This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost ...web.seducoahuila.gob.mx/biblioweb/upload/Chips-From-A-German-W… · first time to translate the Bible into the vulgar tongue

TheProjectGutenbergEBookofChipsFromAGermanWorkshopVolIIIbyFMaxMuumlller

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost andwith almost norestrictions whatsoever Youmay copy it give it away or re-use it under theterms of the ProjectGutenberg License includedwith this eBook or online athttpwwwgutenbergorglicense

TitleChipsFromAGermanWorkshopVolIII

AuthorFMaxMuumlller

ReleaseDateSeptember102008[Ebook26572]

LanguageEnglish

STARTOFTHEPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKCHIPSFROMAGERMANWORKSHOPVOLIII

CHIPSFROMAGERMANWORKSHOP

FMAXMUumlLLERMA

FOREIGNMEMBEROFTHEFRENCHINSTITUTEETC

VOLUMEIII

ESSAYSONLITERATUREBIOGRAPHYANDANTIQUITIES

NEWYORK

CHARLESSCRIBNERANDCOMPANY

Contents

DEDICATIONIGERMANLITERATURE

LIST OF EXTRACTS FOR ILLUSTRATING THE HISTORY OFGERMANLITERATURE

IIOLDGERMANLOVE-SONGSIIIYESCHYPPEOFFOOLESIVLIFEOFSCHILLERVWILHELMMUumlLLER1794-1827VIONTHELANGUAGEANDPOETRYOFSCHLESWIG-HOLSTEINVIIJOINVILLEVIIITHEJOURNALDESSAVANTSANDTHEJOURNALDETREacuteVOUXIXCHASOTXSHAKESPEAREXIBACONINGERMANYXIIAGERMANTRAVELLERINENGLANDXIIICORNISHANTIQUITIESXIVARETHEREJEWSINCORNWALLXVTHEINSULATIONOFSTMICHAELSMOUNTXVIBUNSEN

LETTERSFROMBUNSENTOMAXMUumlLLER INTHEYEARS1848TO1859

Footnotes

DEDICATION

TOFRANCISTURNERPALGRAVE

INGRATEFULREMEMBRANCEOFKINDHELP

GIVENTOME

INMYFIRSTATTEMPTSATWRITINGINENGLISH

ANDASAMEMORIAL

OFMANYYEARSOFFAITHFULFRIENDSHIP

[pg001]

IGERMANLITERATURE1

ThereisnocountrywheresomuchinterestistakenintheliteratureofGermanyasinEnglandandthereisnocountrywheretheliteratureofEnglandissomuchappreciated as in Germany Some of our modern classics whether poets orphilosophersarereadbyEnglishmenwiththesameattentionastheirownandthehistorians thenovel-writers and thepoetsofEnglandhaveexercised andcontinuetoexerciseamostpowerfulandbeneficialinfluenceonthepeopleofGermany In recent times the literatureof the twocountrieshasalmostgrownintooneLordMacaulaysHistoryhasnotonlybeentranslatedintoGermanbutreprinted at Leipzig in the original and it is said to have had a larger sale inGermany than theworkof anyGermanhistorianBaronHumboldt andBaronBunsenaddress theirwritings to theEnglishasmuchas to theGermanpublicThe novels of Dickens and Thackeray are expected with the same [pg 002]impatienceatLeipzigandBerlinasinLondonThetwogreatGermanclassicsSchillerandGoethehavefoundtheirmostsuccessfulbiographersinCarlyleandLewesandseveralworksofGermanscholarshiphavemetwithmoreattentiveand thoughtful readers in the colleges of England than in the universities ofGermany Goethes idea of a world-literature has to a certain extent beenrealized and the strong feeling of sympathy between the best classes in bothcountriesholdsoutahope that formanyyears tocome thesupremacyof theTeutonicracenotonlyinEuropebutoveralltheworldwillbemaintainedincommonbythetwochampionsofpoliticalfreedomandofthelibertyofthoughtmdashProtestantEnglandandProtestantGermany

TheinteresthoweverwhichEnglishmentakeinGermanliteraturehashithertobeenconfinedalmostexclusivelytotheliteratureofthelastfiftyyearsandverylittle is known of those fourteen centuries duringwhich theGerman languagehadbeengrowingupandgatheringstrengthforthegreat triumphswhichwereachievedbyLessingSchiller andGoetheNor is this tobewonderedatThenumberofpeopleinEnglandwhotakeanyinterestintheearlyhistoryoftheir

own literature is extremely small and there is as yet no history of EnglishliteratureworthyofthatnameItcannotbeexpectedthereforethatinEnglandmany people will care to read in the original the ancient epic poems of theldquoNibelungerdquoorldquoGudrunrdquooracquireagrammaticalknowledgeoftheGothicofUlfilas and the Old High-German of Otfried Gothic Old High-German andMiddle High-German are three distinct languages each possessing its owngrammar each differing from the others and fromModern [pg 003] Germanmore materially than the Greek of Homer differs from the Greek ofDemosthenes Even in Germany these languages are studied only byprofessionalantiquariansandscholarsandtheydonotformpartofthegeneralsystem of instruction in public schools and universities The study of Gothicgrammaralone(wherewestillfindadualinadditiontothesingularandpluralandwhere some tenses of the passive are still formed as inGreek andLatinwithout auxiliary verbs) would require as much time as the study of Greekgrammar though itwouldnot offer thekey to a literature like that ofGreeceOldHigh-GermanagainisasdifficultalanguagetoaGermanasAnglo-Saxonis to an Englishman and the Middle High-German of the ldquoNibelungerdquo ofWolframandWalthernayevenofEckhartandTaulerismoreremotefromthelanguageofGoethethanChaucerisfromTennyson

But without acquiring a grammatical knowledge of these ancient languagesthereareIbelievenotafewpeoplewhowishtoknowsomethingofthehistoryof German literature Nor is this if properly taught a subject of narrow ormerely antiquarian interest The history of literature reflects and helps us tointerpretthepoliticalhistoryofacountryItcontainsasitweretheconfessionwhicheverygenerationbeforeitpassedawayhasmadetoposterityldquoWithoutLiteraryHistoryrdquoasLordBaconsaysldquotheHistoryoftheWorldseemethtobeastheStatueofPolyphemuswithhiseyeoutthatpartbeingwantingwhichdothmostshewthespiritandlifeofthepersonrdquoFromthispointofviewthehistorianof literature learns to value what to the critic would seem unmeaning andtedious and he is loath to miss the works even of mediocre [pg 004] poetswheretheythrowlightonthetimesinwhichtheylivedandservetoconnecttheotherwise disjointed productions of men of the highest genius separated asthesenecessarilyarebylongintervalsintheannalsofeverycountry

AlthoughthereexistsnoliteraturetorewardthestudentofGothicyeteveryonewho cares for the history of Germany and of German thought should knowsomethingofUlfilasthegreatBishopoftheGothswhoanticipatedtheworkofLutherbymorethanathousandyearsandwhoatatimewhenGreekandLatin

weretheonlytworespectableandorthodoxlanguagesofEuropedaredforthefirst time to translate the Bible into the vulgar tongue of Barbarians as ifforeseeing with a prophetic eye the destiny of these Teutonic tribes whoselanguageafterGreekandLatinhaddiedawaywastobecomethelife-springoftheGospeloverthewholecivilizedworldHeoughttoknowsomethingofthoseearlymissionariesandmartyrsmostofthemsentfromIrelandandEnglandtopreachtheGospelinthedarkforestsofGermanymdashmenlikeStGall(died638)StKilian (died689) andStBoniface (died755)whowerenot contentwithfelling the sacredoak-trees andbaptizingunconvertedmultitudesbut foundedmissionary stations andschools andmonasteriesworkinghard themselves inorder to acquire a knowledgeof the language and the character of thepeopleand drawing up those curious lists of barbarous words with their no lessbarbarousequivalentsinLatinwhichwestillpossessthoughcopiedbyalaterhandHeoughttoknowthegradualprogressofChristianityandcivilizationinGermany previous to the time of Charlemagne for we see from theGermantranslations of theRules of theBenedictine [pg 005]monks of ancient Latinhymns theCreeds theLordsPrayerandportionsof theNewTestament thatthegoodsenseofthenationalclergyhadledthemtodowhatCharlemagnehadafterwards to enjoin by repeated Capitularia2 It is in the history of GermanliteraturethatwelearnwhatCharlemagnereallywasThoughclaimedasasaintby the Church of Rome and styled Empereur Franccedilais by modern Frenchhistorians Karl was really and truly a German king proud no doubt of hisRomansubjectsandofhistitleofEmperorandanxioustogivetohisuncouthGermans thebenefitof ItalianandEnglish teachersbut fondlyattached inhishearttohisownmothertonguetothelaysandlawsofhisfatherlandfeelingsdisplayed in his own attempt to compose a German grammar and in hiscollectionofoldnationalsongsfragmentsofwhichmayhavebeenpreservedtousintheballadsofHildebrandandHadubrand

AfterthedeathofCharlemagneandunderthereignofthegoodbutweakKingLudwigtheprospectsofanationalliteratureinGermanybecamedarkenedInone instance indeed the king was the patron of a German poet for heencouragedtheauthoroftheldquoHeliandrdquotowritethatpoemforthebenefitofhisnewly converted countrymen But he would hardly have approved of thethoroughlyGermanandalmostheathenspiritwhichpervadesthatSaxonepicofthe New Testament and he expressed his disgust at the old German poemswhichhis great father had taught him in his youthThe seed howeverwhichCharlemagnehadsownhad fallenon [pg006] healthy soil andgrewup evenwithout the sunshine of royal favor Themonastery of Fulda underHrabanus

Maurus the pupil of Alcuin became the seminary of a truly national clergyHere itwas thatOtfried theauthorof therhymedldquoGospel-bookrdquowasbroughtup In themean time the heterogeneous elements of theCarlovingianEmpirebroke asunder Germany by losing its French and Italian provinces becameGermany once more Ludwig the German was King of Germany HrabanusMaurus Archbishop of Mayence and the spirit of Charlemagne Alcuin andEginhardwasrevivedatAachenFuldaandmanyotherplacessuchasStGallWeissenburgandCorveywhereschoolswerefoundedonthemodelofthatofToursThetranslationoftheldquoHarmonyoftheGospelsrdquogivesusaspecimenofthequiet studiesof thosemonasterieswhereas the layon thevictoryofLouisIII over the Normans in 881 reminds us of the dangers that threatenedGermanyfromtheWestatthesametimethattheHungariansbegantheirinroadsfrom the East The Saxon Emperors had hard battles to fight against theseinvadersandtherewerefewplacesinGermanywherethepeacefulpursuitsofthemonasteriesandschoolscouldbecarriedonwithoutinterruptionStGallistheonebrightstarintheapproachinggloomofthenextcenturiesNotonlywastheBible read and translated and commentedupon inGermanatStGall asformerly atFulda butGreek andRoman classicswere copied and studied foreducational purposes Notker Teutonicus is the great representative of thatschoolwhichcontinued tomaintain its reputationfor theologicalandclassicallearning and for a careful cultivation of the national language nearly to theclose of [pg 007] the eleventh century At the court of the Saxon Emperorsthough their policywas thoroughlyGerman therewas little taste forGermanpoetryTheQueenofOttoIwasaLombardtheQueenofOttoIIaGreekladyand their influence was not favorable to the rude poetry of national bards Ifsometracesoftheirworkhavebeenpreservedtousweoweitagaintothemorenational tasteof themonksofStGall andPassauThey translate someof theGermanepicsintoLatinversesuchasthepoemoftheldquoNibelungerdquoofldquoWaltherofAquitainrdquoandofldquoRuodliebrdquoThe first is lostbut theother twohavebeenpreserved and published3 The stories of the Fox and the Bear and the otheranimalsmdasha branch of poetry so peculiar to Germany and epic rather thandidacticinitsoriginmdashattractedtheattentionofthemonksanditisowingagaintotheirLatintranslationsthattheexistenceofthiscuriousstyleofpoetrycanbetracedbacksofarasthetenthcentury4AsthesepoemsarewritteninLatintheycouldnotfindaplaceinaGermanreading-bookbuttheyaswellastheundulysuspected Latin plays of the nunHrosvitha throwmuch light on the state ofGermancivilizationduringthetenthandeleventhcenturies

