skinner emphasized that through these methods,
behaviour could be maintained indefinitely on a very small number of
reinforcements. He concluded:
Through a proper understanding of contingencies
of reinforcements, we should be able to make
students eager and diligent and be reasonably sure
that they will continue to enjoy the things we teach
them for the rest of their lives (Skinner, 1968).
Application to Tutorials: Skinner‟s illustration of how to develop a
programmed learning sequence is directly applicable to the design of CAI
tutorial modules, as follows:
(1) Obtain a clear, detailed objective specification of what it means to know
the given subject matter.
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(2) Write a series of information, question and answer frame that expose
students to the material in graded steps of increasing difficulty and that
frequently retest the same facts from many different angles.
(3) Require the learner to be active i.e., require a response for each frame.
(4) Provide immediate feedback for each answer (response).
(5) Try to arrange the material and questions in such a manner that the
correct response is likely to occur and be reinforced (i.e., avoid errors, so
that learning is not accompanied by punishing failures).
(6) Permit students to proceed at their own pace.
(7) Provide ample backup reinforcement (praise, merits) for diligent and
effective work.
Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theories are based on information-processing models. These
are concerned with how individuals gain knowledge and how they use it to
guide decisions and perform effective actions. These theories try to understand
the mind and how it works. To achieve this, they view the computer as a model
of the brain and employ much of the terminology and concepts of information
processing.
A cognitive learning theory is concerned with several key items such as
(1) effect of stimuli on the organism‟s receptors; (2) storage of information in
short-term memory (working memory); (3) storage of information in long-term
memory; 94) processes involved in encoding and decoding information; and (5)
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retrieval of the stored information, it‟s possible combination with other data,
and its ultimate effect on behaviour of the organism.
Cognitive theory recognizes the importance of reinforcement, but does
not give it the central importance accorded by Skinner. It indicates that learner
behaviour sets in motion a process that depends on external feedback, which
involves confirmation of correct performance.
An important concept contained in some cognitive theories is the
executive control process. This process controls cognitive strategies relevant to
learning and remembering in relation to such important activities as controlling
attention, encoding of incoming information, and retrieval of stored data. These
types of activities were not considered in traditional behaviourism, nor were
they given importance by Skinner. Their applications to computer-assisted
instruction, however, are critical. It is perhaps, in this area that cognitive theory
has contributed the most to CAI.
Considering cognitive learning theory overall, the following kinds of
processing during any single learning act could include:
(1) Attention-selection among incoming stimuli.
(2) Selective perception – encoding selected items for storage in short-term
memory.
(3) Rehearsal – maintaining data in short-term memory.
(4) Semantic encoding – preparing information for storage in long-term
memory.
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(5) Retrieval – searching and restoring information in working memory.
(6) Response organization – selecting and organizing performance.
(7) Feedback – the external event that sets in motion the process of
reinforcement.
(8) Executive control process – selecting and activating cognitive strategies
(Gagne and Briggs, 1979; Bower and Hilgard, 1981).
A graphical illustration of the above model is provided below:
Figure 1: Cognitive learning theory model
EXECUTIVE CONTROL PROCESS
(Awareness, Motivations, Emotions,
Thought Processes, Encoding, Search,
Retrieval, etc)
LONG – TERM MEMORY
SHORT– TERM MEMORY
Receptors (Eyes, Ears, etc)
Effectors (Speech, Muscle etc)
Stimuli from Environment
Reinforcement from Environment
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Application in CAI
Cognitive learning theories are most applicable to the design and
development of tutorials. This approach has been pioneered most actively by
Robert M. Gagne, a former follower of Skinner and the behaviourist model.
Gagne has emphasized the importance of identifying the goals of the learning
task followed by the development of specific instructional objectives to meet
these goals. He emphasizes that such objectives must be stipulated in concrete
behavioural terms. To develop instructional objectives, it is necessary to analyze
the criterion task into elementary behavioural components and to determine
their organization. The skill level of the students must then be assessed and
programmes designed to teach the skills.
In development and presentation of materials, Gagne has followed
Skinner in emphasizing that learning must occur in small steps, sequenced so
that lower-level learning required for performance on more complex task is
learnt first. Again, like Skinner, has emphasized the use of positive
reinforcement in a repetitive manner.
In regard to the role of teacher or adviser in CAI, he has again followed
Skinner‟s lead by emphasizing that hints and help needs to be adapted to the
individual learner. He has suggested that students be provided on a little help at
a time, thus permitting the students to use as much as he needs. The students is
thus placed in control of the learning situation. So far as the mastery is
concerned, Gagne has expanded Skinner‟s basic views on the topic to include
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more details related to human learning. He has defined mastery as materials that
have been learned to the level of which they are readily accessible to recall at
the time of learning.
Gagne‟s most significant contribution, however, relates to his application
of cognitive learning theory to the task of designing CAI modules. Thus, he has
brought to the topic some additional insights and emphases, such as his concern
with gaining the student‟s attention and developing expectancies. This can be
achieved in a CAI module by providing advance organizers in the instruction.
These organizers might take the forms of charts or graphs that reflect the
structure and organization of the lesson content.
Gagne (1982) identified five categories of learning outcomes that he
believes represent all types of learning. These include: (1) intellectual skills
(how to do something of an intellectual sort); (2) cognitive strategies
(capabilities that govern the individual‟s own learning, remembering, and
thinking behaviour); (3) verbal information; (4) motor skills; and (5) attitudes.
Within these various types of learning, Gagne (1982) expressed his belief
that there must be nine events of instruction. The internal learning processes
(expressed in terms of cognitive theory) and external instructional events that he
has postulated are listed below: The internal learning processes are
1. Alertness (2) Expectancy (3) Retrieval to working memory (4) Selective
perception (5) Semantic encoding (6) Retrieval and responding (7)
Reinforcement (8) Cueing retrieval (9) Generalizing
While the external instructional events are Gaining attention
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1. Informing learner of lesson objective
2. simulating recall of prior learning
3. presenting stimuli with distinctive features
4. Guiding learning
5. Eliciting performance
6. Providing informative feedback
7. Assessing performance ( 9 ) Enhancing retention and learning transfer
The implication of these theories and innovations on instructional
development are two folds. They stress the importance of entry behaviour that
will provide necessary cues in the instructional process and an instructional
programme that is activity oriented, both of which are preconditions for
effective performance. Attendant to this is the function of motivating the
willingness of the learner to play the leading role of reconstruction. An
attractive and interesting instructional device that will present challenging
learning tasks to the students in an innovative manner will promote effective
learning performance. This device is the computer.
The theoretical framework for concept mapping will be advanced using
the cognitive learning theory of David Ausubel. Ausubel, 1962, 1963, 1968,
1978, and 2000 proposed the idea of meaningful learning. Teachers can
encourage meaningful learning by using tasks that actively engage the learner in
searching for relationship between her/his existing knowledge and the new
knowledge. Cognitive theorists focus on how to engage learners‟ cognitive
processes during learning. The theory emphasizes the importance of individual
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knowledge construction. The consequence of this is the use of meta-cognitive
strategies. One of such strategies is concept mapping.
Constructivists viewed that knowledge is a construction of reality, that
learners are active and proactive in the process of learning. Learning should
involve many interconnected pieces of information. New pieces of information
are added to this connected set of ideas and become interrelated to the
information that is already there. This forms a massive web of ideas and leads
the leaner to related information that becomes integrated as personal knowledge,
(Novak and Gowin, 1984). The learner has to make the assimilation of new
concepts into existing cognitive structures in order for learning to be
meaningful. Therefore, to acquire meaningful learning, the learner requires a
deliberate effort to relate new knowledge to relevant concepts he already
possesses, concept mapping is one of the instructional strategies that can foster
meaningful learning.
Empirical studies on Computer-Assisted Concept Mapping
Not much research work known to the researcher has been carried out on
the effectiveness of computer-assisted concept mapping instructional strategy
for teaching chemistry in Nigeria.
Tan and Seng, (2000), investigated the effects of incorporating concept
mapping into computer-assisted instruction. The investigation was carried out
using tenth grade students in Singapore. The study also considers the chemistry
achievement of these students. The results show that concept mapping
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accompanying a computer assisted tutorial program can enhance students‟
achievement.
Wongsatit, (2001), examined the effects of computer-assisted instruction
lesson with different concept mapping presentation methods on learning
achievement and retention in science subject. The results of this study show that
there were no difference in learning achievement and retention in the science
subject.
Chien-Hsuntie, (2007), carried out a study on integrating Information
Technology into instruction and computer-assisted concept mapping learning in
social studies. Four seventh-grade classes were involved in a quasi-experiment
using the pretest-posttest non-equivalent group design. According to the results,
the conclusions are as follows
i. Integrating Information Technology Instruction (IIII) had positive and
significance effects on the students social studies learning achievement,
but didn‟t on learning retention.
ii. Computer Assisted Concept Mapping Learning (CCML) had positive and
significant effects on the students‟ social studies learning.
iii. The students had positive responses to the use of IIII and CCML in social
study learning.
Lou, Wen and Tseng, (2007) investigated the effects of integrating
concept mapping into computer assisted instruction in chemistry learning
achievement. Quasi-experimental design was adopted. Two classes of first
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grade students at a comprehensive high school were chosen, one as
experimental group and the other class as the control group. The time period of
the intervention was eight weeks. The study revealed that (1) the chemistry
achievement of the students in the experimental group was significantly better
than that in the control group, there was no significant difference in the
academic achievement and learning retention between genders in the
experimental group.
Also Pei-Lin and Chiu-Jung, (2004) investigated the effects of Computer-
Assisted Concept Mapping on English for Foreign Language (EFL) students
English reading comprehension. Ninety four freshmen who took the English
course were divided into low-level and high-level group according to their
English proficiency. Computer Assisted Concept Mapping strategy was
introduced to the learners in the class to improve their reading ability. Through
the analysis of ANOVA, the result showed that the effect of computer-based
concept mapping reading strategy has more benefit on the high-level group than
that on the low-level one.
Yusuf and Afolabi, (2010) investigated the effects of computer assisted
instruction on secondary school students performance in biology. Also the
influence of gender on the performance of students exposed to computer
assisted instruction in individualized or cooperative learning settings was
examined. The research was a quasi experimental involving a 3*2 factorial
design. The sample of the study comprised 120 first year senior secondary
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school students (SSS 1) sampled from three private secondary schools in Oyo
state, Nigeria. The students pre-test and post test scores were subjected to
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The findings of the study showed that the
performance of students exposed to CAI either individually or cooperatively
were better than their counterparts exposed to conventional classroom
instruction. However, no significant difference existed in the performance of
male and female students exposed to CAI in either individual or cooperative
settings.
Empirical studies on Digital Video Instruction
Gbodi and Laleye, (2006) examined the effect of videostaped instruction
on the learning of integrated science. Two hundred Junior Secondary School
(JSS) students took part in the study. Two schools were randomly assigned
experimental and control groups respectively. The findings of the study
indicated that the experimental group that was treated with video instruction
performed significantly better than the control group who had the traditional
lecture method.
Orisabiyi, (2007) in her study examined the effect of video taped package
on biology in Fiditi Oyo State. One hundred and twenty students were randomly
sampled and used for the study. Two schools were assigned experimental and
control groups respectively. The sampled students were pre and post-tested, the
data collected analyzed. The results showed that the experimental group taught
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using video instruction performed better than the control group. The
experimental group had a mean score of 70.27 while the control group had
54.20 as their mean score.
Osokoya, (2007) investigated the effect of video instruction on secondary
school students‟ achievement in History. The study adopted a quasi-
experimental research design using video instruction and conventional
strategies. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select 92 history
students made up of 40 males and 52 females. The result showed that students
taught with video performed better (X = 25.30) than those taught with
conventional method (X = 20.12). The result of the ANCOVA statistical
analysis revealed that gender was not a significant factor on students‟
achievement in history.
Yusuf, (2006) in his study investigated the influence of video and
Audiotapes feedback modes on student teachers performance, fourty student
teachers were assigned to two groups: videotape group twenty (20) and the
audio tape group twenty (20). The data analyzed using analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA) revealed no significant difference in the performance of the two
groups.
Adebayo, (2008) investigated the effect of combining lecture method of
teaching with digital video and computer assisted instructional packages on
students achievement in mathematics. Eighty (80) SSII
students were randomly
selected. The researcher adopted the pretest-posttest experimental control group
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design. Four schools were randomly selected. Twenty students were selected
from each of the four schools. Three experimental groups I, II and III and a
control group. The experimental group II was exposed to video instruction. The
results of the data analysis revealed that the experimental group II had mean
score (X = 78.00) while control group had (X = 54.50). This showed a
significant difference in the performance of the experimental and control group
with the experimental group performing better than the control group.
Thomas and Tinu, (2008) studied the effect of two programmed
instructional strategies on science students performance in chemistry in Nigeria.
The programmed instructional strategies are computer-assisted and videotape
mediated instructional strategies. The study employed a quasi-experimental
design. The result of the data analysis showed that the experimental group
exposed to video instruction performed significantly better than the control
group who were exposed to conventional lecture method.
Adeosun and Ayodele, (2008) examined the relative effects of
demonstration and videotape mediated instructional strategies on Nigerian
secondary school students achievement and retention in Yoruba language.
Quasi-experimental pretest, posttest control group design was employed. The
sample consisted of one hundred and thirty five junior secondary school class
two students-selected from three secondary schools used for the study. The
study had two experimental groups with the experimental group exposed to
video instruction. Pretest-posttest and retention test were used to collate data.
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The data collected were analyzed using ANOVA, ANCOVA and t-test. The
findings showed that the experimental group exposed to video instruction
performed significantly better than the experimental group exposed to
demonstration alone and better than the control group. The findings also showed
the same pattern of effectiveness on retention.
Isiaka, (2007) conducted a study on effectiveness of video as an
instructional medium in teaching rural children agricultural and environmental
sciences. Video instruction was compared with the use of realia, charts and
traditional lecture method. 240 pupils were randomly selected from three rural
primary schools selected for the study. The study revealed that the pupils taught
with video performed significantly better than those taught using chart and
traditional lecture method.
Adedapo, Salawu and Afolabi, (2004) examined the effects of video and
audiotape instruction on cognitive learning outcomes in economics. The study is
a quasi-experimental design which assisted of 364 senior secondary two (SSII)
students as sample. The results showed that there was significant difference in
the students cognitive achievement through the use of video for instruction.
Nwoji, (2000) conducted a study on improving teaching through the use
of media (Video Instruction and Audiotape instruction). Two secondary schools
were randomly selected which consisted of four hundred and seventy two junior
secondary school one (JSSI) students. The data collected was analyzed using
mean and t-test. The results of the study indicated that video instruction
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enhanced performance than audiotape instruction as the total mean score for
video instruction is 122.60 while that of audiotape instruction is 70.70.
Boster, Meyer, Roberto, Inge and Strom, (2006) examined some effects
of video streaming on educational achievement. 3rd
and 8th grade students
participated in the study. A total of 913 students and 38 teachers from 13
schools were in the 3rd
grade science. also 558 students and 8 teachers from 4
schools in the 8th grade science. the schools were primarily rural. The results
showed that the experimental group student‟s improvement on achievement
tests exceeded the control group student‟s improvement by 12.6%. The
implication is that the experimental group who were treated using video
instruction performed better than the control group.
Pamela, Morgan, Doreen, Mcllroy, and Devitt, (2002) made a comparison
of experiential and visual learning for undergraduate medical students 144
students of medical school of the University of Toronto participated in the
study. The results of the study indicated that while scores for each group
improved significantly from pretest to posttest, there was no significant
difference in score between those who received video based education and those
who received simulation based education.
Empirical studies on gender influence on Academic Achievement in
Science
Although many empirical researches on the influence of gender on
students‟ achievement are conflicting and inconclusive, most of the literature
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reviewed showed that male students still perform relatively better than their
female counterpart in science.
Nwosu (2001) stated that girls are denied out of school and pre-school
experiences especially those involving visual activities-behaviour. This is a
problem as it inhibits the development of mathematics and science capabilities
in girls. He suggested the need to use activity experiences at home to acquire
science and technology skills. Inyang (1988), noted that boys achieve better
result in science and show more positive attitude to the subject than girls. He
went further to enumerate some factors that tend to contribute to this state of
affairs.
I. The preferential attention given to boys by teachers and less attention to
girls.
II. Teachers tend to reprimand boys more severely than girls, for poor
performance in science subject because they expected the boys to do better.
III. Many teachers are not bothered when girls contribute less to classroom
discussion because girls seem to be expectedly quiet in nature.
Njoku (2000), asserted that girls perform poorly relative to boys at all
levels of science education in Nigeria. Also Njoku (2001) opined that many
socio-cultural factors jointly and separately depress female interest,
participation, and achievement in science at all levels of education.
According to Gbodi (1998) and Olorundare (1998) there are stereotypical
disciplines associated with males and females, for example, the Spartans and the
Aristocrats of Medieval era taught the males military subjects while the females
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were taught to learn domestic subjects, all in an attempt to prepare them for
their roles in the society. Gender difference is one of the factors affecting with
learning and many researchers have focused their attention on studies relating to
its effect on pupils‟ performance in science. Studies on the effects of students‟
gender on achievement have not produced conclusive results. Some findings
indicated that significant differences existed between the performance of male
and female students while other findings showed that sex factor had no impact
on students performance (Yusuf, 2004).
Many past studies (Ifamuyiwa, 2004; Iwendi, 2007; Makrakis & Sawaba,
1996; Shashani, (1993) have pointed to the fact that male students are
academically superior to their female counterparts in science at the JSS and SS
levels. Contrary to the earlier assertion that male student perform better in
science than do girls, (Anagbogu & Ezeliora, 2007; Olson, 2002) observed that
female students performed better than their male counterparts. Other researches
(Iwendi, 2007; Ifamuyiwa, 2004; Joiner et al, 1996; Magone, 1997; Orabi,
2007; & Voogt, 1987) have revealed little or no gender differences in
performance of males and females in science subjects.
Olson (2002) examined the effectiveness of cooperative learning in a
liberal arts mathematics course in terms of achievement, composition of the
cooperative groups, mathematics anxiety, and attitudes towards mathematics,
attendance, and retention. The quasi-experimental design compared a control
section using individualized learning methods with three treatment sections
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using cooperative learning methods based on the learning together model. The
finding revealed that: (i) cooperative learning and composition of groups had no
significant effect on achievement, (ii) the differences between individual group
grades were insignificant, and the group grading method benefited the grades of
only five students, (iii) attendance had a large effect on achievement, and the
achievement score and the mathematics attitude posttest were significant
predictors of achievement, (iv) in each of the four research groups, the
individual course grades were higher for females than males, © females had a
larger decrease in mathematics anxiety with a drop of 22 points compared to the
males drop of 10 point, (vi) also, female had smaller attitudes changes then
males.
Magone (1997) carried out a study on gender differences in response to a
mathematical performance. Assessment instrument consisting of extended
constructed response tasks for an ethnically diverse group of middle school
students who reside in low communities was used. The students were enrolled
in innovative instructional programme in which mathematics was taught with
emphasis on problem solving, reasoning conceptual understanding and
communicating. Mathematically, gender difference was examined using a
performance assessment instrument consisting of 35 extended constructed
response tasks. From the study, the result suggested that males and females
seem to have the same response style to the assessment. However, females
attempted more tasks and displayed the work and justification more completely
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than males. Little gender difference existed in rubric scores of the 35 tasks, one
favoured male students and other one favoured females.
Voogt (1987) examined performance and engagement in computer
literacy of boys and girls (N=873). Performance and engagement in computer
literacy are established with CAST. Computer Alfabetisme Schalen Twente, a
Dutch version of the Minnesota Computer Literacy Awareness Assessment. The
results of the study show that girls perform lower and are less engaged in
computer literacy than boys. Research on sex differences in mathematics and
science education shows that three factors are important for the design of action
programs for girls, viz, the expectation and behaviour of significant others, the
perception of the usefulness of the subject for a future career and a positive
attitude towards the subject. This study shows that these factors seem to be
relevant for computer literacy too. It has been found that a positive attitude
towards mathematics and physics is positively related to a positive attitude
towards computer literacy. An examination of the relation between performance
in computer literacy and attitude toward mathematics and physics shows no
differences in performance between boys and girls with a negative attitude
towards mathematics and physics. For boys and girls with a positive attitude
towards mathematics and physics, however, a difference in performance in
computer literacy has been found in favour of boys.
Ifamuyiwa (2004), Examine the relationship between students‟
performance in JSS mathematics and SSS Mathematics, further- mathematics
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and physics. 288 senior secondary school students comprising 164 boys and 124
girls selected from 4 public secondary schools in Eti-Osa Local Government
Area of Lagos State. Results of the analysis of collected data for the study
showed that a significant correlation exists between students‟ performance in
JSS Mathematics and their performance in SSS Mathematics, further-
mathematics and physics respectively. A positive relationship was found
between JSS Mathematics and SSS Physics (r=0.59), further- mathematics
(r=0.52) and Mathematics (r=0.50) respectively. The study further found that
while there is no significant gender difference in students‟ performance in JSS
Mathematics, their performance in SSS Mathematics is significant in favour of
the boys.
Iwendi (2009) investigated the influence of gender and age on the
mathematics achievement of secondary school students in Minna Metropolis,
Niger State. 195 students‟ intact classes selected by stratified random sampling
from purposefully selected schools were used. 50 items Mathematics
Achievement Test (MAT) was administered to the students. Mean, standard
deviations and t-test statistic were used to analyze the data obtained. The
findings showed that: (i) younger male students performed better than the
younger female students, (ii) the older male students performed better than older
female students, and (iii) no significant difference in the performance of
younger and older students (overall).
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Demircloglu and Norman, (1999), examined gender effect on chemistry
achievement. The data collected when analyzed show no significant difference
in chemistry achievement of males and females. This finding is in contrast with
literature saying males ability and feelings related with science is more positive
than that of females.
Joiner, Messer, Littleton and Light (1996), investigated the effect of
gender, computer experience and computer-based problem solving. The study
involved 65 children (31 boys and 34 girls) aged between 10 and 11. It
examined the effect of software type by comparing children‟s performance on a
male stereotyped version of the software with their performance on a
structurally identical, but female stereotyped version of the software. It was
found that girls performed worse than boys on both versions of the software and
this effect persisted even when the effect of computer experience was removed.
There was also a gender difference in the children‟s preference. Girls preferred
the female version more than the boys and there was also a significant
relationship between the girls‟ preferences and their performance. There was no
relationship between the boys‟ preferences and their performance.
Makrakis and Sawada (1996) conducted a study on gender, computers
and other school subjects among Japanese and Swedish students. The study
focused on gender, computers and other major schools subjects. The sample
consisted of 773 ninth-grade school students both from the municipality of
Tokyo. Japan (204 girls and 266 boys) and from Stockholm, Sweden (144 girls
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and 159 boys). The measurement of gender-typing of computers and other
major school subjects has been done on the basis of three dimensions:
usefulness, aptitude and liking. The analysis focused upon the calculation of
descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis of variance. In general, regardless
of the country, males reported higher scores of usefulness, aptitude and liking to
computers and more positive attitudes toward mathematics, and science than
girls did. Girls consistently reported that computers, mathematics and sciences
were the subjects which were less liked and languages the most liked. The
persistence of gender differences in computers, despite a general rise in
computer awareness, indicates a failure in the way gender issues are addressed
and tackled in schools.
Orabi (2007) examined the gender differences in student academic
performance and attitudes toward their education and themselves in an
introductory engineering course. Students‟ academic performance was
evaluated by comparing course work scores between the two genders using
assignments, projects, exams and class participation. Analysis of the academic
performance and attitude of 52 male students and 49 female students enrolled in
an introduction to engineering course taught by the same instructor was carried
out in four semesters. The results showed that there were no significant
difference between mean scores in the academic performance of the genders in
the course, and this was evident in the coursework and examination
performance analysis. Average marks scored by students of either gender were
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almost equal. The results also indicated that academic performance in the course
was affected by several factors such as student ability, motivation, the quality of
secondary education obtained. The female students had a slightly higher overall
course grade average than men and outperformed the male students on all class
assignments except the final design project. The attitude survey showed that
men reported higher gains than women on the technical skills, including
confidence on engineering knowledge as a career and problem-solving skills
while women indicated higher gains in teamwork and design skills. Female
students were able to learn the material as effectively as the male students.
Shashaani (1993) carried out a study on gender-based differences in
attitudes of secondary schools students toward computers. Approximately 1750
ninth and twelfth grade students from five different school districts in
Pittsburgh, Pennslvania, participated in the survey. A significant sex difference
in attitudes towards computers was observed. Although both males and females
alike were aware of the value and benefits of computers in daily life, girls
showed less interest in learning about and using computers. Male and female
differences were mostly realized with respect to self-confidence in using
computers. Girls reported fear of using computers and feeling helpless around
computers. Nevertheless females strongly showed that women have equal
competencies in computer use. The results also revealed a strong relationship
between students‟ computer attitudes and their perception of their parents‟
attitude toward computers. The statistical analysis supported the hypothesis that
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the differences in attitude (interest, confidence and stereotyping) about
computers among girls and boys are significant and reflect gender-role
socialization.
Anagbogu and Ezeliora (2007) conducted a research to examine sex
differences in scientific performance of boys and girls in some selected
secondary schools in Awka Education Zone, in Anambra State using the study
of Anagbogu (1988). The boys and girls were assigned to experimental and
control groups respectively. The research instrument was a combination of three
level tests namely, cognitive skills test, affective skills test, and psychomotor
skills test. The three levels were predominantly visual materials related to
school science practical materials capable of eliciting student‟s attention. In
order to test the hypothesis the scores of boys and girls were subjected to
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) on the pretest and posttest scores. The
study showed that girls performed better than boys do using strategies that are
human oriented.
The influence of gender on pairing (grouping) is another area which has
attracted attention. The majority of the research on computer assisted instruction
supported that when students are paired with others in a structured format,
students‟ performances are likely to increase, including the low achievers (Dee
& Henkin, 1999; Doran & Klein, 1996; Lane & Aleksic, 2002).
Adamson (1997) conducted a study on the effect of gender and group
gender composition experience of seventh and eighth grade students‟ work with
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multimedia programme in Loess Hills interactive. In the study, 127 middle
school science students (60 males and 67 females) from two schools
participated in the month long study. Students were randomly assigned to
cooperative instructional groups of 3, 4, and 5 with the following gender
composition (i) Same Gender (ii) Mostly males (iii) Mostly females and (iv)
Equal gender. The interaction categories included (a) Path/Pace (b) Task (c)
Socio-emotional (d) Technical (e) Off-task and (f) Uncodable. The attitudinal
survey administered at the end of the four weeks measured 5 factors. 1. Positive
emotional reaction to the group, (2) Presence of helping behaviour in the group
and (3) preference for small group learning. A 2-way ANOVA was used on the
verbal interaction and attitudinal data to determine if significant difference
occurred between male and female in the group varying gender composition.
The result of the study showed that gender did not have any significant effect on
either interaction or attitude of the students.
Underwood, McCaffrey and Underwood (1990), found that single gender
pairs of elementary school children showed improvement in task performance
when compared to the same children working individually. Mixed gender pairs
showed no relative improvement. In a subsequent study, researchers found that
girls tended to cooperate even when instructed not to organize or create roles for
each other. Mixed pairs tended not to cooperate, even when instructed to share
task work. Boys did not cooperate, unless so instructed specifically, after which
their performance improved (Underwood, Jindal and Underwood, 1994).
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Herschel (1994) examined group gender composition using a networked
group support system environment. Herschel studied 61 groups consisting of
269 university students. In his study, Herschel found no significant differences
between gender-based ideas generated using the networked group environment.
This study provided evidence of the leveling effect often seen within a
networked environment. When groups interacted on an electronic basis using a
networked environment, gender differences that typically occurred in a face-to-
face setting were minimized. This finding contrasted with the Underwood
studies cited earlier. The major differences between the findings of Herschel
(1994) and Underwood et al (1994) was the presence or absence of nonverbal
communication factors.
Yelland (1995) consistently, examined gender as a variable in her
research. In comparison of mixed and same gender pairs when performing Logo
tasks, Yelland found minor differences between all boys and girls pairs in
examining the efficiency of tasks performed. Mixed gender pairs took twice as
long to complete the task than did pairs of girls assigned to complete the same
task.
Contrary to expectations, other works showed that gender have no
bearing on the learning of science. Okeke (1986) tested 120 students in SS II, on
the understanding of the concepts like reproduction, transport mechanism and
growth, based on the piagetian psychological method, using videotaped
recording, oral interview and 27 open-ended questions, discovered that there is
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no significant difference in the performance of both male and female students.
Adeniran”s study (1991) showed that there was no significant difference in the
performance as related to gender when he used 80 students, exposing them to
video mediated instruction on ecological concepts. He showed that there was no
significant difference in their performance as related to gender. Olayemi (1991),
using video instruction, showed that there is no significant difference between
the mean scores of the males and females taught ecological concept. He showed
learning to be gender friendly.