Theeleventhcenturypresentsalmostanentireblankinthehistoryofliterature

Under the Frankish or Salic dynasty Germany had either to defend herselfagainst theinroadsofHungarianandSlavonicarmiesoritwasthebattle-fieldofviolentfeudsbetweentheEmperorsandtheirvassalsThesecondhalfofthatcentury was filled with the struggles between [pg 008] Henry IV and PopeGregoryVIITheclergyhithertothechiefsupportofGermanliteraturebecameestranged from the German people and the insecurity of the times wasunfavorable to literary pursuits Willirams German had lost the classicalcorrectness ofNotkers language and the ldquoMerigartordquo and similarworks arewritten in a hybrid style which is neither prose nor poetry The Old High-Germanhadbecomealiterarylanguagechieflythroughtheeffortsoftheclergyand the character of the whole Old High-German literature is preeumlminentlyclericalTheCrusadesputanendtothepreponderanceoftheclericalelementintheliteratureofGermanyTheywerenodoubttheworkoftheclergyByusingto the utmost the influence which they had gradually gained and carefullyfomented thepriestswere able to rouse awholenation to apitchof religiousenthusiasmneverknownbeforeorafterButtheCrusadeswerethelasttriumphof the clergy and with their failure the predominant influence of the clericalelementinGermansocietyischeckedandextinguished

FromthefirstbeginningoftheCrusadestheinterestofthepeoplewaswiththeknightmdashno longer with the priest The chivalrous Emperors of theHohenstaufendynastyformedanewrallyingpoint forallnationalsympathiesTheir courts and the castles of their vassals offered a new and more genialhometothepoetsofGermanythanthemonasteriesofFuldaandStGallPoetrychanged hands The poets took their inspirations from real life though theyborrowed their models from the romantic cycles of Brittany and ProvenceMiddleHigh-GermanthelanguageoftheSwabiancourtbecamethelanguageof poetry The [pg 009] earliest compositions in that language continue for awhiletobearthestampoftheclericalpoetryofaformerageThefirstMiddleHigh-German poems are written by a nun and the poetical translation of theBooksofMosesthepoemonAnnoBishopofCologneandtheldquoChronicleoftheRomanEmperorsrdquoallcontinuetobreathethespiritofcloistersandcathedraltowns And when a new taste for chivalrous romances was awakened inGermanywhen the storiesofArthur andhisknightsofCharlemagneandhischampions of Achilles AEligneas and Alexander in their modern dress wereimported by French and Provenccedilal knights who on their way to JerusalemcametostayatthecastlesoftheirGermanalliesthefirstpoetswhoventuredtoimitatethesemotleycompositionswerepriestsnotlaymenAfewshortextractsfromKonradsldquoRolandrdquoandLamprechtsldquoAlexanderrdquoaresufficienttomarkthis

periodoftransitionLikeCharlemagnewhohadbeenchangedintoalegendaryhero by French poets before he became again the subject of German poetryanotherGermanworthyreturnedatthesametimetohisnativehomethoughbutslightly changed by his foreign travels ldquoReinhard the Foxrdquo The influence ofProvenceandofFlandersisseenineverybranchofGermanpoetryatthattimeandyetnothingcanbemoredifferentthanthesamesubjectastreatedbyFrenchandGermanpoetsTheGermanMinnesaumlngerinparticularwerefarfrombeingimitatorsoftheTrouvegraveresorTroubadoursThereareafewsolitaryinstancesoflyric poems translated from Provenccedilal intoGerman5 as there is on the otherhand one poem translated from German into [pg 010] Italian6 early in thethirteenth centuryBut the greatmass ofGerman lyrics are of purelyGermangrowth Neither the Romans nor the lineal descendants of the Romans theItalians theProvenccedilals theSpaniardscanclaimthatpoetryas theirownIt isTeutonic purelyTeutonic in its heart and soul though its utterance its rhymeandmetreitsgraceandimageryhavebeentouchedbythemoregenialraysofthebrilliantsunofamoresouthernskyThesameappliestothegreatromanticpoems of that period The first impulse came from abroadThe subjectswereborrowed from a foreign source and the earlier poems such asHeinrich vonVeldeckes ldquoAEligneidrdquo might occasionally paraphrase the sentiments of FrenchpoetsBut in theworksofHartmannvonAueWolframvonEschenbach andGottfriedvonStrassburgwebreatheagainthepureGermanairandwecannotbut regret that thesemen should have taken the subjects of their poemswiththeir unpronounceable names extravagant conceits and licentious mannersfromforeignsourceswhiletheyhadathometheirgrandmythologytheirheroictraditionstheirkingsandsaintswhichwouldhavebeenmoreworthysubjectsthanTristan and Isold Schionatulander and Sigune Therewere new thoughtsstirring in the hearts and minds of those men of the twelfth and thirteenthcenturiesAhundredyearsbeforeDantetheGermanpoetshadgazedwiththeireyeswideopeninto that infiniterealitywhichunderliesourshortexistenceonearthToWolfram and tomanyapoetofhis time thehuman tragedyof thisworld presented the same unreal transitory and transparent aspect which wefindagain inDantes ldquoDivineComedyrdquoEverything[pg011] points to anotherworldBeautylovevirtuehappinessmdasheverythinginfactthatmovestheheartofthepoetmdashhasahiddenreferencetosomethinghigherthanthislifeandthehighest object of the highest poetry seems to be to transfer themind to thoseregionswheremenfeelthepresenceofaDivinepowerandaDivineloveandarelostinblissfuladorationThebeginningofthethirteenthcenturyisasgreatanerainthehistoryofGermanliteratureasthebeginningofthenineteenthTheGermanmindwascompletelyregeneratedOldwordsoldthoughtsoldmetres

old fashionswere swept away and a new spring dawned overGermanyThevariousbranchesoftheTeutonicracewhichaftertheirinroadsintotheseatsofRomancivilizationhadforatimebecomeseparatedwerebeginningtoassumeanationalindependencemdashwhensuddenlyanewageofmigrationthreatenedtoset inTheknightsofFrance andFlanders ofEnglandLombardy andSicilyleft their brilliant castlesTheymarched to theEast carrying alongwith themthe lesspolishedbutequallyenthusiasticnobilityofGermanyFromtheveryfirst the spirit of the Roman towns in Italy and Gaul had exercised a morecivilizinginfluenceontheBarbarianswhohadcrossedtheAlpsandtheRhinewhereas theGermansofGermanyproperhadbeen left to theirownresourcesassistedonlybythelessonsof theRomanclergyNowat thebeginningof theCrusades thevariousdivisionsof theGermanracemetagainbut theymetasstrangers no longer with the impetuosity of Franks and Goths but with thepolished reserve of a Godefroy of Bouillon and the chivalrous bearing of aFrederickBarbarossaTheGermanEmperorsandnoblesopenedtheircourtstoreceive their guests with [pg 012] brilliant hospitality Their festivals thesplendorandbeautyoftheirtournamentsattractedcrowdsfromgreatdistancesandforemostamongthempoetsandsingersItwasatsuchfestivalsasHeinrichvonVeldeckedescribesatMayencein1184underFrederickIthatFrenchandGerman poetrywere brought face to face Itwas here that high-bornGermanpoetslearntfromFrenchpoetsthesubjectsoftheirownromanticcompositionsGermanladiesbecamethepatronsofGermanpoetsandtheetiquetteofFrenchchivalrywasimitatedatthecastlesofGermanknightsPoetsmadeboldforthefirsttimetoexpresstheirownfeelingstheirjoysandsufferingsandepicpoetryhad to share its honors with lyric songs Not only France and Germany butEnglandandNorthernItalyweredrawnintothisgaysocietyHenryIImarriedEleanorofPoitouandhergraceandbeautyfoundeloquentadmirersinthearmyof theCrusaders Their daughterMathildewasmarried toHenry the Lion ofSaxonyandoneoftheProvenccedilalpoetshascelebratedherlovelinessFrenchmenbecamethetutorsofthesonsoftheGermannobilityFrenchmannersdressesdishesanddanceswerethefashioneverywhereThepoetrywhichflourishedatthecastleswassoonadoptedbythelowerranksTravellingpoetsandjestersarefrequentlymentionedandthepoemsoftheldquoNibelungerdquoandldquoGudrunrdquosuchaswe now possess them were composed at that time by poets who took theirsubjects theirbest thoughtsandexpressions fromthepeoplebut imitated thelanguagethemetreandthemannersofthecourtpoetsThemostfamouscourtsto which the German poets resorted and where they were entertained withgeneroushospitalitywerethecourtofLeopoldDukeof[pg013]Austria(1198-1230)andofhissonFrederickIIofHermannLandgraveofThuringiawho

resided at the Wartburg near Eisenach (1190-1215) of Berthold Duke ofZaumlhringen(1186-1218)andoftheSwabianEmperorsingeneralAtthepresentday when not only the language but even the thoughts of these poets havebecometomostofusunintelligibleandstrangewecannotclaimfortheirpoetrymore than an historical interestBut ifwewish to know themenwho took aleadingpartintheCrusadeswhofoughtwiththeEmperorsagainstthePopeorwiththePopeagainsttheEmperorswholivedinmagnificentcastleslikethatoftheWartburgandfoundedcathedralslikethatofCologne(1248)wemustreadthe poetry which they admired which they composed or patronized ThesubjectsoftheirRomancescannotgainoursympathyTheyareartificialunrealwith littleofhumanity and still lessofnationality in themBut themindof apoet like Wolfram von Eschenbach rises above all these difficulties He hasthoughtsofhisowntrulyhumandeeplyreligiousandthoroughlynationalandthereareexpressionsandcomparisonsinhispoetrywhichhadneverbeenusedbefore His style however is lengthy his descriptions tiresome and hischaracterssomewhatvagueandunearthlyAscriticsweshouldhavetobestowonWolframvonEschenbachonGottfriedvonStrassburgevenonHartmanvonAue andWalther von derVogelweide asmuch of blame as of praise But ashistorianswecannotvaluethemtoohighlyIfwemeasurethemwiththepoetsthat preceded and those that followed them they tower above all like giantsFromthedeepmarkswhichtheyleftbehindwediscoverthattheyweremenofcreativegeniusmenwhohadlookedat[pg014] lifewith theirowneyesandwere able to express what they had seen and thought and felt in a languagewhichfascinatedtheircontemporariesandwhichevennowholdsitscharmoverallwho canbring themselves to study theirworks in the same spirit inwhichtheyreadthetragediesofAEligschylusortheldquoDivinaCommediardquoofDante