Abolade (2000) also showed no significant difference in the mean
achievement scores of male and female when taught science concepts using
videotaped instruction. 40 students from two schools in Ilorin were used for the
study.
Summary of Literature Reviewed
The literature reviewed above revealed the conceptual framework of
science in which the need for science and technology education in Nigeria was
reviewed. The review further examined the concept of chemistry, the
importance of instructional media as well as the role of information and
communication technology in the teaching and learning process.
Studies on computer assisted instruction; concept mapping and digital
video instruction as they affect student‟s academic achievement were reviewed.
It was noted that results of these studies were contradictory and inconclusive.
Some authors reported that students taught with computer assisted instruction as
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well as concept mapping performed significantly better in some subject areas.
Also the review indicated significant performance of students when taught using
videotape than the conventional lecture method. On the contrary, other
researchers reported that students taught using computer assisted instruction did
not show significant difference in their academic achievement. Also because the
use of videotape for instruction has become obsolete, a gap was created which
calls for an investigation into the effectiveness of computer assisted concept
mapping and digital video instruction on student‟s academic achievement in
chemistry.
The area of interest in this study is the comparative effect of computer
assisted concept mapping as an instructional strategy, digital video and the
conventional lecture method. It is envisaged that the computer assisted concept
mapping and digital video instruction would go a long way in enhancing
achievement more than the conventional lecture method.
The theoretical framework on which the study is being anchored was
examined. The Stimulus-Response (S-R) as well as cognitive theories of
learning was reviewed. The theories are the skinner‟s operant conditioning
theory which support the use of teaching machine and David Ausubel‟s theory
of meaningful learning were looked into.
Evidences from various studies on gender-related differences in student‟s
achievement in sciences that were reviewed are inconclusive. Some researchers
reported that males are superior to females in science achievement while others
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found that females outperformed their male counterparts in the sciences. Yet in
some other reports, the researchers established that gender is not a significant
factor in student‟s achievement in the sciences.
However, from the review, it was observed that many of the studies were
focused on some part of science education, social studies and language. Not
many researchers have looked into the effect of computer assisted concept
mapping instructional strategies on student‟s academic achievement in
chemistry. In addition, most studies did not examine the comparative effects of
computer assisted concept mapping and digital video instruction and
conventional lecture method rather they compared either computer assisted
concept mapping or video instruction with traditional lecture method or with
other forms of instructional strategies.
In general, not much empirical studies have been done on computer
assisted concept mapping; talk less of comparing its effect with other
instructional strategies such as digital video instruction on student‟s academic
achievement. This underscores the need, not only to explore the comparative
effect of computer assisted concept mapping, digital video instruction and
lecture method in enhancing achievement in chemistry at secondary school
level, but also the extent to which these effects depend on gender influences.
Furthermore, there are areas of difference between various literature
reviewed and the present study. Such differences as geographical scope of the
study, sample size, subject area, instructional strategies, computer software,
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digital video presentation and method of statistical analysis. Most of the studies
were conducted in developed countries and those conducted in Nigeria were
carried out in towns different from where this current study was conducted. This
study therefore, examined the effects of computer assisted concept mapping and
digital video instruction on the academic achievement of students in chemistry.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
In this chapter, the techniques and procedures used in carrying out the
study was described. Specifically, this chapter examined the following:
The Design of the study, area of the study, population of the study, sample and
sampling techniques, instruments for data collection, development of learning
instrument for the treatment, validation of and reliability of the instruments,
control of extraneous variables, experimental procedure, method of data
collection and method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
The research design adopted for this study is a quasi-experimental design.
It is a pretest, posttest, non-randomized, non-equivalent control group design
(Sambo, 2008). A 3 x 2, multiple treatment factorial design was used in this
study. This design represents three levels of treatment (computer assisted
concept mapping, digital video instruction and lecture method) and two levels
of gender (male and female). Factorial design allows the concurrent
manipulation of two or more independent variables in order to assess the effects
of their interaction on the dependent variable. (Kareem, 2003).
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Figure 2: Research Design Layout
Groups Pretest Treatment Posttest
Experimental
Group 1
O1 (CACM) X1
Experimental
Group 2
O1 (DVI) X2 O2
Control
Group 3
O1 X3 (LM) O2
Key:
O1: represents pretest observations on chemistry Achievement Test of
experimental groups 1, 2 and control group.
O2: represents posttests observation on Chemistry Achievement Test of
experimental groups 1, 2 and control group.
X1 represents treatment for Experimental group 1.
X2 represents treatment for Experimental group 2.
X3 represents control group without treatment
The study concerns itself with the following variables, independent
variable, moderating variable and dependent variable. The independent
variables in this study are the teaching methods and gender. The dependent
variable is students achievement in chemistry concepts.
Area of the Study
This study was carried out in senior secondary schools in the zone B
Educational zone of Niger state. Minna metropolis in the zone B educational
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zone was used. The reason for the choice of senior secondary schools in Minna
which is in zone B educational zone of Niger state for the study is because it is
an area where students‟ difficulty in senior secondary school chemistry has been
identified. (Sani, 2006).
Population of the Study
The population for this study consisted of all senior secondary two (SSII)
chemistry students in all the sixteen public senior secondary schools in Minna,
Niger state. (see appendix C). The target population is two thousand seven
hundred and eight senior secondary school chemistry students in SSII. This
population comprises one thousand six hundred and fourty eight males and one
thousand five hundred and fifty eight females. The choice of ssII was based on
the fact that the National curriculum for secondary school (Federal Ministry of
Education FME, 2009) provides that the aspect of senior secondary school
chemistry upon which the treatment was based be taught at the second year of
senior secondary. See Appendix L.
The choice of SSII students will be based on the following premises.
i. That the proposed students must have been selected and enrolled for
chemistry subject.
ii. that they have been exposed to the teaching of the SSCE chemistry syllabus
and are not pre-occupied with any major examination
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iii. That they are expected to have been exposed to some pre-requisite of
chemistry concepts at SSI level. This is important because certain pre-
requisite skills need to be acquired before the complex ones.
Sample and Sampling Techniques
A two-stage sampling technique was adopted. Firstly, a purposive
random sampling was adopted to obtain three secondary schools in Minna,
Niger State. The schools were purposefully sampled based on equivalence in
(laboratories, facilities and manpower), school location (urban area, Minna
metropolis), gender composition (mixed schools), well equipped computer
laboratories (under the school net programme) exposure (students and teachers
exposure to the use of computer in their schools).
Secondly, the three sampled equivalent and co-educational/mixed schools
were randomly assigned to each of the two experimental groups and control
group using simple random sampling technique. One school was assigned
experimental group one (1) and was treated using Computer Assisted Concept
Mapping (CACM), another school was assigned experimental group two (2) and
was treated using Digital Video Instruction (DVI) while the third equivalent and
co-educational school was used for control group and were taught using the
Lecture Method (LM). The three schools were co-educational schools that
consisted of both male and female students.
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The study adopted the use of intact class approach where all the students
in the class were involved in teaching and testing sessions. Therefore, the total
number that was sampled for this study from the three sampled schools is 210.
The distribution of sample for the study is as follows
SCHOOL MALE FEMALE TOTAL
A 42 26 68
B 40 24 64
C 48 30 78
TOTAL 130 80 210
Instrument for Data Collection
The instrument used in collecting data in this study is researcher adapted
Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT). The Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT)
consisted of 50 multiple choice items adapted from past examination questions
of West African Examination Council (WAEC) and National Examination
Council (NECO). The Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) was based on SSII
curriculum on the concept of (i) energy effects (ii) chemical equilibrium (iii)
reversibility of reaction and (iv) le chatelier‟s principle.
These chosen topics were selected from the senior secondary two (SSII)
chemistry syllabuses and scheme of work and correspond to what the students
should be taught in their schools at the time of the study. Each item of the
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instrument was a multiple choice question with four options (A-D) as possible
answers to the question. Only one of the four options will be the correct answer.
The students were made to respond to the instrument in two sections. The
first part (section A) elicited information on the students‟ personal data, while
section B elicited information on the achievement of the students in the
contents. This was administered to the experimental and control groups as
pretest and posttest. To reduce the effect of pretest and posttest, the questions
were reshuffled and administered in a different random order in the posttest. On
the scoring of the multiple choice items, two (2) marks were awarded for each
correct answer and zero (0) mark for each wrong answer. The instrument was
scored over 100 (2x50 items).
Development of the Learning Instrument for the Treatment
These are Computer Assisted concept Mapping Learning Package on
Chemistry (CACMLP) and Digital Video Instructional Package (DVIP) on
Chemistry usable at two different instructional learning settings developed by
the researcher and programmer. The need for researcher made computer
package and digital video package is based on the fact that the commercially
produced computer assisted and digital video instructional packages are not
common. When they are available, they may not be directly relevant to the topic
or objectives to be achieved in a lesson. Moreover, using imported software to
implement chemistry instruction in Nigeria may not be culturally relevant. As a
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result of this, developing instructional packages for use by the researcher is
inevitable.
The instructional packages consisted of the same topics which were
subdivided into two units. The CAI package was written in “Macromedia flash”
that utilizes the script symbolic instructional code (language) animation and can
accommodate interactive instructional process. The main menu consisted of
background, introduction instruction section, the topics, units under the topics
and then the exit. It adopted the drill and practice modes of the computer
assisted instruction. It is an individualized program in which the individual who
is reacting to the computer will have to make some entries. The computer takes
record of the performance and progress of the students separately.
The computer-based concept mapping instructional content on Chemistry
was presented through a server to client terminals with input and output display
devices on the computer and through which the learners responded to the
computer prompts. The computer presented information and display animation
to the learner on each of the sub units after which the students attempted some
multiple choice objective questions. Each of the units was presented by the
computer through interaction mode, that is, exposure to information, facts and
practice on the topic and immediate response/feedback to the application
questions. The students could only proceed further in the unit only if that the
questions are satisfactorily answered. The students must have 100% mastery of
one unit before moving on to the next. If after three attempts they do not have
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100% mastery, the package will log them out and they have to meet with the
instructor for tutoring before they can be reinstated.
The digital video instructional package on Chemistry was developed
through the use of a digital video camera. The package consisted of the
instruction on the topic which were presented by the researcher. This package
contained the background, introduction, and instruction section, the topic which
comprises of the units of the topic and then the end. The instructions were
burned (copy) into a digital video device plate. The Digital Video Device
(DVD) connected to a television set was used to present the instruction to the
experimental group (2) for each unit of the topic.
The production of the packages (CCACMLP) and (CDVIP) were effected
through a team of professionals and specialists including the system
programmer, digital video camera operator, and the instructional designer (the
researcher).
Validation of the Instrument / Learning Packages
i. Computer Assisted Concept Mapping Learning Packages on
Chemistry: The developed package was given to four educational
technology experts, the supervisor of this work and a senior lecturer in the
department of Science Education, Federal university of Technology Minna,
computer education specialists and three chemistry teachers from
secondary schools. They determined the appropriateness of the package for
teaching the chosen topics/units, clarity and simplicity of the package as
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well as its suitability for the level of the students, the extent to which the
contents cover the topics/units they are meant to cover, possible errors in
suggested answers and the structuring of the package. The test items and
content of the package were corrected or modified on the basis of
suggestions and recommendations of the experts.
ii. The digital video instructional package on Chemistry: was given to the
same educational technology experts and three chemistry teachers from
secondary schools. They also determined the appropriateness of the
package for teaching the chosen topics/units, clarity and simplicity of the
package as well as its suitability for the level of the students, the extent to
which the contents cover, possible errors in the structuring of the package.
iii. The Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT): CAT was given to four
chemistry education experts and three senior chemistry teachers from
secondary schools. These experts assessed the face and content validity of
the instrument in relation to the background of Secondary School Students
(SSII). The experts specifically examined the instrument along the
following criteria
i. Clarity of questions asked
ii. Appropriateness of the questions to the students level of understanding
and experience and
iii. Agreement of the items with the test blueprint.
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In addition, the experts critically examined all the items in the test
instrument with reference to the appropriateness of the content, the relevance of
the test items to the content and the extent to which the contents cover the
topics/units they are meant to cover. Necessary amendments were made on the
instrument based on their suggestions.
Item Analysis
Each of the test items was analysed to obtain its facility and
discrimination index. Facility index refers to the item difficulty level because if
items are too easy or too difficult, then the item is no use in educational testing
of attainment of students. Discrimination index refers to power or ability of a
test item to distinguish between good student and a weak student. A good test
item or test instrument should be able to clearly discriminate or differentiate
between good and weak students.
The facility index of an item in a test is defined as the percentage of the
entire candidate or students that responded correctly to the item (Furst, 1958;
Wood, 1990). The facility index for CAT was calculated using the formula.
P=R/T
Where P= facility index
R= total number of candidates that responded correctly.
T= total number of candidates that attempted the item.
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Test item with facility indices in the range of 30-70% are usually
recommended for use (Wood, 1990). The facility index of all the CAT fell
between 30-70%.
The discrimination index of a test is its ability to discriminate between
high and low achievers in a test as a whole. The discrimination index of a test
item can be estimated from the difference between two percentages, one for the
higher group and the other for low group.
The formula is D= Ru-Rl
Where D = Discrimination index
Ru = Number among upper students that scored an item correctly
Rl = Number among lower students that scored an item incorrectly.
Discrimination index ranging from 0.30 to 0.49 are described as moderately
positive, those above 0.59 to 0.70 are highly positive or has high positive value
(Furst, 1958). Following the suggestion of Furst, the test item with
discrimination index which falls between 0.30 and 0.70 was included in the
CAT for this study. (see Appendix j).
Reliability of Instrument
A pilot test was conducted in the study to ascertain the reliability and
suitability of the chemistry achievement test instrument. The pilot test was
carried out using thirty (30) students which were randomly sampled from Bosso
Secondary School in Minna. Though this sample is in the population of this
study it is not within the sample for this study. The chemistry Achievement Test
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(CAT) was administered once. The result of the test was analyzed using the
Kuder-Richardson formula (K-R 20). A reliability coefficient of 0.95 was
obtained. This means that the test instrument is reliable.
Control of Extraneous Variables
The following measures were taken to control some extraneous variables
that may arise in this study.
i. Experimenter‟s Bias: - when researchers involve external students
(subjects) in their experiment, these students become sensitized that they are
being used for a study consequently they tend to behave mechanically and fake
most of their actions. This introduces experimenter‟s bias. In order to avoid the
bias in the study, the regular chemistry teachers in each of the schools used for
this study were trained; the researcher monitored these teachers so as to ensure
that they effectively adhere to the instructions.
ii. Teacher variable: - when different teachers are involved in an experiment,
the problem of teacher variable arises since different teachers possess
different standards in terms of knowledge of the content, methodology
and so on. In order to control this variable in this study, the researcher
prepared lesson plans (Appendix J) on the topics of chemistry which were
used to handle the control group. The researcher trained the teachers on
how to effectively use the lesson plans. The teachers were also trained on
how to use the computer (Appendix H) as well as the digital video
(Appendix D).
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iii. Variability of instructional situation: homogeneity of instruction across
groups was ensured through the following
a. The researcher trained all the teachers on the instructional
procedure involved.
b. These teachers were directed to follow strictly the detailed lesson
plans provided.
c. The CACM, DVI and LM groups will be taught the same topics
and within stipulated time for the lessons.
iv. Effect of pretest and posttest: - In order to minimize influences of
memory and forget fullness, the time lag between the pretest and posttest
was four weeks which is considered to be neither too short nor too long.
This relatively short experimental duration served to control pretest
sensitization as well as minimize the effect of maturation. The pretest
items were reshuffled through renumbering before it was administered as
posttest.
v. Subject interaction: - In order to avoid the students in CACM, DVI and
LM from interacting, the researcher made sure that the students are not
from the same school and that the schools are distant from each other.
vi. Training of teachers: - Teachers to administer the experimental treatments
to the students were trained based on the type of treatment. This is to
enable them acquire the necessary competencies required to effect the
implementation of uniform experimental conditions. The training lasted
for one week before the administration of pretest.
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Experimental Procedure
The researcher visited the schools to check the facilities available in the
schools. Also an approval was sought from the school authorities to carry out
the study. The cooperation of the students and the staff in all selected schools
were sought. The subject teachers were trained as research assistants in the use
of the computer assisted instructional package as well as the digital video
instructional package. The experimental group teachers received specific
training designed to equip them with necessary strategies for implementing the
treatments. The control group teachers were given instruction to coordinate their
students for the lecture method.
The study lasted for six weeks. There was orientation with the Chemistry
teachers, School Net Coordinators, research assistants and students in each of
the three schools that was involved in the study. This training and demonstration
sessions on the procedure for carrying out the experiment lasted for one week.
The training was done in each school according to the type of treatment that was
given to such schools. When the teachers, School Net coordinators and students
were adequately briefed, trained and have demonstrated competence in the
successful implementation of the Operational Guides to Instruction (OGI), then
the experimentation in the study commenced.
Pretest
During the second week before the commencement of the experiment, the
Chemistry Achievement Test was administered on the sample in the
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experimental and control groups for the study as pretest. The main objective of
administering the pretest was to ascertain the academic equivalence of the
students in Chemistry before the commencement of the experiment.
In carrying out these activities, one chemistry teacher from each of the
three selected schools were employed to administer the pretest. Also three
research assistants were employed to assist the teachers in administering the
pretest in each of the selected schools at the appropriate time for each of this
test.
Treatment
During the experiments, two different treatments were applied. The
treatment lasted for four weeks. The experiment was conducted using the
schools timetable and at their normal lesson periods.
Immediately after the treatment ended , posttest were administered to
measure achievement of the sampled students in each school. The posttest,
Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) was reshuffled and administered on the last
day of the experiment. The test was conducted in all the selected schools for the
study at the same time and the scripts were collected immediately for marking.
Experimental Group I: The computer assisted concept mapping instructional
strategy was used here. The class was taught the concepts using the CAI
package. The computer presented instructions interactively with one student at a
time only. Students enter an individualized sequence, and then proceeded at
their own rate. Sets of questions were given to the students after each sequence
of instruction and individual members of the class were expected to provide
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answers to the questions without any teachers or peer interactions. The teacher‟s
role was to monitor the activities of the students so as to ensure strict
compliance with instructions of non-interaction among members.
Experimental Group II: The digital video instructional package on Chemistry
was used here. The class was taught using a digital video device and a television
monitor. The instructions were presented by the digital video and the students
were required to answer certain unit questions relating to the concept taught
which were marked by their class teachers.
Control Group: The lecture method was used here. This took the shape of the
normal lesson lecture. The lecture was presented by the class teacher for the
control group. The contents of the lecture were be the same as in the case of the
computer assisted concept mapping instructional package on Chemistry and the
digital video instruction on Chemistry.
Method of Data Collection
The instrument for data collection in this study (CAT) was administered
to the students before the experimental treatment. The students‟ scores in this
first administration served as pretest scores of the study. After the pretest, the
treatment commenced and lasted for four weeks. At the expiration of the
treatment, the items of this instrument were reshuffled, produced in yellow
coloured question paper and were re-administered to the students.
The scores obtained from the second administration served as post-test
scores in the study. The essence of item reshuffling and change of the colour of
the question paper is to distract the students from realizing that they had
responded to items in the instrument before.
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Method of Data Analysis
The research question was answered using means and standard deviation.
Hypotheses for the study were tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 11. The
significance of the various statistical analyses was ascertained at 0.05 alpha
levels. Graphical representation was also drawn to indicate the mean gains in
mean scores of the students between pretest and posttest.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
This chapter embodied the results of the study. All research questions
were answered using mean and standard deviations. All hypotheses were tested
at 0.05 level of significance using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The
results of the substantive analysis are presented according to the research
questions and hypothesis to which they pertain. At the end of the presentations,
a summary of the results obtained was made.
Research Question 1
What is the effect of computer assisted concept mapping on secondary
school students achievement in chemistry?
Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviations of Students Scores Using
Computer Assisted Concept Mapping (CACM) and Lecture Method (LM)
Pretest Posttest
Computer Assisted
Group
N 68 68
Mean 33.26 69.44
Std.
Deviation 3.22 3.89
Lecture Method Group N 64 64
Mean 33.81 65.28
Std.
Deviation 2.68 3.38
Total N 132 132
Mean 33.53 67.42
Std.
Deviation 2.97 4.19
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From table 1, it is observed that there was a significant difference in the
achievement of students taught chemistry using computer assisted concept
mapping (CACM) and lecture method (LM). This is because the mean gain
score of computer assisted concept mapping is 36.17 which is higher than the
mean gain score of lecture method group of 31.46. This is also shown using
graphical illustration to indicate the difference in the mean gain scores of
students taught chemistry using CACM and LM.
Figure 3: Graphical illustration of student‟s achievement when taught using
CACM and LM.
124
Research Question 2: What is the effect of digital video instruction on
secondary school student‟s achievement in chemistry?
Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation of Students Scores Using
Digital Video Instruction (DVI) and Lecture Method
(LM)
Pretest Posttest
Lecture Method
Group
N 64 64
Mean 33.81 65.28
Std.
Deviation 2.68 3.38
Digital Video
Group
N 78 78
Mean 34.07 55.69
Std.
Deviation 3.08 4.17
Total N 142 142
Mean 33.95 60.01
Std.
Deviation 2.90 6.13
From table 2, it is observed that there was no significant effect of digital
video instruction on the achievement of students in chemistry. This is because
the mean gain score of DVI group is 21.61 while the mean gain score of LM
group which is the control group is 31.46 greater than the mean gain score of
the students in the experimental group (DVI). The graphical illustration to show
the mean gain scores of the LM and DVI group is provided in figure 4
125
Figure 4: Graphical illustration of students achievement when taught using DVI
and LM
126
Research Question 3 What is the effect of CACM on secondary school student‟s achievement
in chemistry by gender?
Table 3: The Posttest Mean and Standard Deviations of Students in
CACM by Gender
Sex Pretest Posttest
Male N 42 42
Mean 33.19 70.04
Std.
Deviation 3.12 4.38
Female N 26 26
Mean 33.38 68.46
Std.
Deviation 3.43 2.73
Total N 68 68
Mean 33.26 69.44
Std.
Deviation 3.22 3.89
From table 3, it is observed that the male students had a mean gain score
of 36.85, while the mean gain score of the female students taught chemistry
using CACM is 35.07. The difference in the mean gain score is 1.78. This
indicates that CACM had effect on gender. The graphical illustration to show
the mean gain score of male and female students exposed to CACM is provided
in figure 5
127
Figure 5: Graphical illustration of male and female student‟s achievement using
CACM.
128
Research Question 4: What is the effect of digital video instruction on
secondary school student‟s achievement in chemistry by gender?
Table 4: Posttest Mean and Standard Deviations of students in DVI by
gender
Sex Pretest Posttest
Male N 48 48
Mean 33.37 56.45
Std. Deviation 3.03 4.17
Female N 30 30
Mean 35.20 54.46
Std. Deviation 2.85 3.95
Total N 78 78
Mean 34.07 55.69
Std. Deviation 3.08 4.17
From table 4, it is observed that the male students had a mean gain score of
23.08, while the female students had mean gain score of 19.26 using digital
video instruction (DVI). The difference in the mean gain scores is 3.82. This
indicates that DVI had effect on gender. The graphical illustration to show the
mean gain scores of male and female students exposed to DVI is provided in
figure 6.
129
Figure 6: Graphical illustration of male and female student‟s achievement using
DVI.
130
Hypothesis 1
H01; There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of
students taught chemistry using computer assisted concept mapping
(CACM), digital video instruction (DVI) and lecture method (LM).
Table 5: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Posttest Scores of the
Treatment Groups (CACM, DVI and LM)
Type 111 sum
of squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig
Corrected Model
Intercept
Pretest
Groups
Sex
Group x Sex
Error
Total
Corrected Total
7438.111
5961.246
5.027
6957.848
65.477
45.677
2962.956
845656.000
10401.067
6
1
1
2
1
2
203
210
209
1239.685
5961.246
5.027
3478.924
65.477
22.838
14.596
84.934
408.421
0.344
238.350
4.486
1.565
.000
.000
.558
.000
.035
.212
An examination of data in Table 5 revealed that an F(2, 203)= 238.350,
P= 0.000 for the main effect (treatment) was significant. The results imply that
the method of instruction produced a significant effect on the posttest
achievement scores of students when covariate effect (pretest) was controlled.
The result indicated that the treatment using CACM, DVI and LM probably
accounted for the difference in posttest achievement scores of the students. This
131
implies that a significant difference existed among the three groups of CACM,
DVI and LM
Hypothesis 2
HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male
and female students taught chemistry using computer assisted concept
mapping (CACM), digital video instruction (DVI) and those taught using
lecture method (LM).
Data inTable 5 revealed that F (2, 203) = 4.486, p= 0.035 for the main
effect (gender) was significant. The result implied that gender produced a
significant effect on the posttest achievement scores of students. The result
indicated that male / female is a factor that accounted for the difference in the
posttest achievement scores of the students. This implies that a significant
difference existed in the achievement of male and female students when
CACM, DVI and LM are used.
Hypothesis 3
HO3: There is no significant treatment – gender interaction effect on the
achievement of students in chemistry as measured by their mean
achievement scores in Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT).
The data in table 5, revealed that an F (2, 203) = 1.565, p= 0.212 for the
main effect (treatment-gender) was not significant. The analysis showed that
there was no significant interaction effect on student‟s achievement in chemistry
as shown in table 5. In other words, the treatment of the students had
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independent effect on the student‟s achievement. This implies that there was no
statistically significant joint interaction effect of the independent variables
(treatment-gender) on the achievement of the students. Therefore, the
hypothesis three was not rejected.
Summary of Findings
Results presented in this chapter reveal the following
1. The students taught with computer assisted concept mapping strategy
achieved higher than those taught with digital video as well as those
taught with lecture method.
2. The students taught with lecture method also achieved higher than those
taught using digital video instruction.
3. There was a significant difference in the achievement of male and female
taught with computer assisted concept mapping. Therefore, gender is a
significant factor on students achievement in chemistry when computer
assisted concept mapping is used.
4. There was no significant difference in the achievement of male and
female taught chemistry using digital video instruction
5. There was a significant difference in the achievement of students taught
using CACM, DVI and LM.
6. There was no significant treatment-gender interaction effect on the
achievement of students in chemistry.
133
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY
This chapter presented the discussion and interpretation of result
presented in the previous chapter. The discussion is organized under the
following:
Findings on the effect of Computer Assisted Concept Mapping on
achievement in chemistry.
Findings on the effect of Digital Video Instruction on achievement in
chemistry
Findings on the effect of Computer Assisted Concept Mapping on
achievement in chemistry by gender
Findings on the effect of Digital Video Instruction on achievement in
chemistry by gender
Findings on the treatment-gender interaction effect on students
achievement in chemistry
After the discussion, the rest of the chapter will embody conclusions from
the study, educational implications of the findings, recommendations,
suggestion for further studies, limitations of the study and summary of the
entire work.
134
Discussion of the Results
Findings on the effect of CACM on Achievement in Chemistry
The findings of this study revealed that the use of computer assisted
concept mapping learning strategy had a significant effect on students‟
achievement in chemistry. The students taught using computer assisted concept
mapping achieved significant better than those taught using lecture method.
This result is in agreement with the result of Tan and Seng (2000). They found
out that computer assisted concept mapping enhanced students achievement in
chemistry. Tenth grade students in Singapore were treated with computer
assisted concept mapping and the students in these group performed
significantly better than those without computer assisted concept mapping. This
result is also in agreement with Lou, Wen and Tseng (2007), who investigated
the effect of integrating concept mapping into computer assisted instruction in
chemistry learning achievement. Their findings revealed that the students in the
experimental group who were treated with computer assisted concept mapping
achieved significantly better than those in the control group. The trend of higher
performance by the treatment (CACM) group could be as a result of self -
evaluation and remedial activities provided by (CACM) which helped students
to master the chemistry concepts without much difficulty than the (LM) group.
It could also be as a result of
i. Excitement over the new approach/handling of personal computers.
135
ii. Individualized learning by the students and the elimination of teacher
bias/strained relationship of teacher and student. Furthermore, the
pictorial representations and concept maps provided by the computer
which were absent in the LM can be a factor that contributed to the high
performance.
Findings on the effect of DVI on Students Achievement in Chemistry
The result of this study showed that the use of digital video for instruction
had no significant effect on student achievement in chemistry. The students
taught using digital video instruction did not achieve significantly better than
those taught using lecture method. This result is in disagreement with the
findings of Orisabiyi, (2007) who found out that videotaped package had
significant effect on students performance in science (Biology). The result is
also in disagreement with the findings of Adebayo, (2008). His study revealed
that the students who were exposed to the use of digital video instruction
achieved better than those that were exposed to lecture method. The experiment
was conducted in mathematics. It also disagrees with the findings of Thomas
and Tinu, (2008) and Adeosu and Ayodele, (2008) who variously found
significant difference in the achievement of students treated with video
mediated instructions.