ButtheheydayofGermanchivalryandchivalrouspoetrywasofshortdurationToward the end of the thirteenth century we begin to feel that the age is nolongeraspiringandhopingandgrowingTheworldassumesadifferentaspectItsyouthandvigorseemspentandthechildrenofanewgenerationbegintobewiserandsadderthantheirfathersTheCrusadeslanguishTheirobjectliketheobjectofmanyayouthfulhopehasprovedunattainableTheKnightsnolongertake the Cross ldquobecause God wills itrdquo but because the Pope commands aCrusadebargainsforsubsidiesandtheEmperorcannotdeclinehiscommandsWalther von der Vogelweide already is most bitter in his attacks on RomeWaltherwasthefriendofFrederickII(1215-50)anEmperorwhoremindsusin several respectsofhisnamesakeofPrussiaHewasa sovereignof literarytastesmdashhimself a poet and a philosopherHarassed by the Pope he retaliated

most fiercely and was at last accused of a design to extirpate the ChristianreligionThebanwaspublishedagainsthimandhisownsonroseinrebellionGermany remained faithful to her Emperor and the Emperor was successfulagainsthis sonButhesoondied indisappointmentanddespairWithhim thestarof theSwabiandynastyhadsetand thesweetsoundsof theSwabian lyredied awaywith the last breathofCorradino the last of theHohenstaufen [pg015] on the scaffold at Naples in 1268 Germany was breaking down underheavy burdens Itwas visited by the papal interdict by famine by pestilenceSometimestherewasnoEmperorsometimesthereweretwoorthreeRebellioncould not be kept under nor could crime be punished The only lawwas theldquoLawof theFistrdquoTheChurchwas deeply demoralizedWhowas to listen toromantic poetryTherewas no lack of poets or of poetryRudolf vonEms apoet calledDer Stricker andKonrad vonWuumlrzburg all of them living in themiddleofthethirteenthcenturyweremorefertilethanHartmannvonAueandGottfried vonStrassburgThey complain however that no one took notice ofthem and they are evidently conscious themselves of their inferiority Lyricpoetry continued to flourish for a time but it degenerated into an unworthyidolatryofladiesandaffectedsentimentalityThereisbutonebranchofpoetryin which we find a certain originality the didactic and satiric The firstbeginningsofthisnewkindofpoetrycarryusbacktotheageofWalthervonderVogelweideMany of his verses are satirical political and didactic and it issupposedonverygoodauthoritythatWaltherwastheauthorofananonymousdidactic poem ldquoFreidanks Bescheidenheitrdquo By Thomasin von Zerclar orTommasino di Circlaria we have a metrical composition on manners theldquoItalian Guestrdquo which likewise belongs to the beginning of the thirteenthcentury7SomewhatlaterwemeetintheworksoftheStrickerwiththebroadersatireofthemiddleclassesandtowardthecloseofthecentury[pg016]HugovonTrimberginhisldquoRennerrdquoaddresseshimselftothelowerranksofGermansocietyandnolongertoprincesknightsandladies

How is this to be accounted for Poetrywas evidently changing hands againTheCrusadeshadmadetheprincesandknightstherepresentativesandleadersofthewholenationandduringthecontestbetweentheimperialandthepapalpowers the destinies of Germanywere chiefly in the hands of the hereditarynobility The literature which before that time was entirely clerical had thenbecomeworldlyandchivalrousButnowwhenthepoweroftheemperorsbeganto decline when the clergy was driven into taking a decidedly anti-nationalpositionwhentheunityoftheempirewaswell-nighdestroyedandprincesandprelates were asserting their independence by plunder and by warfare a new

elementofsocietyrosetothesurfacemdashthemiddleclassesmdashtheburghersofthefree townsofGermanyTheywere forced tohold together inorder toprotectthemselves against their former protectors They fortified their cities formedcorporations watched over law and morality and founded those powerfulleaguesthefirstofwhichtheHansadatesfrom1241Poetryalsotookrefugebehind thewallsoffree townsandat thefiresideof theworthycitizenhad toexchange her gay chivalrous and romantic strains for themesmore subduedpractical and homely This accounts for such works as Hugo von TrimbergsldquoRennerrdquoaswellasforthegeneralcharacterofthepoetryofthefourteenthandfifteenth centuries Poetry became a trade like any otherGuildswere formedconsistingofmaster-singersandtheirapprenticesHeinrichFrauenlobiscalledthe firstMeistersaumlnger and during the fourteenth [pg 017] the fifteenth andeventhesixteenthcenturiesnewguildsorschoolssprangupinalltheprincipaltownsofGermanyAfterorderhadbeenrestoredbythefirstHapsburgdynastytheintellectualandliteraryactivityofGermanyretaineditscentreofgravitationinthemiddleclassesRudolfvonHapsburgwasnotgiftedwithapoeticalnatureand contemporaneous poets complain of hiswant of liberalityAttemptsweremadetorevivethechivalrouspoetryoftheCrusadesbyHugovonMontfortandOswaldvonWolkensteininthebeginningofthefifteenthcenturyandagainattheendofthesamecenturybytheldquoLastoftheGermanKnightsrdquotheEmperorMaximilianButtheseattemptscouldnotbutfailTheageofchivalrywasgoneandtherewasnothinggreatorinspiringinthewarswhichtheEmperorshadtowageduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesagainst theirvassalsagainstthePopeagainsttheprecursorsoftheReformationtheHussitesandagainsttheTurksInFritscheClosenersldquoChroniclerdquothereisadescriptionofthecitizensofStrassburg defending themselves against their bishop in 1312 in TwingersldquoChroniclerdquo a picture of the processions of the Flagellants and the religiousenthusiasm of that time (1349) The poems of Suchenwirt and HalbsuterrepresentthewarsofAustriaagainstSwitzerland(1386)andNiclasvonWeylstranslation gives us a glimpse into the Council of Constance (1414) and theHussite wars which were soon to follow The poetry of those two centurieswhichwaswrittenbyandforthepeopleisinterestinghistoricallybutwithfewexceptionswithout any furtherworth The poetswish to amuse or to instructtheirhumblepatrons and theydo this eitherbygiving them thedrybonesof[pg018] the romanticpoetryof formeragesorby telling themfablesand thequaint stories of the ldquoSeven Wise Mastersrdquo What beauty there was in aMeistergesangmaybe fairly seen from thepoemofMichaelBeheim and theEaster play by no means shows the lowest ebb of good taste in the popularliteratureofthattime

Itmightseemindeedasifallthehighandnobleaspirationsofthetwelfthandthirteenth centuries had been lost and forgotten during the fourteenth andfifteenthAndyetitwasnotquitesoTherewasoneclassofmenonwhomthespiritoftruenobilityhaddescendedandwhoseworksformaconnectingchainbetween the great era of the Crusades and the still greater era of theReformationTheseare theso-calledMysticsmdashtrueCrusaders trueknightsoftheSpiritmanyofwhomsacrificedtheirlivesforthecauseoftruthandwhoatlastconqueredfromthehandsof the infidels thatHolySepulchre inwhichthetrueChristian faith hadbeen lyingburied for centuriesThenameofMysticswhichhasbeengiventothesemenisapttomisleadTheirwritingsarenotdarkor unintelligible and those who call them so must find Christianity itselfunintelligibleanddarkThereismorebroaddaylightinEckhartandTaulerthanintheworksofalltheThomistsandScotistsEckhartwasnotadreamerHehadbeen a pupil of Thomas Aquinas and his own style is sometimes painfullyscholasticButthereisafreshbreezeofthoughtinhisworksandintheworksofhisdisciplesTheyknewthatwhenevertheproblemsofmansrelationtoGodthecreationoftheworldtheoriginofevilandthehopeofsalvationcometobediscussedthesharpestedgeoflogicalreasoningwillturnandthebestdefinedtermsofmetaphysics die away intomeremusic [pg019]Theyknew that thehardandnarrowcategoriesoftheschoolmendogreaterviolencetothehighesttruthsofreligionthanthesoftandvagueandvanishingtoneswithwhichtheytried to shadow forth in the vulgar language of the people the distant objectswhich transcend thehorizonofhumanunderstandingTheydidnothandle thetruthsofChristianityasif theyshouldorcouldbeprovedbythesyllogismsofourhumanreasoningNeverthelesstheseMysticswerehardandhonestthinkersandneverplayedwithwordsandphrasesTheirfaithistothemasclearandasreal as sunshine and instead of throwing scholastic dust into the eyes of thepeopletheyboldlytoldthemtoopentheireyesandtolookatthemysteriesallaround them and to feel the presence of God within and without which thepriests had veiled by the very revelationwhich they had preached For a trueappreciationof the times inwhich they lived theworksof theseReformersoftheFaithare invaluableWithout themweshould try invain toexplainhowanation which to judge from its literature seemed to have lost all vigor andvirtue could suddenly rise and dare thework of a reformation of theChurchWiththemwelearnhowthatsamenationaftergroaningforcenturiesundertheyokeofsuperstitionandhypocrisyfoundinitsveryprostrationthesourceofanirresistible strength The higher clergy contributed hardly anything to theliterature of these two centuries and what they wrote would better haveremained unwritten At St Gall toward the end of the thirteenth century the

monks the successors ofNotkerwere unable to sign their namesTheAbbotwasanoblemanwhocomposedlove-songsabranchofpoetryatalleventsoutof place in themonastery founded by StGall [pg 020] It is only among thelowerclergy thatwe find the tracesofgenuineChristianpietyand intellectualactivity though frequently branded by obese prelates and obtuse magistrateswith the names of mysticism and heresy The orders of the Franciscans andDominicansfoundedin1208and1215andintendedtoactasclericalspiesandconfessorsbegantofraternizeinmanypartsofGermanywiththepeopleagainstthehigher clergyThepeoplewerehungry and thirsty after religious teachingTheyhadbeensystematicallystarvedorfedwithstonesPartoftheBiblehadbeen translated for the people but what Ulfilas was free to do in the fourthcenturywascondemnedbytheprelatesassembledattheSynodofTrierin1231NorwerethesermonsoftheitinerantfriarsintownsandvillagesalwaystothetasteofbishopsandabbotsWepossesscollectionsofthesediscoursespreachedby Franciscans and Dominicans under the trees of cemeteries and from thechurch-towers of the villages Brother Berthold who died in 1272 was aFranciscanHe travelledabout thecountryandwasreveredby thepoor likeasaintandprophetThedoctrinehepreached though itwas theold teachingoftheApostleswasasnewtothepeasantswhocametohearhimasithadbeentothecitizensofAthenswhocametohearStPaulThesayingofStChrysostomthatChristianityhadturnedmanyapeasantintoaphilosophercametrueagainin the time of Eckhart andTaulerMenwho called themselvesChristians hadbeentaughtandhadbroughtthemselvestobelievethattoreadthewritingsofthe Apostles was a deadly sin Yet in secret they were yearning after thatforbidden Bible They knew that there were translations and though thesetranslations had [pg 021] been condemned by popes and synods the peoplecould not resist the temptation of reading them In 1373 we find the firstcompleteversionoftheBibleintoGermanbyMatthiasofBeheimSeveralarementionedafterthisThenewreligiousfervorthathadbeenkindledamongtheinferior clergy and among the lower and middle classes of the laity becamestrongerandthoughitsometimesdegeneratedintowildfanaticismthesacredsparkwaskeptinsafehandsbysuchmenasEckhart(died1329)Tauler(died1361) and the author of the German Theology Men like these are sure toconquertheyarepersecutedjustlyorunjustlytheysufferanddieandalltheythoughtand saidanddid seems fora time tohavebeen invainBut suddenlytheir work long marked as dangerous in the smooth current of society risesabovethesurfacelikethecoralreefsinthePacificanditremainsforcenturiesthefirmfoundationofanewworldof thoughtandfaithWithout the laborsoftheseReformers of the Faith theReformers of theChurchwould never have