Findings on the effect of Computer Assisted Concept Mapping on
achievement in Chemistry by gender
Result of this study shows that CACM has effect on gender. The result
revealed that the male and female students taught chemistry using CACM
136
achieved better than those taught chemistry using LM. This finding is in
disagreement with the findings of Lou, Wen and Tseng (2007). Their findings
revealed a no significant difference in the academic achievement between
genders in the experimental group that were treated with computer assisted
concept mapping.
Findings on the effect of Digital Video Instruction on achievement in
Chemistry by gender
The findings of this study include that the use of digital video instruction
had significant effect on gender. This significant effect is in favour of the male
student within the experimental group who were treated with digital video
instruction. The male (experimental) outperformed their female counterpart.
This finding is in disagreement Anagbogu and Ezeliora (2007) who found that
female students performed better than their male counterpart. But when digital
video instruction is compared with lecture method, digital video instruction had
significant effect on gender. The finding here revealed there was significant
difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female taught chemistry
using digital video instruction and those male and female taught chemistry using
lecture method. This finding is in agreement with the findings of Iwendi (2007),
Ifamuyiwa, (2004) who variously found no significant difference in gender
achievement in science subjects which includes chemistry.
Findings on the treatment–gender interaction effect on students
achievement in chemistry
The result from this study revealed that there was no treatment-gender
interaction effect on the achievement in chemistry. This result is in agreement
137
with the findings of Gambari (2010) who found no significant treatment-gender
interaction effect on student‟s achievement in physics. The result is in
disagreement with the findings of Ifeakor (2005) who found a significant
treatment-gender interaction effect on students achievement in chemistry.
Conclusion
The study had shown that CACM had significant effects on the student‟s
academic achievement in chemistry. The CACM appeared to be outstandingly
more effective than the DVI. But DVI had no significant on achievement in
chemistry.
The influence of gender on academic achievement in chemistry was
significant. Male students tended to be superior to their female counterpart
when CACM is used. A significant effect was indicated in the study when DVI
was used for teaching.
The combined effect of CACM, DVI and gender on students academic
achievement was significant. The male students performed higher than the
female students.
Educational Implications
The findings of the present study have obvious educational implications
for students, teachers and ministries of education. The findings provide useful
feedback on the efficacy of CACM. This feedback will now provide the basis
138
upon which chemistry teachers could build, to enhance the efficacy of their
instructional practice.
In general, the study revealed that CACM is efficient in producing high
academic achievement in chemistry. This would suggest then that the use of
CACM in chemistry teaching will enhance student‟s achievement. The study
also indicated that the male students demonstrated higher achievement with the
use of CACM relative to their female counterpart.
The implication is that the male students are given more attention in our
societies and so a more conducive environment is given to the male students.
Hence, teachers and educational administrators should make the environment
and motivation to learning for male and female students similar.
The adoption of CACM will develop in the students an ability to learn on
their own in the absence of the teacher. Since it gives an immediate feedback, it
will enable the students to monitor their achievement. Also the adoption of DVI
in schools will reduce the rate at which students engages themselves with home
videos that will not improve their academic achievement. Inadequate supply of
human resources, especially technical support systems makes innovative
practices difficult. These innovations like CACM, demand well trained
personnel, and this makes training and retraining of staff imperative.
139
Recommendations
Based on the educational implications of the results of this study, the
following recommendations are made:
1. Since the use of CACM in teaching has been found to enhance the quality
of achievement in chemistry, chemistry teachers should be encouraged to
employ it more in the teaching of the subject. By so doing, the
achievement of students in the subject could be increased.
2. Enlightenment campaign, workshops and seminars should be organized
for teachers by Education Authorities – Federal and State Ministries of
Education, institutes and Colleges of Education to create awareness of the
efficacy of the strategies/methods and then sensitize the adoption of the
methods/strategies in their various schools.
3. The Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) should endeavour to
connect all secondary schools with electricity.
4. Governments should endeavour to include all schools in the on-going
school – net programme.
5. Standby generators with adequate storage and security should be installed
in all secondary schools in case of power failure.
6. There should be computer literacy/ basic skills for secondary school
students.
140
Limitations of the Study
The generalizations drawn from this study are subject to the following
limitations.
1. Initial differences across groups arising from the use of intact classes may
not have been completely taken care of by the statistical technique
adopted for this purpose. This condition will to the extent that it prevails
affect the validity of the findings.
2. The use of only SSII students and only one unit from their chemistry
syllabus may affect the generalizability of the findings.
3. The limited number of schools that have well equipped computer
laboratories as well as television monitors and DVD players made it
difficult for the researcher to use a larger sample. As such result which is
based on the sample of the study as compared to the population of SSII
student in Niger State, how much more in Nigeria should not be freely
generalized for teaching chemistry in the country.
Suggestions for further Studies
The findings of this study had generated some areas for further research.
Against this acknowledge, further research could be undertaken to.
1. Replicate the present study using a wider geographical area.
2. Ascertain how ability levels of the students will interact with CACM and
DVI to affect student achievement in chemistry.
141
3. Examine the effect of CACM and DVI on student achievement in other
units of chemistry.
Summary
The growth and development of most nations are highly dependent on
science, technology and mathematics. A number of studies done in Nigeria have
reported student‟s under-achievement in these subjects. This explains why some
science, technology and mathematics education researchers, among others, have
in recent times concentrated their research efforts on finding teaching strategies
that promotes teaching and learning of science so as to increase achievement
and enrolment in science. Consequent upon the foregoing, this study sought to
explore the effects of computer assisted concept mapping (CACM) and digital
video instructional strategies on student‟s academic achievement in chemistry.
The study also examined the influence of gender on student‟s achievement in
chemistry. To give a sense of direction to the study, four research questions
were asked and five hypotheses were formulated and tested at P 0.05.
The researcher reviewed many related literature. The review showed
among other things, that some works were done on CACM on other subjects but
none in chemistry. Also the review showed that works were done on video tape
and no work on DVI in chemistry.
A quasi – experiment, non- randomized and non – equivalent control
group design was used. In carrying out the research, the researcher treated all
the students in each of the intact classes used for the experiment. One hundred
142
and twenty (210) students from three senior secondary schools sampled, were
used as the sample for the study. The students in their intact classes were
randomly assigned to the two experimental (CACM), (DVI) and one control
(LM) groups, and separately taught by the regular chemistry teachers who had
earlier been trained for the purpose. Identified extraneous variables which could
pose potential threat to the validity of the study were controlled. All the groups
were pretested before the experiment and post tested after the experiment.
The instrument used for data collection was the Chemistry Achievement
Test (CAT). This instrument was adapted from the past examination to West
African Examination Council (WAEC) and National Examination Council
(NECO). The instrument was validated by chemistry teachers and measurement
and evaluation expertise. The instrument was pilot tested. Data collected were
used for test of reliability. An internal consistency reliability estimate of 0.95
using Kuder- Richardson formula 20 was computed for CAT. The data
generated from the study were analyzed using means and standard deviation
(SD) and Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test all the hypotheses
at 0.05 probability level.
The result from the data analyzed showed that:
1. The use of CACM as a teaching methods/strategies was a significant
factors in students overall achievement.
2. While CACM and DVI were significant factors in students achievements
CACM showed a higher significant factor in student‟s achievement.
143
3. Gender was a significant factor in the student‟s achievement in chemistry
when CACM was used for teaching chemistry. The male students tend to
perform better than their female counterparts in the CACM group as well
as the lecture method (CLM) group.
4. The use of DVI when compared with (LM), show no significant overall
achievement with the use of DVI, also no significant interaction effect
between the teaching method and gender.
Following the discussion of these findings, the educational implications
of those findings were pointed out and it was recommended that both teachers in
training and those in the teaching field should be made to understand how to use
CACM and DVI techniques. The limitations of the study were also highlighted
and suggestions for further areas of research were made. It was also suggested
that seminars, workshops and conferences should be organized by educators,
Ministries of Education and Professional bodies like science Teachers
Association (STAN) and Nigeria Association for Educational Media and
Technology (NAEMT) to acquaint and re-orient teachers with skills for CACM
and DVI. Based on the findings of this study, it was concluded that CACM and
DVI techniques should be employed in chemistry teaching as a means of
improving the academic achievement of students.
144
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APPENDIX A
Table 1: Enrolment and performance of students in SSCE Chemistry by WAEC (2002-2007)
Number and percentage obtained grade
Subject Year Total
Entry
Total
that
SAT
Credit and above
Total
Credit
Pass
Fail No.
Abs &
AS %
of
Entry
Ch
emis
try
2002 311606 97.99%
301704
0.98%
1697
1.41%
3511
9.90%
24057
6.57%
13597
8.06%
20454
16.92%
46081
43.84%
109397
14.33%
39845
16.48%
41834
30.81%
81634
25.35%
110664
2.50%
9866
2003 271372 96.83%
262824
0.56%
451
1.16%
1829
7.97%
16738
4.50%
10942
6.77%
17433
15.27%
43095
36.25%
90488
13.20%
38132
13.86%
39348
27.06%
77480
36.67%
94856
3.18%
8548
2004 320332 96.85%
313332
0.17%
1631
0.69%
5132
6.36%
39033
4.16%
21704
6.63%
29756
16.39%
57658
34.42%
154914
14.50%
39027
14.97%
34358
2947%
73385
36.67%
94856
3.14%
7000
2005 334491 97.81%
327503
0.52%
1264
1.62%
25628
12.45%
25628
6.92%
22592
9.49%
21474
18.40%
49211
49.44%
124009
12.45%
43417
10.96%
40154
23.42%
83571
36.69%
67412
2.18%
0988
2006 357658 97.91%
349936
0.38%
6132
1.18%
10767
7.82%
51931
6.89%
21927
6.54%
23426
15.02%
64100
37.86%
178274
13.25%
30293
12.26%
35206
25.51%
65499
21.51%
107318
2.08%
7722
2007
363752
97.72%
355452
1.74%
6732
3.07%
11785
14.84
49935
6.26%
20995
6.69%
25485
18.31%
64642
50.94%
179574
8.65%
32493
10.06%
35480
18.71%
67973
27.28%
107905
2.15%
8300
Source: Test Development Division, West Africa Examination Council; P.M.B 1076, Yaba Lagos
APPENDIX B
162
Table 2: Performance of students in Chemistry for May/June WASSCE in Niger State between 2000 and 2007
Subject Year of
Exam
Total Students
Enrolment
Total No of
Credit Pass
(A1-C6)
% Credit
Pass (A1-C6)
Total No of
Pass (P7-P8)
% Pass
(P7-P8)
Total No.
of Failure
(F9)
%
Failure
(F9)
Mean
%
Failure
Ch
emis
try
2000 1378 190 13.79 259 18.80 929 67.42
53.41 2001 1420 217 15.28 337 23.73 866 60.99
2002 1759 295 16.77 520 29.56 944 53.67
2003 1285 378 29.42 375 29.18 532 41.40
2004 1325 239 18.04 380 28.68 706 53.28
2005 1515 305 20.13 507 33.47 703 46.40
2006 1715 361 21.05 484 28.22 870 50.73
2007 3,938 469 11.9 682 17.32 2,787 70.77
Source: Niger State Ministry of Education (2008).
153
APPENDIX C
NAMES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN MINNA THAT OFFERS
CHEMISTRY
1. Bosso secondary school Minna
2. Day secondary school Maitunbi
3. Government Day secondary School Maikunkele
4. Army Day Secondary School A Minna
5. Army Day Secondary School B Minna
6. Government Day Secondary School Minna
7. Day Secondary School Tunga, Minna
8. Hill-Top Model Secondary School Minna
9. Federal Government College Minna
10. Zarumai Model School Minna
11. Ahmadu Bahago Senior Secondary School, Minna
12. Women Day College Minna
13. Government Girls Secondary School old Airport Minna
14. Maryam Babangida Girls Science College Minna
15. Government Girls Day Secondary School Minna
16. Government Secondary School Minna
154
APPENDIX D
SAMPLE SCRIPT WRITINGS FOR THE DEVELOPED DIGITAL VIDEO
INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE
SCRIPT 1
ENERGY AND FORMS OF ENERGY
STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME
STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins
STEP 2 The Subject and topic on focus Hello Students you are welcome to this class.
The subject before us is chemistry. Under this
subject, we will be looking at the topic,
Energy and forms of energy. Today we shall
start with Energy.
3 mins
STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should
be able to:
1. Define Energy.
2. State the Law of
conservation of Energy
3. List the different forms of
energy.
Before we commence the lesson we shall look
at the instructional objective. They are the
expectation from you at the end of the lesson.
They include the following:
5mins
STEP 4
Objective 1
(Energy)
Energy is one of the fundamental and
universal concepts of physical sciences. It is
an attribute of matter that exists by itself. It is
defined as the ability to do work or produce
heat. It can be served and measured indirectly
through its effects on matter that acquires,
loses or possesses it. Energy cannot be
created nor destroyed but can be transformed
from one form to another. This is the
statement of the law of conservation of
energy.
10 mins
STEP 5 Sketch drawings of different forms
of energy on focus
Energy can take many forms namely:
1. Mechanical (potential and kinetic
energy)
2. Chemical energy
3. Electrical
4. Light energy
5. sound energy
6. Nuclear energy and
7. Thermal (heat) energy
5 mins
STEP 6
Summary
and
Evaluation
Sketch drawings of different forms
of energy on focus
This brings us to the end of the lesson. In this
lesson we have looked at what energy is the
law of conservation of energy and the
different forms of energy. In order to assess
your understanding of this lesson, you have
these sample questions to answer in your
book. I will mark them.
1. What is energy?
2. State the law of conservation of
10 mins
155
energy
3. List four forms of energy
SCRIPT 2
THERMAL ENERGY
STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME
STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins
STEP 2
Introduction
Hello students you are welcome
back to our chemistry class. Today
we are going to continue with our
lesson by picking one of the forms
of energy. As a revision, answer this
question.
List the seven forms of energy.
Hello Students you are welcome to this class.
The subject before us is chemistry. Under this
subject, we will be looking at the topic,
Energy and forms of energy. Today we shall
start with Energy.
3 mins
STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should
be able to:
1. Define thermal (heat) energy.
2. Differentiates between heat
energy and temperature.
3. Explain the process of heat
transfer.
We shall look at thermal (heat) energy today.
Thermal energy also known as heat energy is
the sum total of all the randomized kinetic
energy within a body. It difference in
temperature. Temperature is the degree of
coldness or hotness of a body. It is measured
using an instrument called thermometer. Heat
is transferred from a warmer body to a colder
one through contact. When a warmer body is
brought into contact with a cooler body,
thermal energy flows from the warmer body
to the cooler one until their two temperatures
are identical.
2 mins
156
STEP 4
Summary
and
Evaluation
We have come to the end of lesson two. In the
next lesson we will start with thermal
reactions. Answer these questions to evaluate
yourselves on how far we understood the
lesson
10 mins
STEP 5 1. Define heat energy.
2. Differentiate between heat
and temperature.
3. How is heat transformed
from one body to another.
5 mins
SCRIPT 3
ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME
STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins
STEP 2
The board containing the script for
the lesson on focus
Hello students you are welcome to chemistry
class. In this lesson we shall consider the topic
Endothermic Reaction.
3 mins
STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should
be able to:
1. Define endothermic reaction.
2. Give examples of
endothermic processes.
3. Identify heat change value
for endothermic
The word endo:- means inside while thermic:-
means to heat. So putting the two reactions that
involve the absorption of energy in the form of
heat. It is a reaction in which a system receives
heat from the surrounding
5 mins
STEP 4 The energy profile diagram for
endothermic reaction on focus
The diagram of endothermic reaction before
you shows that the energy for the products is
higher than the energy of the reactions. The
difference between the energy of the products
and the reactions is called heat change. Heat
change is denoted with the symbol ∆H. The ∆H
is positive for endothermic reaction. It is written
for example as ∆H= + 10 kj/mol
10 mins
STEP 5 Examples Of Endothermic Reaction Processes
1. Evaporation of water
2. Photosynthesis
10 mins
157
STEP 6 We have come to the end of the
lesson on endothermic reaction. To
asses yourselves answer these
questions
1. What is endothermic
reaction?
2. Give two endothermic
processes
3. What is the value of heat
change for endothermic
reaction
5 mins
SCRIPT 4
EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME
STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins
STEP 2
The board containing the script for
the lesson on focus
Hello students we shall continue today with the
topic exothermic reaction.
3 mins
STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should
be able to:
1. Define exothermic reaction.
2. Explain the difference
between exothermic reaction
and endothermic reaction.
3. Identify heat change value
for exothermic reaction.
Exothermic reaction is the opposite of
endothermic reaction. It is a reaction which
involves the release of energy in form of heat to
the surrounding. In this process, the system
gives heat to the surroundings.
5 mins
STEP 4 The energy profile diagram for
exothermic reaction
The energy profile diagram of exothermic
reaction before you shows that the energy for
the products is less than the energy of the
reactions. The difference between the energy of
the products and that of the reactions known as
heat change with ∆H as symbol has its value to
be negative. It is written for example as ∆H= -
10 kj/mol.
15 mins
158
STEP 5 The difference between endothermic and
exothermic reaction is that while heat is
absorbed in endothermic reaction, heat is
involved or released in the case of exothermic
reaction. Also the ∆H value for endothermic
reaction is positive that of exothermic reaction
is negative
6 mins
STEP 6
Summary
and
Evaluation
1. Define exothermic reaction.
2. What is the value of heat
change (∆H) for exothermic
reaction
This is the end of fourth lesson. To check your
level of understanding answers these questions.
5 mins
SCRIPT 5
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME
STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins
STEP 2
The script for the lesson on focus Hello students you are welcome to yet another
chemistry class. In this lesson we will
consider the topic Chemical equilibrium
3 mins
STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should
be able to:
1. Explain what chemical
equilibrium is and.
State the le-chateliers principle.
When a chemical reaction takes place in a
container which prevents the entry or escape
of any of the substances involved in the
reaction, the quantities of these components
change as some are consumed and others are
formed. Eventually these changes will come
to an end, after which the composition will
remain unchanged as long as the system
remains undisturbed. The system is then said
to be in its equilibrium state, or simply in a
state of chemical equilibrium. A chemical
reaction is in equilibrium when there is no
tendency for quantities of reactants and
products to change.
10 mins
STEP 4 The balance of forces in chemical reactions
that balances the tendency for bonds to be
broken such that the molecules become
dispersed and diluted in a chemical reaction
explains why chemical reactions go toward
equilibrium. For example the equation below
H2 + I2 → 2HI (A)
2HI→H2 + I2 (B) equation (A) shows the
synthesis of hydrogen iodide while equation
(B) shows the dissociating of hydrogen give a
reaction in equilibrium H2 + I2 2HI.
10 mins
STEP 5 A principle which takes care of a situation
whereby the chemical reaction system in
equilibrium is being disturbed is referred to as
lechateliers principle. It states that when a
system in a state of equilibrium is being
159
disturbed by an external constraint such as
temperature, pressure and concentration etc,
the equilibrium will shift to cancel the
constraint. For example the reaction above, if
the forward reaction is forward by increased,
more of the products will be formed. But if
temperature is decreased, more reactants will
be formed.
10 mins
STEP 6
Summary
and
Evaluation
This is the end of the lesson
answer these questions to asses
yourselves.
1. What is equilibrium state in a
chemical reaction.
2. Why do reactions go toward
equilibrium.
3. State le-chatelies principle
5 mins
SCRIPT 6
REVERSIBILITY OF REACTIONS
STEPS VISUAL AUDIO TIME
STEP 1 Opening Graphics Signature tune 2mins
STEP 2
The board containing the script for the
lesson on focus
Hello students you are once again welcome
to chemistry class. In the last lesson we
considered chemical equilibrium. In this
lesson we will be studying the topic
REVERSIBILITY of REACTION.
3 mins
STEP 3 At end of the lesson students should be
able to:
1. Explain what reversibility of
reaction is.
2. Identify the reversibility sign.
At the end of this lesson there are
expectations from you the things you should
be able to do. They are the objectives of the
lesson which include the following.
5 mins
STEP 4 A chemical equation of the form A B
represents the transformation of A into B,
but it does not only that all of the reactants
will be converted into products or that the
reverse reaction B A cannot also occur.
Both processes can be expected to occur,
resulting in equilibrium mixture containing
finite amounts of all the components of the
reaction system. If the reaction is one in
which significant quantities of both
reactions and products are present, then the
reaction is said to be reversible. In
reversible reaction the rate of backward
reaction is equal to backward reaction.
STEP 5 That arrows are use to show reactions
that are reversible. For example H2 + I2
2HI, indicated the forward reaction
160
while indicates backward reaction.
STEP 6
Summary
and
Evaluation
The questions on focus.
1. What is a reversible reaction.
2. What the signs indicating both
forward and backward reactions.
3. What down a chemical equation
of a reaction that is reversible.
This has brought to the end of the lesson on
reversibility of reactions. At the beginning
of the lesson we had objectives. At the end
of this lesson we shall evaluate ourselves
through these questions.
5 mins
161
APPENDIX E
CHEMISTRY ACHIEVEMENT TEST (CAT) FOR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS (SSII
) IN MINNA, NIGER STATE
School…………………………………………………
Class……………………………………………………
Sex………………………………………………………
Instruction: Tick the correct option from the options a-d. Answer all questions.
1. In which of the following equations can le-charteliers principle be applied?
a. H2 (g) + S (g) → H2S (g)
b. 2H2S (g) + 02(g) → 2H20(1) + 2S02s(g)
c. N2(g)+ 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
d. NaOH (ag)+CO2 (g) → Na2CO3(ag) + H2O(1)
2. A measure of the degree of disorderliness in a chemical system is known as the
a. activation energy
b. enthalpy
c. entropy
d. equilibrium
3. A chemical system is at equilibrium when
a. ∆G is positive
b. ∆G is zero
c. ∆S is negative
d. ∆S is positive
4. What does ∆H represent in the equation below?
CI2 (g) +2e –
2CI-: ∆H = +363kjmol
-1
a. activation energy
b. dissociation energy
c. electron affinity
d. enthalpy change
5. Consider the reaction
H(aq) + OH(aq)→ H20(1)
162
The energy change taking place in the reaction above is enthalpy of
a. formation
b. hydration
c. neutralization
d. solution
6. Which of the following is not true of a system in chemical equilibrium?
a. rate of forward and backward reactions are equal
b. the reaction must be a reversible reaction
c. there must be increase in temperature
d. the value of the free energy change of the system is zero
7. Which of the following is true for the spontaneity of a reaction?
a. ∆H - T∆S = - Ve
b. ∆H - T∆S = O
c. H
d. ∆S = 0
8. Calculate the free energy change of the reaction that was carried out at 270C with
+4500j and +12j as enthalpy and entropy changes respectively.
a. - 4176J
b. - 900J
c. + 900J
d. + 4176J
9. If the enthalpy change and the free energy change are +4500j and+3600j at the
temperature of 300C, what is the entropy change?
a. 30j
b. 25j
c. 35j
d. 34j
10. Equilibrium is said to be attained in reversible reaction when
a. All the reactants have been used up
b. All the products have been formed.
c. There is no further change in temperature
d. The rates of the forward and backward reaction are equal.
11. Which of the following statement is/are correct of ∆H, the enthalpy of reaction? H is
a. The heat change accompanying a chemical reaction
163
b. Negative for exothermic reactions
c. Positive for endothermic reaction Greater
than ∆S for reversible reactions.
12. Which of the following statements is/are correct about equilibrium?
a. Chemical equilibrium is attained when the rates of forward and backward
reaction are equal
b. changes in concentrations of reactions will alter equilibrium concentrations.
c. A catalyst alter equally the rates of both the forward and the backward
reactions
d. Temperature affects equilibrium constant.
13. Which of the following correctly, explains entropy?
a. The natural tendency for a system to achieve a greater disorder
b. A balance of two driving forces between free energy and enthalpy changes
c. The cause of spontaneity of a reaction
d. A measure of the enthalpy of a reaction
14. The ∆H value for the reaction A + B → C + D,
is what, if the temperature, free energy and entropy changes are 400C, 4260KJ and-
20KJ respectively?
a. + 2000KJmol-1
b. + 3460KJmol-1
c. + 50KJmol-1
d. - 100KJmol-1
15. Which of the processes represented by the following equations has the greatest
positive entropy change?
a. C6H6 (1) → C6H6 (g)
b. H20(s) → H20(1)
c. Cu0(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H20(1)
d. Na2C03(s) +nH20(1) → Na2CO3 nH20(s)
16. CH4 (g) + 202(g) → 2H20(1) + C02(g) ∆H = 890kJmol-1
∆H in the reaction represented by the equation above is the enthalpy of
a. formation
b. combustion
c. solution
d. activation
164
17. If a reaction is said to be exothermic, which of the following statement is correct?
a. The reaction vessel gets hotter as the reaction proceeds
b. ∆H for the reaction is positive
c. The rate of the reaction increases with time
d. The activation energy of the reaction is high.
18. In a chemical reaction, the reacting species possesses energy of motion known as
a. potential energy
b. free energy
c. bond energy
d. kinetic energy
19. H30+
(ag) + OH- →
2H20(1) the heat change accompanying the process represented by the
equation above is the heat of
a. neutralization
b. formation
c. solution
d. dilution
20. Which of the following statements is correct about the following system at
equilibrium?
PC15(g) PC13(s) + Cl2; ∆H is positive
a. increase in temperature increases the yield of PCI3
b. PC15 is less stable at high pressures
c. decrease in temperature favours the forward reaction.
d. decrease in pressure favours the forward reaction
21. If the change in free energy (∆G) of reaction is negative, it can be deduced that the
reaction will
a. not proceed in the direction indicated
b. be reversible
c. Not occur at room temperature
d. be feasible
22. Which of the following can be deduced from the equation below? XY(aq) + PQ(aq) →
XQ(s) + PY (aq)
∆H = - 65,700J
a. The heat content of the reactants is higher than that of the products
b. The reaction involves double decomposition
165
c. The reaction is slow
d. A large amount of heat is absorbed.
23. In the energy profile diagram below which letter represents the activation energy for
the reversible reaction?
E
a. X
b. Y
c. Z
d. P
24. The products of an endothermic reaction are
a. higher in enthalpy than the reactants
b. lower in enthalpy than the reactants
c. the same in enthalpy as the reactants
d. such that the change in enthalpy is less than zero
Consider the energy profile diagram below and use it to answer questions 25 to 27
E
25. Q represent
a. Activation energy
b. Activated complex
c. Enthalpy change
Reactants
x product
y
Z
p
Reaction coordinate
Q
Z
X
W
Y
Reaction coordinator
166
d. Heat content of the reactants
26. Enthalpy change of the reaction is represented by
a. W
b. X
c. Z
d. Y
27. What type of reaction is represented by the energy diagram?
a. Endothermic
b. Exothermic
c. Redox
d. Neutralization
28. If the value of ∆H for a reaction is negative. It means that the reaction is.
a. Slow
b. exothermic
c. spontaneous
d. Irreversible
29. The free energy change, entropy change and heat change for a chemical reaction are
4000kjmol-1
, 100kjmol-1
and 6000kjmol-1
respectively, what is the temperature?
a. 10K
b. 20K
c. 30K
d. 40K
30. The spontaneity of a chemical reaction is determined by the change in the
a. Concentration of the reactants
b. Temperature of the system
c. Free energy of the system
d. Pressure applied to the system
31. An exothermic reaction is one which involves
a. Attainment of the dynamic equilibrium
b. Loss of heart to the surrounding
c. Evolution of gas as it proceeds
d. Positive change is value of enthalpy
32. Which of the following lowers the activation energy of a chemical reaction?
a. freezing mixture
167
b. reducing agent
c. water
d. catalyst
33. Chemical equilibrium is attained when
a. reactants in the system are used up.
b. concentrations of the products are greater than those of the reactants.
c. Concentration of the reactants and products remain constant.
d. reactants stop forming the products
34. Consider the following equation
Ag+
(ag) + Cl-→ AgCl(s) ∆H = - 65.7KJmoI
-1 from the equation, it can be deduced that
a. direct combination is involved and the reaction is endothermic
b. A solid is formed and heat is evolved
c. Activation energy is high and catalyst is required.
d. The reaction is endothermic and occurs at high temperature.
35. A reaction is represented by the equation below. A2+B2(g) 2AB(g); ∆H =-
XKJMOI-1
which of the following statements about the system is correct?
a. The forward reaction is exothermic
b. The reaction goes to completion at equilibrium
c. Pressure has no effect on the equilibrium mixture
d. At equilibrium increase in temperature favours the reverse reaction.
36. Which of the following statements about an exothermic reaction is correct?
a. The products have less heat content than the reactants.
b. The system absorbs heats from the surrounding
c. The activation energy is high.
d. The enthalpy change is positive.
37. Which of the following statements is true of an endothermic reaction? I. Heat is
absorbed from the surrounding II. The heat content of the products is more than that
of the reactants III. The enthalpy change is positive IV. The surrounding is at lower
temperature than the system.
a. I only
b. I and II only
c. I, II and III only
d. I, II, III and IV
168
38. Which of the following are required in an experiment to determine the enthalpy of
solution of anhydrous CuS04?
a. Mass of the anhydrous CuS04
b. Volume of water in which the CuS04 is dissolved
c. Initial temperature of water
d. Final temperature of the solution.