foundawholenationwaitingtoreceiveandreadytosupportthem

TherearetwoothereventswhichpreparedthewayoftheGermanReformersofthe sixteenth century the foundation of universities and the invention ofprintingTheirimportanceisthesameintheliteraryandinthepoliticalhistoryof Germany The intellectual and moral character of a nation is formed inschoolsanduniversitiesand thosewhoeducateapeoplehavealwaysbeen itsrealmasters though theymay go by amoremodest nameUnder theRomanEmpirepublicschoolshadbeensupportedbythegovernmentbothatRomeandinthechieftownsoftheProvincesWeknowoftheirexistenceinGauland[pg022]partsofGermanyWiththedeclineofthecentralauthoritythesalariesofthegrammariansandrhetors in theProvincesceasedtobepaidandthepagangymnasiawere succeededbyChristian schools attached to episcopal sees andmonasteriesWhilst theclergyretained theirvigorandefficiency theirschoolswerepowerfulenginesforspreadingahalfclericalandhalfclassicalcultureinGermany During the Crusades when ecclesiastical activity and learningdeclinedveryrapidlywehearofFrenchtutorsatthecastlesofthenobilityandclassical learning gaveway to the superficial polish of a chivalrous ageAndwhenthenobilitylikewiserelapsedintoastateofsavagebarbarismnewschoolswerewantedandtheywerefoundedbythetownstheonlyplaceswhereduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesweseeanyevidenceofahealthypoliticallife The first town schools are mentioned in the beginning of the fourteenthcenturyandtheyweresoonfollowedbythehighschoolsanduniversitiesTheUniversity of Prague was founded in 1348 Vienna 1366 Heidelberg 1386Erfurt1392Leipzig1408Basle1460Tuumlbingen1477Mainz1482Theseuniversities are a novel feature in the history of German and of Europeancivilization They are not ecclesiastical seminaries not restricted to anyparticularclassofsocietytheyarenationalinstitutionsopentotherichandthepoortotheknighttheclerkthecitizenTheyarerealuniversitiesoflearningtheyprofess to teach all branchesof knowledgemdashtheology and lawmedicineandphilosophyTheycontainthefirstpracticalacknowledgmentoftherightofevery subject to the highest education and through it to the highest offices inChurch and State Neither Greece [pg 023] nor Rome had known suchinstitutionsneithertheChurchnorthenobilityduringthedaysoftheirpoliticalsupremacywere sufficiently impressedwith the dutywhich they owed to thenation at large to provide such places of liberal education It was the nationitself when forsaken by its clergy and harassed by its nobility which calledtheseschools into lifeand it is in theseschoolsanduniversities that thegreatmen who inaugurate the next period of literaturemdashthe champions of political

libertyandreligiousfreedommdashwerefosteredandformed

The invention of printing was in itself a reformation and its benefits werechiefly felt by the great masses of the people The clergy possessed theirlibrarieswhere theymight read and study if they chose the castles containedcollections of MSS sacred and profane illuminated with the most exquisitetastewhilethecitizenthepoorlaymanthoughhemightbeabletoreadandtowritewasdebarredfromtheuseofbooksandhadtosatisfyhisliterarytasteswith the sermons of travelling Franciscans or the songs of blind beggars andpeddlers The art of printing admitted that large class to the same privilegeswhich had hitherto been enjoyed almost exclusively by clergy and nobility itplacedinthehandsofthethirdestatearmsmorepowerfulthantheswordsoftheknightsandthethunderboltsofthepriestsitwasarevolutioninthehistoryofliterature more eventful than any in the history of mankind Poets andphilosophers addressed themselves no longer to emperors and noblemen toknights and ladies but to the people at large and especially to the middleclassesinwhichhenceforththechiefstrengthofthenationresides

[pg024]Theyearsfrom1450to1500formaperiodofpreparationforthegreatstrugglethatwastoinauguratethebeginningofthesixteenthcenturyItwasanageldquorichin scholars copious in pedants but poor in genius and barren of strongthinkersrdquoOneofthefewinterestingmeninwhoselifeandwritingsthehistoryofthatpreliminaryagemaybestudiedisSebastianBrantthefamousauthorofthefamousldquoShipofFoolsrdquo

With the sixteenth centurywe enter upon themodern history and themodernliteratureofGermanyWeshallherepassonmorerapidlydwellingonlyonthemeninwhosewritingsthepoliticalandsocialchangesofGermanycanbestbestudied

WithLuther the literary language ofGermany becameNewHigh-GermanAchangeoflanguageinvariablybetokensachangeinthesocialconstitutionofacountry In Germany at the time of the Reformation the change of languagemarks the rise of a new aristocracy which is henceforth to reside in theuniversitiesLiteratureleavesitsformerhomesItspeaksnolongerthelanguageof the towns It addresses itself no longer to a few citizens nor to imperialpatrons such as Maximilian I It indulges no longer in moral saws didacticversesandprosenovelsnorisitcontentwithmysticphilosophyandthesecret

outpouringsofreligiousfervorForatimethoughbutforashorttimeGermanliteraturebecomesnationalPoetsandwriterswishtobeheardbeyondthewallsoftheirmonasteriesandcitiesTheyspeaktothewholenationnaytheydesireto be heard beyond the frontiers of their country Luther and the Reformersbelonged to no classmdashthey belonged to the people The voice of the peoplewhichduring [pg025] the preceding periods of literature could only be heardlike the rollingofdistant thunderhadnowbecomearticulateanddistinctandforatimeonethoughtseemedtouniteallclassesmdashemperorskingsnoblesandcitizensclergyandlaityhighandlowoldandyoungThis isanovelsight inthehistoryofGermanyWehaveseeninthefirstperiodthegradualgrowthofthe clergy from the time when the first missionaries were massacred in themarshes of Friesland to the timewhen the Emperor stood penitent before thegatesofCanossaWehaveseentheriseofthenobilityfromthetimewhenthebarbarianchiefspreferredlivingoutsidethewallsofcitiestothetimewhentheyrivaledtheFrenchcavaliersincourtlybearingandchivalrousbraveryNorweretherepresentativesofthesetwoordersthePopeandtheEmperorlesspowerfulat thebeginningofthesixteenthcenturythantheyhadbeenbeforeCharlesVwas the most powerful sovereign whom Europe had seen since the days ofCharlemagneand thepapal seehad recoveredbydiplomatic intriguemuchofthe influencewhich ithad lostbymoraldepravityLetus think thenof thesetwo ancient powers theEmperorwith his armies recruited inAustria SpainNaplesSicilyandBurgundyandwithhis treasuresbrought fromMexicoandPeruandthePopewithhisarmiesofpriestsandmonksrecruitedfromallpartsof theChristianworld andarmedwith theweaponsof the Inquisitionand thethunderbolts of excommunication let us think of their former victories theirconfidenceintheirownstrengththeirbeliefintheirdivinerightandletusthenturnoureyestothesmallUniversityofWittenbergandintothebleakstudyofapoorAugustinemonkandseethatmonk[pg026]stepoutofhisstudywithnoweapon inhishandbut theBiblemdashwithnoarmiesandno treasuresmdashandyetdefyingwithhisclearandmanlyvoicebothPopeandEmperorbothclergyandnobilitythereisnograndersightinhistoryandthelongerweallowoureyestodwellonit themorewefeel thathistoryisnotwithoutGodandthatateverydecisivebattlethedivinerightoftruthassertsitssupremacyoverthedivinerightof Popes and Emperors and overthrows with one breath both empires andhierarchiesWecall theReformation theworkofLutherbutLuther stoodnotaloneandnoreallygreatmaneverstoodaloneThesecretoftheirgreatnessliesin their understanding the spirit of the age in which they live and in givingexpressionwiththefullpoweroffaithandconvictiontothesecret thoughtsofmillionsLutherwasbutlendingwordstothesilentsoulofsufferingGermany

andnooneshouldcallhimselfaProtestantwhoisnotaLutheranwithLutherattheDietofWormsandabletosaywithhiminthefaceofprincesandprelatesldquoHereIstandIcannotdootherwiseGodhelpmeAmenrdquo

As the Emperor was the representative of the nobility as the Pope was therepresentativeoftheclergyLutherwastheheadandleaderofthepeoplewhichthroughhimandthroughhisfellow-workersclaimednowforthefirsttimeanequalitywith the twoold estatesof the realm If this national struggle took atfirstanaspectchieflyreligiousitwasbecausetheGermannationhadfreedomofthoughtandofbeliefmoreatheartthanpoliticalfreedomButpoliticalrightsalso were soon demanded and demanded with such violence that during hisownlife-timeLutherhadtorepresstheexcessesofenthusiastictheoristsandofaviolentpeasantryLuthersgreatinfluenceontheliterature[pg027]ofGermanyandthegradualadoptionofhisdialectastheliterarylanguagewereowinginagreatmeasureto this thatwhatever therewasof literatureduringthesixteenthcenturywas chiefly in the hands of one class ofmenAfter theReformationnearly all eminent men in Germanymdashpoets philosophers and historiansmdashbelongedtotheProtestantpartyandresidedchieflyintheuniversities

The universitieswerewhat themonasteries had been under Charlemagne thecastles under Frederick Barbarossamdashthe centres of gravitation for theintellectualandpoliticallifeofthecountryThetruenobilityofGermanywasnolonger to be found among the priestsmdashAlcuin Hrabanus Maurus NotkerTeutonicusnoramongtheknightsmdashWalthervonderVogelweideWolframvonEschenbach and their patrons Frederick II Hermann von Thuumlringen andLeopoldofAustriaTheintellectualsceptreofGermanywaswieldedbyanewnobilitymdasha nobility that had risen from the ranks like the priests and theknights butwhich for a time at least kept itself frombecoming a caste andfromcuttingawaythoserootsthroughwhichitimbibeditsvigorandsustaineditsstrength Ithad itscastles in theuniversities its tournaments in thedietsofWormsandAugsburgand itcountedamong itsmembersdukesandpeasantsdivines and soldiers lawyers and artists This was not indeed an hereditarynobilitybutonthatverygrounditisanobilitywhichcanneverbecomeextinctThedangerhoweverwhichthreatensallaristocracieswhethermartialclericalormunicipalwasnotavertedfromtheintellectualaristocracyofGermanyTherising spirit of caste deprived the second generation of that powerwhichmenlikeLuther[pg028]hadgainedatthebeginningoftheReformationThemoralinfluenceoftheuniversitiesinGermanywasgreatanditisgreatatthepresentdayBut itwouldhavebeengreaterandmorebeneficial if theconceitofcaste