39. The activation energy of a reaction can be altered by
a. adding a reducing agent
b. applying a high pressure
c. charging the temperature
d. using a catalyst
40. When ice is changing to water, its temperature remains the same because the heat
gained is
a. used to separate the molecules
b. lost partially to the atmosphere
c. used to increase the volume of ice
d. less than the activation energy
41. Solute spreading throughout solvent from regions of high concentration to regions of
low concentration means that
a. change in entropy is negative
b. there is an increase in the degree of disorder
c. change in entropy is zero
d. there is a natural tendency for the system to achieve a greater order.
42. At equilibrium, the value of the free energy G is
a. positive
b. negative
c. at a minimum
d. constant.
43. Which of the following is correct?
a. the combination of enthalpy (H) and entropy (S) is a function called free
energy
b. ∆G = ∆H -T∆S
c. in spontaneous reaction, Gibbs free energy is always negative
169
d. in a chemical reaction, the system always tries to satisfy two complementary
tendencies: maximum stability and maximum entropy.
44. The quantity of heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is formed
from its constituent elements is known as:
a. heat of reaction
b. heat of neutralization
c. enthalpy
d. heat of formation
45. When the heat of reaction (∆H) is negative, it shows that reactions is
a. exothermic
b. endothermic
c. spontaneous
d. decreasing
46. Spontaneity is provided by Gibb‟s free energy through the equation
a. ∆H = ∆G - ∆S
b. ∆G = ∆H -T∆S
c. ∆S = ∆H - T∆S
d. ∆G = T- H∆S
47. When a system in a state of chemical equilibrium is disturbed, the equilibrium shifts
so as to annul or neutralize the effect of the change. This defines
a. Boyle‟s law
b. Charles law
c. Pressure law
d. le -chatelier‟s principle
48. An endothermic reaction is one which involves
a. attainment of dynamic equilibrium
b. absorption of heat from the surrounding
c. evolution of gas as it proceeds
d. negative change in value of enthalpy
49. The substance that lowers the energy barrier, providing an alternative pathway for the
reaction is called.
a. an inhibitor
b. a catalyst
c. an activator
170
d. a reactant
50. A catalyst has no effect on the position of a system at equilibrium because
a. it is a catalyst
b. it affects the forward and backward reactions equally
c. it affect forward reaction only
d. it affect backward reaction only.
171
APPENDIX F
MARKING SCHEME FOR THE CHEMISTRY ACHIEVEMENT TEST
1. C
2. C
3. B
4. D
5. A
6. C
7. A
8 D
9. A
10. D
11. A
12. A
13. A
14. B
15. A
16. B
17. A
18. D
19. A
20. A
21 D
22 A
23 A
24 A
25 B
26 B
27 B
28 B
29 B
30 C
31 B
32 D
33 C
34 B
35 D
36 A
37 C
38 D
39 D
40 B
41 C
42 B
172
43 B
44 D
45 A
46 B
47 D
48 B
49 A
50 B
173
APPENDIX G
INSTRUCTION ON HOW TO MAKE EFFECTIVE USE OF THE LESSON PLANS
TO ENSURES UNIFORM CONDITIONS
To ensure maximum control of teacher variable for LM, lesson plans on the units of
chemistry were prepared by the researcher and distributed to the teachers that would handle
the control group. The researcher together with the teacher read through the contents of the
lesson plans and necessary explanations were made. The teacher‟s attention was drawn to the
following points
1. Objectives of each lesson.
2. The appropriate instructional materials that must be used by the teacher at every
lesson.
3. Teaching techniques to be employed.
4. Students‟ activities at different stages of each lesson.
5. The evaluation questions and assignments which must be used to evaluate the
lesson at the end of each period.
6. The teachers were advised to adhere strictly to the specifications of the lesson
plans.
174
APPENDIX H
OPERATIONAL GUIDE TO INSTRUCTION FOR COMPUTER ASSISTED
CONCEPT MAPPING LESSONS
1. Boot the computer if it is not already booted
2. Insert the CD-room
3. Click the start menu, the welcome page will appear
4. Type your name in the box on the page and click the arrow around the box the
main menu will appear which contains the different lessons.
5. Select the topic by clicking the arrow beside the topic, the lesson page will be
displayed.
6. After each lesson, there is an evaluation question which the student must answer
correctly before the student is allowed to move to the next lesson. But if the
student failed to get the correct answer after three trials, the student is logged out.
With the instruction that the student should meet his/her instructor for assistance.
175
APPENDIX I
LESSON PLANS FOR THE CONTROL GROUP INSTRUCTIONS
LESSON 1
Subject: Chemistry
Class: SSII
Duration: 35 minutes
Topic: Energy and forms of Energy
Instructional Objectives: By the end of the lesson the students will be able to
i. Define energy
ii. List the different forms of energy
iii. State the law of conservation of energy
Instructional Materials: A chart/picture of different forms of energy.
Instructional Techniques: Use of example Questioning, Explanatory techniques
Instructional Procedure: The teacher defines energy as the ability to do work the teacher list
the different forms of energy as
i. Chemical energy
ii. Electrical energy
iii. Light energy
iv. Sound energy
v. Nuclear energy
vi. Thermal energy
He then state the law of conservation of energy as energy is neither created nor destroyed but
can transform from one form to another.
Evaluation:
i. What is energy
ii. List four forms of energy
iii. State the law of conservation of energy
176
LESSON 2
Subject: Chemistry
Class: SSII
Duration: 35 minutes
Topic: Thermal Energy
Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students will be able to
i. Define thermal energy
ii. Differentiate between heat energy and temperature
iii. Explain the process of heat transfer
Instructional Materials: Source of heat (stove), thermometer, Dish containing water, metal
that conducts heat.
Instructional Techniques: Demonstration, Questioning and Explanatory Techniques
Instructional Procedure: The teacher defines heat energy as the sum total of all the
randomized kinetic energy within a body. He also defines temperature as: Temperature is the
degree of hotness and coldness of a body. Temperature is measured using thermometer. He
explains the process of heat transfer, heat is transferred from a warmer body to a colder one
through contact until the temperatures of the two becomes identical.
Evaluation:
i. Define heat energy
ii. Differentiate between heat and temperature
iii. How is heat transferred from one body to another
LESSON 3
Subject: Chemistry
Class: SSII
Duration: 35 minutes
Topic: Endothermic Reaction
Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students will be able to
i. Define endothermic reaction
177
ii. Give examples of endothermic processes
iii Identify heat change value for endothermic reaction
Instructional Materials: A chart showing the graph for the energy profile for
endothermic reaction.
Instructional Techniques: Demonstration and explanatory techniques
Instructional Procedure: The teacher defines endothermic reaction as a reaction which
involves the absorption of energy in form of heat from the surrounding. It is a reaction in
which the reacting system receives heat from the surrounding.
He states some examples of endothermic processes as
i. Photosynthesis
ii. Evaporation of water
He then explain that the heat change value for endothermic reaction is positive using
the graph on the chart
Evaluation
i. What is endothermic reaction
ii. What is the value of heat change for endothermic reaction?
LESSON 4
Subject: Chemistry
Class: SSII
Duration: 35 minutes
Topic: Exothermic Reaction
Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students will be able to 1. Define
Exothermic reaction
2. Explain the difference between exothermic and endothermic
reactions.
3. Identify heat change values for exothermic reaction.
178
Instructional Material: A chart showing the graph for the energy profile for exothermic
reaction.
Instructional Techniques: Demonstration and Explanatory techniques
Instructional Procedure: The teacher defines exothermic reaction as a reaction which
involves the release of energy in form of heat to the surrounding. In exothermic reaction, the
reacting system gives heat to the surrounding. He explains using the energy
profile graph that the energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants as such
the difference between the energy of the products and that of the reactants known as the heat
change is given the symbol ▲H. The value of ▲H is negative. He goes further to explain the
difference between exothermic and endothermic reactions as
i. Exothermic reaction involves release of heat energy while endothermic
reaction involves absorption of heat energy. ii. The
value of ▲H for exothermic reaction is negative (-) while that of endothermic reaction is
positive (+)
Evaluation: He evaluates the lesson by asking the following questions
1. Define exothermic reaction
2. What is the difference between exothermic and endothermic reactions?
LESSON 5
Subject: Chemistry
Class: SSII
Duration: 35 minutes
Topic: Chemical Equilibrium
Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students will be able to
i. Explain what chemical equilibrium is and
ii. State Le-chateliers principle
Instructional Techniques: Explanatory and Questioning techniques.
179
Instructional Procedure: The teacher explains what chemical equilibrium is as when a
chemical reaction takes place in a container which prevents the entry or escape of any of the
substances involved in the reaction the quantities of these components changes some are
consumed and others are formed. Eventually, these changes will
come to an end after which the composition will remain unchanged as long as the system
remains undisturbed. The system is then serial to be in its equilibrium state. A chemical
reaction is in equilibrium when there is no tendency for quantities of reactant and
products to change.
He also explains why reactions go towards equilibrium that the balance forces in
chemical reactions that balances the tendency for bonds to be retained and bonds to be broken
is responsible for the equilibrium that is being attained in chemical reactions.
The teacher then state the Le-chatelier principle as when a system in a state of
equilibrium is being disturbed by external constraints, such as temperature, concentration and
pressure etc, the equilibrium will shift to cancel the effect of the constraint.
Evaluation: The lesson is evaluated by asking the following questions
i. What is chemical equilibrium?
ii. State Le-chateliers principle
iii. Why do reactions go toward equilibrium?
180
LESSON 6
Subject: Chemistry
Class: SSII
Duration: 35 minutes
Topic: Reversibility of reactions
Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lesson the student will be able to
1. Explain what reversibility of reaction is.
2. Identify the reversibility sign.
Instructional Techniques: Questioning and explanatory techniques
Instructional Procedure: when the rate of forward reaction is equal to that of backward
reaction, the reaction is said to be reversible.
He explains that half arrows are used to show reaction that is reversible as shown
→indicates forward reaction, while ←indicate backward reaction. So when put together
is the sign for the reversibility of a reaction for example.
H2+I2 2HI is a reversible reaction.
Evaluation: The teacher evaluates the lesson by asking the following questions.
1. What is reversible reaction
2. Write the signs indicating both forward and backward
reactions.
181
APPENDIX J
FACILITY AND DISCRIMINATION INDICES OF TEST
INSTRUMENT
Item
No. Key Upper Lower
Ru
(%)
Rl
(%)
No. of
Right P=R/T
Ru -
Rl
1 5 1 71 14 14 46 57
2 4 1 57 14 10 33 43
3 5 1 71 14 14 46 57
4 4 1 57 14 16 53 43
5 3 0 42 0 9 30 42
6 5 2 71 28 11 36 43
7 5 2 71 28 11 36 43
8 4 0 57 0 12 40 57
9 6 2 85 28 13 43 57
10 5 1 71 14 16 53 57
11 6 1 85 14 13 43 71
12 5 2 71 28 18 60 43
13 5 1 71 14 14 46 57
14 4 1 57 14 10 33 43
15 5 1 71 14 12 40 57
16 5 2 71 28 12 40 43
17 5 2 71 28 10 33 43
18 4 1 57 14 18 60 43
19 6 2 85 28 21 70 57
20 4 1 57 14 14 46 43
21 3 0 42 0 12 40 42
22 4 0 57 0 14 46 57
23 6 3 85 42 16 53 43
24 5 1 71 14 14 46 57
25 4 1 57 14 18 60 43
26 4 1 57 14 9 30 43
27 5 1 71 14 12 40 57
28 4 0 57 0 15 50 57
29 5 1 71 14 13 43 57
30 3 0 42 0 18 60 42
31 3 0 42 0 15 50 42
32 6 2 85 28 11 36 57
33 4 1 57 14 17 56 43
34 5 2 71 28 9 30 43
35 4 0 57 0 10 33 57
36 3 0 42 0 11 36 42
37 4 1 57 14 9 30 43
38 4 1 57 14 13 43 43
39 5 2 71 28 10 33 43
40 4 1 57 14 9 30 43
41 6 3 85 42 12 40 43
42 3 0 42 0 9 30 42
43 6 2 85 28 13 43 57
44 4 1 57 14 10 33 43
182
45 4 1 57 14 12 40 43
46 5 2 71 28 12 40 43
47 3 0 42 0 16 53 42
48 5 1 71 14 10 33 57
49 5 2 71 28 11 36 43
50 4 1 57 14 17 56 43
183
APPENDIX K
RESHUFFLED CHEMISTRY ACHIEVEMENT TEST (CAT) FOR SENIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS (SSII
) IN MINNA, NIGER STATE
School…………………………………………………
Class……………………………………………………
Sex………………………………………………………
Instruction: Tick the correct option from the options a-d. Answer all questions.
1. Equilibrium is said to be attained in reversible reaction when
a. All the reactants have been used up
b. All the products have been formed.
c. There is no further change in temperature
d. The rates of the forward and backward reaction are equal.
2. Which of the following statement is/are correct of ∆H, the enthalpy of reaction? H is
a. The heat change accompanying a chemical reaction
b. Negative for exothermic reactions
c. Positive for endothermic reaction
d. Greater than ∆S for reversible reactions.
3. Which of the following statements is/are correct about equilibrium?
a. Chemical equilibrium is attained when the rates of forward and backward
reaction are equal
b. changes in concentrations of reactions will alter equilibrium concentrations.
c. A catalyst alter equally the rates of both the forward and the backward
reactions
d. Temperature affects equilibrium constant.
4. Which of the following correctly, explains entropy?
a. The natural tendency for a system to achieve a greater disorder
b. A balance of two driving forces between free energy and enthalpy changes
c. The cause of spontaneity of a reaction
184
d. A measure of the enthalpy of a reaction
5. The ∆H value for the reaction A + B → C + D,
is what, if the temperature, free energy and entropy changes are 400C, 4260KJ and-
20KJ respectively?
a. + 2000KJmol-1
b. + 3460KJmol-1
c. + 50KJmol-1
d. - 100KJmol-1
6. Which of the processes represented by the following equations has the greatest
positive entropy change?
a. C6H6 (1) → C6H6 (g)
b. H20(s) → H20(1)
c. Cu0(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H20(1)
d. Na2C03(s) +nH20(1) → Na2CO3 nH20(s)
7. CH4 (g) + 202(g) → 2H20(1) + C02(g) ∆H = 890kJmol-1
∆H in the reaction represented by the equation above is the enthalpy of
e. formation
f. combustion
g. solution
h. activation
8. If a reaction is said to be exothermic, which of the following statement is correct?
a. The reaction vessel gets hotter as the reaction proceeds
b. ∆H for the reaction is positive
c. The rate of the reaction increases with time
d. The activation energy of the reaction is high.
9. In a chemical reaction, the reacting species possesses energy of motion known as
a. potential energy
b. free energy
c. bond energy
d. kinetic energy
10. H30+
(ag) + OH- →
2H20(1) the heat change accompanying the process represented by the
equation above is the heat of
a. neutralization
b. formation
185
c. solution
d. dilution
11. In which of the following equations can le-charteliers principle be applied?
a. H2 (g) + S (g) → H2S (g)
b. 2H2S (g) + 02(g) → 2H20(1) + 2S02s(g)
c. N2(g)+ 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
d. NaOH (ag)+CO2 (g) → Na2CO3(ag) + H2O(1)
12. A measure of the degree of disorderliness in a chemical system is known as the
a. activation energy
b. enthalpy
c. entropy
d. equilibrium
13. A chemical system is at equilibrium when
a. ∆G is positive
b. ∆G is zero
c. ∆S is negative
d. ∆S is positive
14. What does ∆H represent in the equation below?
CI2 (g) +2e –
2CI-: ∆H = +363kjmol
-1
a. activation energy
b. dissociation energy
c. electron affinity
d. enthalpy change
15. Which of the following statements is correct about the following system at
equilibrium?
PC15(g) PC13(s) + Cl2; ∆H is positive
a. increase in temperature increases the yield of PCI3
b. PC15 is less stable at high pressures
c. decrease in temperature favours the forward reaction.
d. decrease in pressure favours the forward reaction
16. If the change in free energy (∆G) of reaction is negative, it can be deduced that the
reaction will
a. not proceed in the direction indicated
b. be reversible
186
c. Not occur at room temperature
d. be feasible
17. Which of the following can be deduced from the equation below? XY(aq) + PQ(aq) →
XQ(s) + PY (aq)
∆H = - 65,700J
a. The heat content of the reactants is higher than that of the products
b. The reaction involves double decomposition
c. The reaction is slow
d. A large amount of heat is absorbed.
18. In the energy profile diagram below which letter represents the activation energy for
the reversible reaction?
E
a. X
b. Y
c. Z
d. P
19. The products of an endothermic reaction are
a. higher in enthalpy than the reactants
b. lower in enthalpy than the reactants
c. the same in enthalpy as the reactants
d. such that the change in enthalpy is less than zero
20. A catalyst has no effect on the position of a system at equilibrium because
a. it is a catalyst
b. it affects the forward and backward reactions equally
c. it affect forward reaction only
d. it affect backward reaction only.
Reactants
x product
y
Z
p
Reaction coordinate
187
Consider the energy profile diagram below and use it to answer questions 21 to 23
E
21. Q represent
a. Activation energy
b. Activated complex
c. Enthalpy change
d. Heat content of the reactants
22. Enthalpy change of the reaction is represented by
a. W
b. X
c. Z
d. Y
23. What type of reaction is represented by the energy diagram?
a. Endothermic
b. Exothermic
c. Redox
d. Neutralization
24. An endothermic reaction is one which involves
a. attainment of dynamic equilibrium
b. absorption of heat from the surrounding
c. evolution of gas as it proceeds
d. negative change in value of enthalpy
Q
Z
X
W
Y
Reaction coordinator
188
25. The substance that lowers the energy barrier, providing an alternative pathway for the
reaction is called.
a. an inhibitor
b. a catalyst
c. an activator
d. a reactant
26. If the value of ∆H for a reaction is negative. It means that the reaction is.
a. Slow
b. exothermic
c. spontaneous
d. Irreversible
27. The free energy change, entropy change and heat change for a chemical reaction are
4000kjmol-1
, 100kjmol-1
and 6000kjmol-1
respectively, what is the temperature?
e. 10K
f. 20K
g. 30K
h. 40K
28. The spontaneity of a chemical reaction is determined by the change in the
a. Concentration of the reactants
b. Temperature of the system
c. Free energy of the system
d. Pressure applied to the system
29. An exothermic reaction is one which involves
a. Attainment of the dynamic equilibrium
b. Loss of heart to the surrounding
c. Evolution of gas as it proceeds
d. Positive change is value of enthalpy
30. Which of the following lowers the activation energy of a chemical reaction?
a. freezing mixture
b. reducing agent
c. water
d. catalyst
31. Chemical equilibrium is attained when
a. reactants in the system are used up.
189
b. concentrations of the products are greater than those of the reactants.
c. Concentration of the reactants and products remain constant.
d. reactants stop forming the products
32. Consider the following equation
Ag+
(ag) + Cl-→ AgCl(s) ∆H = - 65.7KJmoI
-1 from the equation, it can be deduced that
a. direct combination is involved and the reaction is endothermic
b. A solid is formed and heat is evolved
c. Activation energy is high and catalyst is required.
d. The reaction is endothermic and occurs at high temperature.
33. A reaction is represented by the equation below. A2+B2(g) 2AB(g); ∆H =-
XKJMOI-1
which of the following statements about the system is correct?
a. The forward reaction is exothermic
b. The reaction goes to completion at equilibrium
c. Pressure has no effect on the equilibrium mixture
d. At equilibrium increase in temperature favours the reverse reaction.
34. Which of the following statements about an exothermic reaction is correct?
a. The products have less heat content than the reactants.
b. The system absorbs heats from the surrounding
c. The activation energy is high.
d. The enthalpy change is positive.
35. Which of the following statements is true of an endothermic reaction? I. Heat is
absorbed from the surrounding II. The heat content of the products is more than that
of the reactants III. The enthalpy change is positive IV. The surrounding is at lower
temperature than the system.
a. I only
b. I and II only
c. I, II and III only
d. I, II, III and IV
36. Which of the following are required in an experiment to determine the enthalpy of
solution of anhydrous CuS04?
a. Mass of the anhydrous CuS04
b. Volume of water in which the CuS04 is dissolved
c. Initial temperature of water
d. Final temperature of the soluti
190
37. The quantity of heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is formed
from its constituent elements is known as:
a. heat of reaction
b. heat of neutralization
c. enthalpy
d. heat of formation
38. When the heat of reaction (∆H) is negative, it shows that reactions is
a. exothermic
b. endothermic
c. spontaneous
d. decreasing
39. Spontaneity is provided by Gibb‟s free energy through the equation
a. ∆H = ∆G - ∆S
b. ∆G = ∆H -T∆S
c. ∆S = ∆H - T∆S
d. ∆G = T- H∆S
40. When a system in a state of chemical equilibrium is disturbed, the equilibrium shifts
so as to annul or neutralize the effect of the change. This defines
a. Boyle‟s law
b. Charles law
c. Pressure law
d. le -chatelier‟s principle
41. Consider the reaction
H(aq) + OH(aq)→ H20(1)
The energy change taking place in the reaction above is enthalpy of
e. formation
f. hydration
g. neutralization
h. solution
42. Which of the following is not true of a system in chemical equilibrium?
e. rate of forward and backward reactions are equal
f. the reaction must be a reversible reaction
g. there must be increase in temperature
h. the value of the free energy change of the system is zero
191
43. Which of the following is true for the spontaneity of a reaction?
a. ∆H - T∆S = - Ve
b. ∆H - T∆S = O
c. H
d. ∆S = 0
44. Calculate the free energy change of the reaction that was carried out at 270C with
+4500j and +12j as enthalpy and entropy changes respectively.
a. - 4176J
b. - 900J
c. + 900J
d. + 4176J
45. If the enthalpy change and the free energy change are +4500j and+3600j at the
temperature of 300C, what is the entropy change?
a. 30j
b. 25j
c. 35j
d. 34j
46. The activation energy of a reaction can be altered by
a. adding a reducing agent
b. applying a high pressure
c. charging the temperature
d. using a catalyst
47. When ice is changing to water, its temperature remains the same because the heat
gained is
a. used to separate the molecules
b. lost partially to the atmosphere
c. used to increase the volume of ice
d. less than the activation energy
48. Solute spreading throughout solvent from regions of high concentration to regions of
low concentration means that
a. change in entropy is negative
b. there is an increase in the degree of disorder
c. change in entropy is zero
d. there is a natural tendency for the system to achieve a greater order.
192
49. At equilibrium, the value of the free energy G is
a. positive
b. negative
c. at a minimum
d. constant.
50. Which of the following is correct?
a. the combination of enthalpy (H) and entropy (S) is a function called free
energy
b. ∆G = ∆H -T∆S
c. in spontaneous reaction, Gibbs free energy is always negative
d. in a chemical reaction, the system always tries to satisfy two complementary
tendencies: maximum stability and maximum entropy.
193
194
APPENDIX L
POPULATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS (SS11
) OFFERING
CHEMISTRY IN MINNA
S/NO
SCHOOL
MALE FEMALE TOTAL
1 Bosso Secondary School Minna 152 63 215
2 Day Secondary School Maitunbi 137 86 223
3 Government Day Secondary School Maikunkele 122 66 188
4 Army Day Secondary School (A) Minna 96 67 163
5 Army Day Secondary School (B) Minna 115 77 192
6 Government Day Secondary School Minna 175 79 254
7 Day Secondary School Tunga 96 61 157
8 Hill-Top Model Secondary Minna 97 59 156
9 Federal Government College Minna 110 60 170
10 Zarumai Model School Minna 93 63 153
11 Ahmadu Bahago Senior Secondary School Minna 174 0 174
12 Women Day College Minna 0 147 147
13 Government Girls Secondary School Old Airport
Minna
0 138 138
14 Government Secondary School Minna 138 0 138
15 Maryam Babangida Girls Science College Minna 0 236 236
16 Government Girls Day Secondary School Minna 0 184 184
TOTAL 1650 1058 2708
Source: Niger State Ministry of Education
195
APPENDIX M DATA ANALYSIS FOR EFFECTS OF COMPUTER ASSISTED CONCEPT MAPPING AND DIGITAL VIDEO INSTRUCTION ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN CHEMISTRY
Research Question 1
Pertest Posttest
Computer Assisted
Group
N 68 68
Mean 33.2647 69.4412
Std. Deviation 3.22128 3.89175
Conventional Group N 64 64
Mean 33.8125 65.2813
Std. Deviation 2.68373 3.38751
Total N 132 132
Mean 33.5303 67.4242
Std. Deviation 2.97429 4.19764
Research Question 2
Pertest Posttest
Conventional
Group
N 64 64
Mean 33.8125 65.2813
Std. Deviation 2.68373 3.38751
Digital Video
Group
N 78 78
Mean 34.0769 55.6923
Std. Deviation 3.08229 4.17882
Total N 142 142
Mean 33.9577 60.0141
Std. Deviation 2.90237 6.13094
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Research Question 3- Computer Assisted and Gender
Sex Pertest Posttest
Male N 42 42
Mean 33.1905 70.0476
Std. Deviation 3.12533 4.38374
Female N 26 26
Mean 33.3846 68.4615
Std. Deviation 3.43018 2.73102
Total N 68 68
Mean 33.2647 69.4412
Std. Deviation 3.22128 3.89175
Research Question 4- Digital Video and Gender
Sex Pertest Posttest
Male N 48 48
Mean 33.3750 56.4583
Std. Deviation 3.03613 4.17163
Female N 30 30
Mean 35.2000 54.4667
Std. Deviation 2.85754 3.95434
Total N 78 78
Mean 34.0769 55.6923
Std. Deviation 3.08229 4.17882
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Analysis of Covariance for Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3
Dependent Variable:Posttest
Source
Type III Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 7438.111a 6 1239.685 84.934 .000
Intercept 5961.246 1 5961.246 408.421 .000
Pertest 5.027 1 5.027 .344 .558
Groups 6957.848 2 3478.924 238.350 .000
Sex 65.477 1 65.477 4.486 .035
Groups * Sex 45.677 2 22.838 1.565 .212
Error 2962.956 203 14.596
Total 845656.000 210
Corrected Total 10401.067 209
a. R Squared = .715 (Adjusted R Squared = .707)
.
198
CHAPTR ONE: INTROUDCTION…………………………………………………………..1
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 19
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................ 20
Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 21
Scope of the Study ........................................................................................................... 23
Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 23
Research Hypotheses ....................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 25
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................................................................... 25
Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................... 26
The need for Science and technology education in Nigeria ............................................ 26
Concept of Chemistry ...................................................................................................... 29
Importance of Instructional Media in Education ............................................................. 33
Information and Communication Technology and Education ......................................... 35
Nature and Scope of Computer Assisted Instruction ....................................................... 41
Nature and Scope of Concept Mapping ........................................................................... 52
Computer Assisted Concept Mapping as an Instructional Media .................................... 57
Digital Video Disc as an Instructional Media ................................................................. 57
Gender and Achievement in Science andTechnology…………………………..............52
Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................... 73
Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning ...................................................................................... 73
Application in CAI ........................................................................................................... 75
Cognitive Theories ........................................................................................................... 76
Empirical studies on Computer-Assisted Concept Mapping, Digital Video Instruction
and Gender influence on Academic Achievement in Science ......................................... 82
Summary of Literature Reviewed .................................................................................. 101
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 105
RESEARCH METHOD..................................................................................................... 105
Design of Study.............................................................................................................. 105
Area of Study ................................................................................................................. 106
Population of the Study .................................................................................................. 107
Sample and Sampling Techniques ................................................................................. 108
Instrument for Data Collection ...................................................................................... 109
Development of the Learning Instrument for the Treatment ......................................... 110
Validation of the Instrument .......................................................................................... 112
Item Analysis ................................................................................................................. 114
Reliability of Instrument ................................................................................................ 115
Control of Extraneous Variables .................................................................................... 116
Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................. 118
Method of Data Collection............................................................................................. 120
Method of Data Analysis ............................................................................................... 121
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 122
RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 122
Summary of Findings ..................................................................................................... 132
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 133
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY ................................................................... 133
Discussion of the Results ............................................................................................... 134
199
Findings on the effect of CACM on Achievement in Chemistry .................................. 134
Findings on the effect of DVI on Students Achievement in Chemistry ........................ 135
Findings on effect of Computer Assisted Concept Mapping on Achievement in
Chemistry by Gender ..................................................................................................... 135
Findings on effect of Digital Video Instruction on Achievement in Chemistry by Gender
........................................................................................................................................ 136
Findings on the treatment-gender interaction effect on students achievement in
chemistry………………………………………………………………………………..
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 137
Educational Implications ............................................................................................... 137
Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 139
Limitations of the Study................................................................................................. 140
Suggestions for further Studies ...................................................................................... 140
Summary ........................................................................................................................ 141
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 144
APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................ 161