had not separated the leaders of the nation from the ranks whence theythemselves had arisen and to which alone they owed their position and theirinfluence Itwas thesamewith thepriestswhowouldratherformahierarchythanbemergedinthelaityItwasthesamewiththeknightswhowouldratherformaselectsocietythanliveamongthegentryBothcutawaythegroundundertheir feet and theReformers of the sixteenth century fell into the same snarebeforetheywereawareofitWewonderattheeccentricitiesofthepriesthoodattheconceitofthehereditarynobilityattheaffectationofmajesticstatelinessinherentinroyaltyButthepedanticdisplayoflearningthedisregardoftherealwants of the people the contempt of all knowledgewhich does not wear theacademicgarbshowthesamefoiblethesameconceitthesamespiritofcasteamongthosewhofromthesixteenthcenturytothepresentdayhaveoccupiedthemostprominentrankinthesocietyofGermanyProfessorialknight-errantrystill waits for its Cervantes Nowhere have the objects of learning been socompletely sacrificed to themeans of learning nowhere has that Dulcineamdashknowledgeforitsownsakemdashwithherdarkveilandherbarrenheartnumberedsomanyadmirersnowherehavesomanywindmillsbeenfoughtandsomanyreal enemies been left unhurt as inGermany particularly during the last twocenturiesNewuniversitieshavebeenfoundedMarburg in1527Koumlnigsbergin1547Jenain1558Helmstaumldtin1575Giessenin1607[pg029]Andthemorethenumberandthepoweroftheprofessorsincreasedthemoretheyforgotthat they and their learning their universities and their libraries were for thebenefitofthepeoplethataprofessormightbeverylearnedandveryaccurateandverylaboriousyetworsethanuselessasamemberofourtoilingsocietyItwasconsideredmorelearnedandrespectabletoteachinLatinandalllecturesattheuniversitiesweregiven in that languageLutherwas sneeredatbecauseofhis littleGerman tractswhichldquoanyvillageclerkmighthavewrittenrdquoSomeofthebestpoetsinthesixteenthcenturyweremensuchasEobanHessius(1540)whocomposedtheirpoetryinLatinNationalpoemsforinstanceBrantsldquoShipofFoolsrdquoweretranslatedintoLatininordertoinducetheGermanprofessorstoread them The learned doctors were ashamed of their honest native namesSchwarzerd must needs call himself Melancthon Meissel Celtes SchnitterAgricola Hausschein Œcolampadius All this might look very learned andprofessorial and imposing but it separated the professors from the people atlargeitretardedtheprogressofnationaleducationandblightedtheprospectsofa national policy in Germany Everything promised well at the time of theReformationandanewGermanymighthaverisenbeforeanewFranceiflikeLuthertheleadersofthenationhadremainedtruetotheircallingButwhentospeakLatinwasconsideredmorelearnedthantospeakGermanwhentoamass

vast information was consideredmore creditable than to digest and to use itwhenpopularitybecamethesamebugbeartotheprofessorswhichprofanityhadbeentotheclergyandvulgaritytotheknightsLuthersworkwasundoneandtwo more [pg 030] centuries had to be spent in pedantic controversiestheologicaldisputessectariansquabblesandpoliticalprostrationbeforeanewnationalspiritcouldriseagaininmenlikeLessingandSchillerandFichteandStein Ambitious princes and quarrelsome divines continued the rulers ofGermany and towards the end of the sixteenth century everything seemeddrifting back into theMiddleAges Then came theThirtyYearsWar amostdisastrouswarforGermanywhichisfeltinitsresultstothepresentdayIfasacivilandreligiouscontestithadbeenfoughtoutbetweenthetwopartiesmdashtheProtestants and Roman Catholics of Germanymdashit would have left as inEnglandonesidevictoriousitwouldhavebeenbroughttoanendbeforebothwereutterlyexhaustedButtheProtestantsweakenedbytheirowndissensionshadtocallinforeignaidFirstDenmarkthenSwedenpouredtheirarmiesintoGermany and even FrancemdashRoman Catholic Francemdashgave her support toGustavusAdolphusandtheProtestantcauseEnglandthetrueallyofGermanywastooweakathometomakeherinfluencefeltabroadAtthecloseofthewartheProtestantsreceivedindeedthesamerightsastheRomanCatholicsbutthenation was so completely demoralized that it hardly cared for the libertiesguaranteed by the treaty ofWestphalia The physical and moral vigor of thenationwasbrokenThepopulationofGermanyissaidtohavebeenreducedbyone half Thousands of villages and towns had been burnt to the ground Theschools the churches the universitieswere desertedAwhole generation hadgrown up during the war particularly among the lower classes with noeducation at all Themerchants ofGermanywho formerly asAEligneas Sylviussaidlivedmorehandsomely[pg031]thantheKingsofScotlandwerereducedtosmalltradersTheHansawasbrokenupHollandEnglandandSwedenhadtaken the wind out of her sails In the Eastern provinces commerce wassuspendedbytheinroadsoftheTurkswhilstthediscoveryofAmericaandofthenewpassagetotheEastIndieshadreducedtheimportanceofthemercantilenavyofGermanyandItalyintheMediterraneanWheretherewasanynationalfeelingleftitwasafeelingofshameanddespairandtheEmperorandthesmallprinces of Germany might have governed even more selfishly than they didwithoutrousingoppositionamongthepeople

What canwe expect of the literature of such times Popular poetry preservedsome of its indestructible charms The Meistersaumlnger went on composingaccording to the rulesof theirguildsbutwe look invain for the racinessand

honestsimplicityofHansSachsSomeoftheprofessorswroteplaysinthestyleofTerenceorafterEnglishmodelsandfablesbecamefashionableinthestyleof Phaeligdrus But there was no trace anywhere of originality truth taste orfeelingexceptinthatbranchwhichlikethepalm-treethrivesbestinthedesertmdashsacredpoetryPaulGerhardisstillwithoutanequalasapoetofsacredsongsand many of the best hymns which are heard in the Protestant churches ofGermanydatefromtheseventeenthcenturySoonhoweverthisclassofpoetryalsodegeneratedononesideintodrytheologicalphraseologyontheotherintosentimentalandalmosteroticaffectation

Therewas no hope of a regeneration inGerman literature unless either greatpoliticalandsocialeventsshouldrousethenationalmindfromits languor[pg032]ortheclassicalmodelsofpuretasteandtrueartshouldbestudiedagaininadifferentspiritfromthatofprofessorialpedantryNowaftertheThirtyYearsWartherewasnowarinGermanyinwhichthenationtookanywarminterestThepolicypursuedinFranceduringthelongreignofLouisXIV(1643-1708)had its chief aim in weakening the house of HapsburgWhen the Protestantswould no longer fight his battles Louis roused the Turks Viennawas nearlytaken and Austria owed its delivery to Johann Sobiesky By the treaty ofRyswick (1697) all the country on the left side of the Rhine was ceded toFrance andGerman soldiers fought under the banners of theGreatMonarchTheonlyGermanprincewhodared touphold thehonorof theempire and towithstandtheencroachmentsofLouiswasFrederickWilliamthegreatElectorofPrussia(1670-88)HecheckedthearroganceoftheSwedishcourtopenedhistowns toFrenchProtestant refugeesand raised thehouseofBrandenburg toaEuropean importance In the same year inwhich his successor Frederick IIIassumedtheroyal titleasFrederickI theKingofSpainCharlesIdiedandLouisXIVwhilsttryingtoaddtheSpanishcrowntohismonarchywasatlastchecked in his grasping policy by an alliance betweenEngland andGermanyPrinceEugeneandMarlboroughrestoredthepeaceandthepoliticalequilibriumofEuropeInEnglandthedifferentpartiesinParliamentthefrequentersoftheclubsandcoffee-houseswerethenwatchingeverymoveonthepoliticalchess-boardofEuropeandcriticisingthevictoriesoftheirgeneralsandthetreatiesoftheir ambassadors In Germany the nation took but a passive part It wasexcludedfromallreal[pg033]shareinthegreatquestionsofthedayandifitshowedanysympathiestheywereconfinedtothesimpleadmirationofagreatgeneralsuchasPrinceEugene

While thepolicyofLouisXIVwasunderminingthepolitical independenceof

Germany the literature of his court exercised an influence hardly lessdetrimentalontheliteratureofGermanyNodoubttheliteratureofFrancestoodfarhigherat that time than thatofGermanyldquoPoetrdquowasamongstusa termofabusewhileinFrancetheGreatMonarchhimselfdidhomagetohisgreatpoetsButtheprofessorialpoetswhohadfailedtolearnthelessonsofgoodtastefromtheGreekandRomanclassicswerenot likely toprofitbyan imitationof thespuriousclassicalityofFrenchliteratureTheyheardthegreatstarsofthecourtofLouisXIVpraisedbytheirroyalandprincelypatronsastheyreturnedfromtheir travels inFranceand Italy fullofadmiration foreverything thatwasnotGermanTheyweredelightedtohearthatinFranceinHollandandinItalyitwas respectable to write poetry in themodern vernacular and set to work ingoodearnestAfterthemodeloftheliteraryacademiesinItalyacademieswerefounded at the small courts of Germany Men like Opitz would hardly havethoughtitdignifiedtowriteversesintheirnativetonguehaditnotbeenforthemoral support which they received from these academies and their princelypatronsHisfirstpoemswerewritteninLatinbutheafterwardsdevotedhimselfcompletelytoGermanpoetryHebecameamemberoftheldquoOrderofthePalm-treerdquo and the founder ofwhat is called theFirst SilesianSchoolOpitz is thetruerepresentativeoftheclassicalpoetryofthe[pg034]seventeenthcenturyHewasa scholarandagentlemanmostcorrect inhis languageandversificationneverventuringonground thathadnotbeen troddenbeforeby someclassicalpoetwhetherofGreeceRomeFranceHollandorItalyInhimwealsoseethefirsttracesofthatbanefulalliancebetweenprincesandpoetswhichhasdeprivedtheGermannationofsomanyofherbestsonsButthechargeofmeanmotiveshas been unjustly brought against Opitz bymany historians Poets require anaudienceandathistimetherewasnoclassofpeoplewillingtolistentopoetryexcepttheinmatesofthesmallGermancourtsAftertheThirtyYearsWarthepoweroftheseprinceswasgreaterthaneverTheydividedthespoilandtherewasneitheranobilitynoraclergynoranationalpartytocontrolorresistthemInEngland the royalpowerhad at that timebeenbroughtback to itsproperlimitsandithasthusbeenabletoholdeversincewithbutshortinterruptionsitsdignifiedpositionsupportedbytheself-respectofafreeandpowerfulnationIn France it assumed themost enormous proportions during the long reign ofLouisXIVbutitsappallingrisewasfollowedafteracenturybyafallequallyappallingandithasnotyetregaineditsproperpositioninthepoliticalsystemofthat country In Germany the royal power was less imposing its prerogativesbeing divided between the Emperor and a number of small but almostindependentvassalsremnantsofthatfeudalsystemoftheMiddleAgeswhichinFranceandEnglandhadbeenabsorbedbytheriseofnationalmonarchiesThese

smallprincipalitiesexplaintheweaknessofGermanyinherrelationwithforeignpowers and the instability of her political constitutionContinentalwars gave[pg 035] an excuse for keeping up large standing armies and these standingarmies stood between the nation and her sovereigns and made any moralpressureoftheoneupontheotherimpossibleThethirdestatecouldnevergainthatshareinthegovernmentwhichithadobtainedbyitsunitedactioninothercountries and no form of government can be stablewhich is deprived of thesupportandtheactivecooumlperationofthemiddleclassesConstitutionshavebeengrantedbyenlightenedsovereignssuchasJosephIIandFrederickWilliamIVandbarricadeshavebeenraisedbythepeopleatViennaandatBerlinbutbothhave failed to restore the political health of the country There is no longer aGermannobility in theusual senseof theword Itsvigorwasexhaustedwhenthepowerfulvassalsoftheempirebecamepowerlesssovereignswiththetitlesof king or duke while what remained of the landed nobility became morereduced with every generation owing to the absence of the system ofprimogenitureThereisnolongeraclergyasapowerfulbodyinthestateThiswasbrokenupatthetimeoftheReformationandithardlyhadtimetorecoverandtoconstituteitselfonanewbasiswhentheThirtyYearsWardepriveditofall social influence and left it noalternativebut tobecomea salariedclassofservants of the crown No third estate exists powerful enough to defend theinterestsofthecommonwealthagainsttheencroachmentsofthesovereignandpublic opinion though it may pronounce itself within certain limits has nomeansoflegaloppositionandmustchooseateverycriticalmomentbetweensubmissiontotheroyalwillandrebellion

Thusduring thewholemodernhistoryofGermany [pg036] thepolitical andintellectualsupremacyisdividedTheformerismonopolizedbythesovereignsthelatterbelongstoasmallclassoflearnedmenThesetwosoonbegintoattracteachotherThekingsseekthesociety theadviceandsupportof literarymenwhilstliterarymencourtthepatronageofkingsandacquirepowerfulinfluencebygoverning thosewhogovern thepeopleFromthe timeofOpitz therehavebeen fewmen of eminence in literature or sciencewho have not been drawntoward one of the larger or smaller courts ofGermany and thewhole of ourmodernliteraturebearsthemarksofthisunionbetweenprincesandpoetsIthasbeensaidthattheexistenceofthesenumerouscentresofcivilizationhasprovedbeneficialtothegrowthofliteratureandithasbeenpointedoutthatsomeofthesmallest courts such as Weimar have raised the greatest men in poetry andscience Goethe himself gives expression to this opinion ldquoWhat has madeGermany greatrdquo he says ldquobut the culture which is spread through the whole

countryinsuchamarvelousmannerandpervadesequallyallpartsoftherealmAnd thisculturedoes itnotemanate from thenumerouscourtswhichgrant itsupportandpatronageSupposewehadhad inGermanyforcenturiesbut twocapitalsViennaandBerlinorbutoneIshouldliketoknowhowitwouldhavefaredwithGermancivilizationorevenwiththatgeneralwell-beingwhichgoeshandinhandwithtruecivilizationrdquoInthesewordswehearGoethetheministerofthepettycourtofWeimarnotthegreatpoetofagreatnationHasFrancehadmorethanonecapitalHasEnglandhadmorethanonecourtGreatmenhaverisentoeminenceingreatmonarchieslikeFranceand[pg037]theyhaverisentoeminenceinagreatcommonwealthsuchasEnglandwithoutthepatronageofcourtsby thesupport thesympathy the loveofagreatnationTrulynationalpoetry exists only where there is a truly national life and the poet who increating his works thinks of a whole nation which will listen to him and beproud of him is inspired by a nobler passion than hewho looks to his royalmaster or the applause even of themost refined audience of thedames de lacour In a free country the sovereign is the highest and most honoredrepresentativeofthenationalwillandhehonorshimselfbyhonoringthosewhohave well deserved of his country There a poet laureate may hold anindependent and dignified position conscious of his own worth and of thesupport of the nation But in despotic countries the favor even of the mostenlightenedsovereignisdangerousGermanyneverhadamoreenlightenedkingthan Frederick the Great and yet when he speaks of the Queen receivingLeibnitzatcourthesaysldquoShebelievedthatitwasnotunworthyofaqueentoshow honor to a philosopher and as thosewho have received from heaven aprivileged soul rise to the level of sovereigns she admitted Leibnitz into herfamiliarsocietyrdquo

TheseventeenthcenturysawtheriseandfallofthefirstandthesecondSilesianschools The first is represented by men like Opitz and Weckherlin and itexercisedaninfluenceintheNorthofGermanyonSimonDachPaulFlemmingandanumberoflessgiftedpoetswhoaregenerallyknownbythenameoftheKoumlnigsbergSchoolItscharacterispseudo-classicalAllthesepoetsendeavoredtowritecorrectlysedatelyandeloquentlySomeofthemaimedatacertain[pg038]simplicityandsinceritywhichweadmireparticularlyinFlemmingButitwould be difficult to find in all their writings one single thought one singleexpression thathadnotbeenusedbeforeThe secondSilesian school ismoreambitious but its poetic flights are more disappointing even than the honestproseofOpitzTheldquoShepherdsofthePegnitzrdquohadtriedtoimitatethebrilliantdiction of the Italian poets but themodernMeistersaumlnger of the old town of

Nuumlrnberg had produced nothing but wordy jingle Hoffmannswaldau andLohenstein the chief heroes of the second Silesian school followed in theirtrackanddidnotsucceedbetterTheircompositionsarebombasticandfullofmetaphorsItisapoetryofadjectiveswithoutsubstancetruthortasteYettheirpoetrywasadmiredpraisednot less thanGoetheandSchillerwerepraisedbytheir contemporaries and it lived beyond the seventeenth century TherewerebutfewmenduringthattimewhokeptalooffromthespiritofthesetwoSilesianschoolsandwerenot influencedbyeitherOpitzorHoffmannswaldauAmongthese independent poets we have to mention Friedrich von Logau AndreasGryphiusandMoscheroschBesidethesethereweresomeprosewriterswhoseworksarenotexactlyworksofartbutworksoforiginal thoughtandofgreatimportance to us in tracing the progress of science and literature during thedreariestperiodofGermanhistoryWecanonlymentiontheldquoSimplicissimusrdquoanovelfullofcleverminiaturedrawingandgivingatruthfulpictureofGermanlifeduringtheThirtyYearsWarthepatrioticwritingsofProfessorSchuppthehistorical works of Professor Pufendorf (1631-94) the pietistic sermons ofSpener and of Professor Franke (1663-1727) the [pg 039] founder of theOrphanSchoolatHalleProfessorArnolds(1666-1714)EcclesiasticalHistorythe first political pamphlets by Professor Thomasius (1655-1728) and amongphilosophers Jacob Boumlhme at the beginning and Leibnitz at the end of theseventeenthcentury

ThesecondSilesianschoolwasdefeatedbyGottschedprofessoratLeipzigHeexercisedatthebeginningoftheeighteenthcenturythesamedictatorshipasapoetandacriticwhichOpitzhadexercisedatthebeginningoftheseventeenthGottschedwastheadvocateofFrenchmodelsinartandpoetryandheusedhiswide-spreadinfluenceinrecommendingthecorrectandso-calledclassicalstyleofthepoetsofthetimeAfterhavingrenderedgoodserviceinputtingdownthesenseless extravagance of the school of Lohenstein he became himself apedanticandarrogantcriticanditwasthroughtheoppositionwhichherousedbyhisldquoGallomaniardquothatGermanpoetrywasdeliveredatlastfromthetrammelsofthatforeignschoolThenfollowedalongliterarywarfareGottschedandhisfollowersatLeipzigdefendedtheFrenchBodmerandhisfriendsinSwitzerlandthe English style of literature The former insisted on classical form andtraditionalrulesthelatteronnaturalsentimentandspontaneousexpressionThequestionwaswhetherpoetsshouldimitatetheworksoftheclassicsorimitatetheclassicswhohadbecomeclassicsbyimitatingnobodyAGermanprofessorwieldsanimmensepowerbymeansofhisjournalsHeistheeditorhewritesinthemhimselfandallowsotherstowritehepraiseshisfriendswhoaretolaud

himinturnhepatronizeshispupilswhoaretocallhimmasterheabuseshisadversaries and asks his [pg 040] allies to do the same It was in this thatProfessorGottschedtriumphedforalongtimeoverBodmerandhispartytillatlastpublicopinionbecametoostrongandthedictatordiedthelaughing-stockofGermanyItwasintheverythickofthisliterarystrugglethatthegreatheroesofGerman poetry grew upmdashKlopstock Lessing Wieland Herder Goethe andSchiller Goethe who knew both Gottsched and Bodmer has described thatperiodoffermentationandtransitioninwhichhisownmindwasformedandhisextractsmaybe read as a commentary on the poetical productions of the firsthalfoftheeighteenthcenturyHedoesjusticetoGuumlntherandmorethanjusticeto Liscow He shows the influence which men like Brockes Hagedorn andHaller exercised inmakingpoetry respectableHepoints out the newnationallifewhichlikeanelectricsparkflewthroughthewholecountrywhenFredericktheGreat said ldquoJai jeteacute le bonnet pardessus les moulinsrdquo and defied like aman the political popery ofAustriaThe estimatewhichGoethe forms of thepoetsofthetimeofGleimandUzofGessnerandRabenerandmoreespeciallyofKlopstockLessingandWielandshouldbereadintheoriginalaslikewiseHerdersldquoRhapsodyonShakspearerdquoThelattercontainsthekeytomanyofthesecrets of that new period of literature which was inaugurated by Goethehimself andby thosewho likehimcoulddare tobe classical bybeing true tonatureandtothemselves

MyobjectintakingthisrapidsurveyofGermanliteraturehasbeentoshowthatthe extracts which I have collected in my ldquoGerman Classicsrdquo have not beenchosen at random and that if properly used they can be read as a runningcommentaryonthepolitical[pg041]andsocialhistoryofGermanyThehistoryof literature is but an applied history of civilization As in the history ofcivilizationwewatchtheplayofthethreeconstituentclassesofsocietymdashclergynobilityandcommonersmdashwecanseeinthehistoryofliteraturehowthatclasswhich is supreme politically shows for the time being its supremacy in theliteraryproductionsoftheageandimpressesitsmarkontheworksofpoetsandphilosophers

Speakingverygenerallywemight say that during the first periodofGermanhistorythereallymovingcivilizingandrulingclasswastheclergyandinthewhole of German literature nearly to the time of the Crusades the clericalelement predominates The second period ismarked by theCrusades and thetriumphofTeutonicandRomanticchivalryandtheliteratureofthatperiodisofa strictly correspondent tone After the Crusades and during the political

anarchy that followed the soleprincipleof order andprogress is found in thetownsandinthetownsthepoetryofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesfindsitsnewhomeAtlastatthetimeoftheReformationwhenthepoliticallifeofthecountryassumedforatimeanationalcharacterGermanliteraturealsoisforashorttimenationalThehopeshoweverwhichhadbeenraisedofanationalpolicyandofanationalliteratureweresoonblightedandfromtheThirtyYearsWar to thepresentday the inheritanceof thenationhasbeendividedbetweenprinces and professors There have been moments when the princes had toappealtothenationatlargeandtoforgetforawhiletheirroyalpretensionsandthese times of national enthusiasm as during thewars ofFrederick theGreatand during thewars againstNapoleon have not [pg042] failed to tell on theliterature of Germany They produced a national spirit free from professorialnarrownesssuchaswefindinthewritingsofLessingandFichteButwiththeexception of these short lucid intervals Germany has always been under theabsolute despotism of a number of small sovereigns and great professors andher literature has been throughout in the hands of court poets and academiccriticsKlopstockLessingandSchilleraremostfreefromeitherinfluenceandmost impressedwith thedutieswhichapoetowesbeforeall to thenation towhich he belongs Klopstocks national enthusiasm borders sometimes on thefantasticforashisowntimescouldnotinspirehimheborrowedthethemesofhisnationalpanegyricsfromthedistantpastofArminiusandtheGermanbardsLessinglookedmoretohisownagebuthelookedinvainfornationalheroesldquoPitytheextraordinarymanrdquosaysGoetheldquowhohad to live insuchmiserabletimeswhich offered him no better subjects than thosewhich he takes for hisworksPityhim that inhis lsquoMinnavonBarnhelmrsquo he had to take part in thequarrelbetweentheSaxonsandthePrussiansbecausehefoundnothingbetterItwasowingtotherottennessofhistimethathealwaystookandwasforcedtotakeapolemicalpositionInhislsquoEmiliaGalottirsquoheshowshispiqueagainsttheprinces in lsquoNathanrsquo against the priestsrdquo But although the subjects of theseworks of Lessing were small his object in writing was always great andnationalHe never condescended to amuse a provincial court bymasqueradesandcomediesnordidhedegradehisgeniusbypanderinglikeWielandtothetasteofaprofligatenobilitySchilleragainwasapoettrulynationalandtrulyliberalandalthougha[pg043]manofaspirationsratherthanofactionshehasleftadeeperimpressonthekernelofthenationthaneitherWielandorGoetheThese considerations howevermustnot interferewithour appreciationof thegreatnessofGoetheOnthecontrarywhenweseethesmallsphereinwhichhemoved atWeimar we admire themore the height to which he grew and thefreedom of his genius And it is perhaps owing to this very absence of a

strongly marked national feeling that in Germany the first idea of a world-literature was conceived ldquoNational literaturerdquo Goethe says ldquois of littleimportancetheageofaworld-literatureisathandandeveryoneoughttoworkin order to accelerate this new erardquo Perhaps Goethe felt that the true poetbelongedto thewholeofmankindand thathemustbe intelligiblebeyondthefrontiersofhisowncountryAndfromthispointofviewhisideaofaworld-literaturehasbeenrealizedandhisownworkshavegainedtheirplacesidebysidewith theworksofHomerVirgilDanteandShakespeareButso longastherearedifferentlanguagesanddifferentnationsleteachpoetthinkandworkandwriteforhisownpeoplewithoutcaringfortheapplauseofothercountriesScienceandphilosophyarecosmopolitanpoetryandartarenationalandthosewhowould deprive theMuses of their home-sprung character would deprivethemofmuchoftheirnativecharms

[pg044]

LISTOFEXTRACTSFORILLUSTRATINGTHEHISTORYOFGERMANLITERATURE

FOURTHCENTURYAFTERCHRIST

Gothicmdash

UlfilasTranslationoftheBibletheLordsPrayer

SEVENTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

VocabularyofStGall

EIGHTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

InterlinearTranslationoftheBenedictineRulesTranslationoftheGospelofStMatthewExhortationaddressedtotheChristianLaityLiteralTranslationsoftheHymnsoftheOldChurchmdash1Deusquicordilumenes2Auroralucisrutilat3TeDeumlaudamusTheSongofHildebrandandhissonHadubrandmdashinalliterativemetreThePrayerfromtheMonasteryofWessobrunmdashinalliterativemetreTheApostolicCreed

NINTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

FromEinhardsLifeofCharlemagnemdashtheGermannamesoftheMonthsandtheWindsfixedbytheEmperorMuspilliorontheLastJudgmentmdashalliterativepoemTheOathsofLewistheGermanandCharlestheBaldandtheirarmiesatStrassburg842inOldFrankishandOldFrenchfromtheHistoryofNithardthegrandsonofCharlemagneTheHeliandortheSaviourmdasholdSaxonpoeminalliterativemetreTheKristortheGospel-bookmdashpoeminrhymebyOtfriedthepupilofHrabanusMaurusdedicatedtoLewistheGerman[pg045]TranslationofaHarmonyoftheGospelsLayonStPeterSongontheVictorygainedbyKingLewisIIIatSaucourtin881overtheNormans

TENTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

NotkerTeutonicusofStGallmdash1TranslationofthePsalms2TreatiseonSyllogisms3TranslationofAristotle4TranslationofBoeumlthiusdeConsolatione

ELEVENTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

WilliramsExplanationoftheSongofSolomonMerigartoortheEarthmdashfragmentofageographicalpoem

TWELFTHCENTURY

MiddleHigh-Germanmdash

TheLifeofJesusmdashpoembytheNunAva

PoeticalTranslationoftheBooksofMosesHistoricalPoemonAnnoBishopofColognePoeticalChronicleoftheRomanEmperorsNortpertiTractatusdeVirtutibustranslatedThepoemofRolandbyKonradthePriestThepoemofAlexanderbyLamprechtthePriestPoemofReinharttheFoxDietmarvonAistmdashlyricsTheSpervogelmdashlyricsTheKuumlrenbergermdashlyricsTheEneidbyHeinrichvonVeldecke

THIRTEENTHCENTURY

HartmannvonAueextractsfromhisldquoIweinrdquomdashaheroicpoemTheOldReinmarmdashlyricsWalthervonderVogelweidemdashlyricsFreidanksBescheidenheitmdashdidacticpoem[pg046]WolframvonEschenbachmdash1ExtractsfromhisldquoParcivalrdquomdashaheroicpoem2ExtractsfromhisldquoTiturelrdquomdashaheroicpoemGottfriedvonStrassburgextractsfromhisldquoTristanrdquomdashaheroicpoemThepoemoftheldquoNibelungerdquomdashepicpoemThomasinvonZerclarextractsfromhispoemonmannerscalledldquoTheItalianGuestrdquoNeidhartvonReuenthalmdashlyricsOttovonBotenlaubemdashlyricsGudrunmdashepicpoemTheStrickermdashextractfromhissatiricalpoemldquoAmisthePriestrdquoRudolfvonEmsmdashextractfromhisldquoWilhelmvonOrleansrdquoChristianvonHamlemdashlyricsGottfriedvonNeifenmdashlyricsUlrichvonLichtensteinmdashlyricsSermonofFriarBertholdofRegensburgReinmarvonZwetermdashlyricsMasterStollemdashsatire

TheMarnermdashlyricsMasterKonradofWuumlrzburgmdash1Poem2ExtractfromtheTrojanWarAnonymouspoetmdashextractfromthelifeofStElizabethHermanderDamenAnonymouspoetmdashextractfromtheldquoWartburgKriegrdquoMarcgraveOttovonBrandenburgmdashlyricsHeinrichDukeofBreslaumdashlyricsHugovonTrimbergmdashextractfromtheldquoRennerrdquo

FOURTEENTHCENTURY

HeinrichFrauenlobmdashlyricsMasterJohannHadlaubmdashlyricsTheGreatRosegardenmdashpopularepicpoemMasterEckhartmdashhomilyHermannvonFritzlarmdashlifeofStElizabethDrJohannTaulermdashsermonHeinrichSuso[pg047]HeinrichderTeichnermdashfablePeterSuchenwirtmdashonthedeathofLeopoldDukeofAustria1386HalbsuterspoemontheBattleofSempach1386FritscheClosenersStrassburgChronicleJacobTwingersChroniclemdashontheFlagellants

FIFTEENTHCENTURY

HugovonMontfortmdashlyricsOswaldvonWolkensteinmdashlyricsMuscatbluumltmdashlyricsHansvonBuumlhelsLifeofDiocletianorTheSevenWiseMastersPopularSongsSacredSongs

TheSoulsComfortmdashdidacticproseMichaelBeheimmdashMeistergesangAnEasterMysteryPopularRhymesCasparvonderRoensHeldenbuchmdashHildebrandandhisSonNiclasvonWeylsTranslationsmdashHieronymusattheCouncilofConstanceVeitWeberspoemontheVictoryofMurten1476HeinrichSteinhoumlwelsFablesSebastianBrantsldquoShipofFoolsrdquoJohannGeilervonKaisersbergmdashsermonEmperorMaximilianmdashextractfromtheldquoTheuerdankrdquo

SIXTEENTHCENTURY

ModernHigh-Germanmdash

MartinLuthermdash1SacredSong2LetterontheDietoftheJackdawsandCrows3HisLastSermonUlrichZwinglemdash1APoemonhisIllness2CriticismonLutherPhilippNicolaimdashsacredsongsJustusJonasmdashsacredsongs[pg048]UlrichvonHuttenmdash1LettertoFranzvonSickingen2PoliticalpoemSebastianFrankmdash1PrefacetohisGermania2RudolfvonHapsburg3MaximilianderErste4FablesBurkardWaldismdashfablesHansSachsmdash1SacredSong2PoemontheDeathofMartinLuther3PoemontheWar

PetermannEtterlinsChroniclemdashWilliamTellandRudolfvonHapsburgAEliggidiusTschudisChroniclemdashWilliamTellPaulusMelissusSchedeJohannFischartmdash1ExhortationaddressedtotheGermanpeople2DasgluumlckhafteSchiffGeorgRollenhagenmdashfablePopularBooksmdash1TyllEulenspiegel2DrFaustPopularSongs

SEVENTEENTHCENTURY

MartinOpitzandtheFirstSilesianSchoolGeorgRudolfWeckherlinAnonymousPoemmdashldquoOEwigkeitrdquoMichaelAltenburgsCamp-song(GustavusAdolphus)JohannesHeermannmdashsacredsongPopularSongsJohannArndtmdash1SacredSong2OnthePowerandNecessityofPrayerJacobBoumlhmeMysteriumMagnumJohannValentinAndreaeligFriedrichSpeeJuliusWilhelmZinegreff[pg049]FriedrichvonLogauSimonDachandtheKoumlnigsbergSchoolPaulFlemmingPaulGerhardGeorgPhilippHarsdoumlrfferandtheNuumlrnbergSchoolJohannesRistAndreasGryphiusmdash1Sonnets2FromtheTragedyldquoCardenioandCelinderdquo

JoachimRachelmdashsatireJohannMichaelMoscheroschmdashsatiresChristophvonGrimmelshausenSimplicissimusmdashnovelJohannBalthasarSchuppmdashontheGermanLanguageAngelusSilesiusHoffmannswaldauandLohensteinmdashSecondSilesianSchoolAbrahamaSantaClaramdashsermonPhilippJacobSpenermdashonLutherGottfriedArnoldmdashsacredpoemChristianWeiseHansAssmannvonAbschatzFriedrichRLvonCanitzChristianWernickeGottfriedWilhelmvonLeibnitzmdashontheGermanLanguage

EIGHTEENTHCENTURY

JohannChristophGottschedmdashCatoJohannJacobBodmermdashCharacterofGermanPoetryBartholdHeinrichBrockesJohannChristianGuumlntherNicolausLudwigGrafvonZinzendorfChristianLudwigLiscowFriedrichvonHagedornAlbrechtvonHallerGottliebWilhelmRabenerEwaldChristianvonKleistChristianFuumlrchtegottGellertJohannLudwigGleimJohannPeterUz[pg050]JustusMoumlserKlopstockSeebelowSalomonGessnerJohannWinckelmannLessingSeebelowJohannGeorgHamann

ImmanuelKantJohannAugustMusaeligusWielandSeebelowGottliebKonradPfeffelChristianFriedrichDanielSchubartMatthiasClaudiusJohannCasparLavaterHerderSeebelowHeinrichJungStillingGeorgChristophLichtenbergGottfriedAugustBuumlrgerJohannHeinrichVossFriedrichLeopoldundChristianGrafenzuStollbergDasSiebengestirnderDichterdesachtzehntenJahrhundertsmdash1FriedrichGottliebKlopstock2GottholdEphraimLessing3ChristophMartinWieland4JohannGottfriedvonHerder5JohannWolfgangvonGoethe6JohannChristophFriedrichvonSchiller7JeanPaulFriedrichRichter

[pg051]

IIOLDGERMANLOVE-SONGS8

SevenhundredyearsagoWhatalongtimeitseemsPhilipAugustusKingofFranceHenryIIKingofEnglandFredericIthefamousBarbarossaEmperorofGermanyWhenwereadoftheirtimesthetimesoftheCrusadeswefeelastheGreeksfeltwhenreadingoftheWarofTroyWelistenweadmirebutwedo not compare the heroes of St Jean dAcre with the great generals of thenineteenthcenturyTheyseemadifferentraceofmenfromthosewhoarenowliving and poetry and tradition have lent to their royal frames such colossalproportions that we hardly dare to criticise the legendary history of theirchivalrous achievements It was a time of heroes of saints of martyrs ofmiraclesThomasagraveBecketwasmurderedatCanterburybutformorethanthreehundredyearshisnamelivedonandhisboneswereworkingmiraclesandhissoulseemedasitwereembodiedandpetrifiedintheloftypillarsthatsurroundthespotofhismartyrdomAbelardwaspersecutedandimprisonedbuthisspiritrevived in the Reformers of the sixteenth century [pg 052] and the shrine ofAbelard and Heacuteloise in the Pegravere La Chaise is still decorated every year withgarlands of immortelles Barbarossa was drowned in the same river in whichAlexandertheGreathadbathedhisroyallimbsbuthisfamelivedonineverycottageofGermanyandthepeasantneartheKyffhaumluserstillbelievesthatsomedaythemightyEmperorwillawakefromhislongslumberandrousethepeopleofGermany from their fatal dreamsWe dare not hold communionwith suchstatelyheroesasFredericktheRed-beardandRichardtheLion-hearttheyseemhalftobelongtotherealmoffableWefeelfromourveryschool-daysasifwecouldshakehandswithaThemistoclesandsitdowninthecompanyofaJuliusCaeligsar butwe are awed by the presence of those tall and silent knightswiththeirhandsfoldedandtheirlegscrossedasweseethemreposinginfullarmoronthetombsofourcathedrals

AndyethoweverdifferentinallotherrespectsthesemeniftheyoncelifttheirsteelbeaverandunbuckletheirricharmorarewonderfullylikeourselvesLetus

read the poetrywhich they eitherwrote themselves or towhich they liked tolistenintheircastlesontheRhineorundertheirtentsinPalestineandwefinditispoetrywhichaTennysonoraMooreaGoetheorHeinemighthavewrittenNeither Julius Caeligsar nor Themistocles would knowwhat wasmeant by suchpoetry It ismodernpoetrymdashpoetryunknown to the ancientworldmdashandwhoinventeditnobodycantellItissometimescalledRomanticbutthisisastrangemisnomerNeither theRomans nor the lineal descendants of theRomans theItalians theProvenccedilals theSpaniardscanclaimthatpoetryas theirownIt isTeutonic poetrymdashpurely [pg 053] Teutonic in its heart and soul though itsutterance its rhyme and metre its grace and imagery show the marks of awarmerclimeItiscalledsentimentalpoetrythepoetryoftheheartratherthanof the head the picture of the inward rather than of the outward world It issubjectiveasdistinguishedfromobjectivepoetryastheGermancriticsintheirscholastic language are fond of expressing it It isGothic as contrastedwithclassical poetry The one it is said sublimizes nature the other bodies forthspirit the one deifies the human the other humanizes the divine the one isethnic theotherChristianButall thesearebutnamesand their truemeaningmustbediscoveredintheworksofartthemselvesandinthehistoryofthetimeswhich produced the artists the poets and their idealsWe shall perceive thedifferencebetweenthesetwohemispheresoftheBeautifulbetterifwethinkofHomersldquoHelenardquoandDantesldquoBeatricerdquoifwelookattheldquoVenusofMilordquoandaldquoMadonnardquoofFranciathaninreadingtheprofoundestsystemsofaeligsthetics

TheworkwhichhascausedthesereflectionsisavolumeofGermanpoetryjustpublished by Lachmann and Haupt It is called ldquoDes MinnesangsFruumlhlingrdquomdashldquotheSpringof theSongsofLoverdquo and it contains a collectionofthepoemsoftwentyGermanpoetsallofwhomlivedduringtheperiodof theCrusades under the Hohenstaufen Emperors from about 1170 to 1230 ThisperiodmaywellbecalledthespringofGermanpoetrythoughthesummerthatfollowed was but of short duration and the autumn was cheated of the richharvestwhichthespringhadpromisedTieckoneofthefirstwhogatheredtheflowersofthatforgottenspringdescribesitinglowing[pg054] languageldquoAtthat timerdquo he says ldquobelievers sang of faith lovers of love knights describedknightly actions and battles and loving believing knights were their chiefaudience The spring beauty gayetywere objects that could never tire greatduelsanddeedsofarmscarriedawayeveryhearerthemoresurelythestrongertheywerepaintedandasthepillarsanddomeofthechurchencircletheflockso did religion as the highest encircle poetry and reality and every heart inequallovehumbleditselfbeforeherrdquoCarlyletoohaslistenedwithdelightto

thosemerry songs of spring ldquoThen trulyrdquo he says ldquowas the time of singingcome forprincesandprelatesemperorsandsquires thewiseand thesimplemenwomenandchildrenallsangandrhymedordelightedinhearingitdoneItwasauniversalnoiseof song as if the springofmanhoodhadarrived andwarblings from every spraymdashnot indeed without infinite twitterings alsowhichexcepttheirgladnesshadnomusicmdashwerebiddingitwelcomerdquoAndyetitwasnotallgladnessanditisstrangethatCarlylewhohassokeenanearforthe silentmelancholy of the human heart should not have heard that tone ofsorrowandfatefulbodingwhichbreakslikeasuppressedsighthroughthefreeandlightmusicofthatSwabianeraThebrightestskyofspringisnotwithoutitscloudsinGermanyandtheGermanheartisneverhappywithoutsomesadnessWhetherwelistentoashortdittyortotheepicballadsoftheldquoNibelungerdquoortoWolframs grand poemsof the ldquoParcivalrdquo and theldquoHolyGrailrdquo it is the sameeverywhere There is always amingling of light and shademdashin joy a fear ofsorrow insorrowa rayofhopeand throughout thewholeasilentwondering[pg055]atthisstrangeworldHereisaspecimenofananonymouspoemandanonymouspoetryisaninventionpeculiarlyTeutonicItwaswrittenbeforethetwelfth century its language is strangely simple and sometimes uncouth Butthereistruthinitanditistruthafterallandnotfictionthatisthesecretofallpoetrymdash

ldquoIthaspainedmeintheheartFullmanyatimeThatIyearnedafterthatWhichImaynothaveNorevershallwinItisverygrievousIdonotmeangoldorsilverItismorelikeahumanheart

ldquoItrainedmeafalconMorethanayearWhenIhadtamedhimAsIwouldhavehimAndhadwelltiedhisfeathersWithgoldenchainsHesoaredupveryhighAndflewintootherlands

ldquoIsawthefalconsinceFlyinghappilyHecarriedonhisfootSilkenstrapsAndhisplumagewasAllredofgoldMayGodsendthemtogetherWhowouldfainbelovedrdquo

Thekey-noteofthewholepoemoftheldquoNibelungerdquosuchasitwaswrittendownat theendof the twelfthor thebeginningof the thirteenthcentury isldquoSorrowafterJoyrdquoThis is the fatal spell againstwhichall theheroesare fighting andfightinginvainAndasHagendashestheChaplainintothewaves inordertobelie theprophecyof theMermaids but theChaplain rises andHagen rushesheadlongintodestructionsoChriemhiltisbargainingandplayingwith[pg056]the same inevitable fate cautiously guarding her young heart against thehappinessoflovethatshemayescapethesorrowsofabrokenheartShetoohasbeendreamingldquoofawildyoungfalconthatshetrainedformanyadaytilltwofierceeaglestoreitrdquoAndsherushestohermotherUtethatshemayreadthe dream for her and hermother tells her what it means And then the coymaidenanswersmdash

ldquoNomorenomoredearmothersayFrommanyawomansfortunethistruthisclearasdayThatfalselysmilingPleasurewithPainrequitesuseverIfrombothwillkeepmeandthuswillsorrowneverrdquo

ButSiegfriedcomesandChriemhiltsheartdoesnolongercastupthebrightandthedarkdaysof lifeToSiegfriedshebelongs forhimshe livesandforhimwhenldquotwofierceeaglestorehimrdquoshediesAstillwildertragedylieshiddeninthe songs of the ldquoEddardquo themost ancient fragments of truly Teutonic poetryWolframspoetryisofthesamesombrecastHewrotehisldquoParcivalrdquoaboutthetimewhen the songs of the ldquoNibelungerdquowerewritten down The subjectwastakenbyhimfromaFrenchsourceItbelongedoriginallytotheBritishcycleofArthur and his knights ButWolfram took the story merely as a skeleton towhichhehimselfgaveanewbodyandsoulThegloryandhappinesswhichthisworldcangiveistohimbutashadowmdashthecrownforwhichhisherofightsisthatoftheHolyGrail

FaithLoveandHonorarethechiefsubjectsoftheso-calledMinnesaumlngerTheyarenotwhatweshouldcalleroticpoetsMinnemeanslovein theoldGermanlanguage but it means originally not so much passion and desire asthoughtfulness reverence and remembrance In English Minne would beldquoMindingrdquo and [pg 057] it is different therefore from the Greek Eros theRomanAmorandtheFrenchAmourItisdifferentalsofromtheGermanLiebewhich means originally desire not love Most of the poems of theldquoMinnesaumlngerrdquo are sad rather than joyfulmdashjoyful in sorrow sorrowful in joyThesamefeelingshavesincebeensooftenrepeatedbypoetsinallthemodernlanguages ofEurope thatmuch ofwhatwe read in the ldquoMinnesaumlngerrdquoof thetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiessoundsstaletoourearsYetthereisasimplicityabouttheseoldsongsawantofeffortanentireabsenceofanyattempttopleaseor to surprise andwe listen to them aswe listen to a friendwho tells us hissufferingsinbrokenandhomelywordsandwhosetruthfulproseappealstoourheartmorestronglythanthemostelaboratepoetryofaLamartineoraHeineItisextremelydifficult totranslatethesepoemsfromthelanguageinwhichtheyarewritten the so-calledMiddleHigh-German intoModernGermanmdashmuchmoresotorenderthemintoEnglishButtranslationisatthesametimethebesttest of the true poetical value of any poem andwe believe thatmany of thepoemsoftheMinnesaumlngerscanbearthattestHereisanotherpoemverymuchinthestyleoftheonequotedabovebutwrittenbyapoetwhosenameisknownmdashDietmarvonEistmdash

ldquoAladystoodaloneAndgazedacrosstheheathAndgazedforherloveShesawafalconflyingldquoOhappyfalconthatthouartThoufliestwhereverthoulikestThouchoosestintheforestAtreethatpleasestheeThusItoohaddoneIchosemyselfamanHimmyeyesselected[pg058]BeautifulladiesenvymeforitAlaswhywilltheynotleavememyloveIdidnotdesirethebelovedofanyoneofthemNowwoetotheejoyofsummer

ThesongofbirdsisgoneSoaretheleavesofthelime-treeHenceforthmyprettyeyestooWillbeovercastMylovethoushouldsttakeleaveOfotherladiesYesmyherothoushouldstavoidthemWhenthousawestmefirstIseemedtotheeintruthRightlovelymadeIremindtheeofitdearmanrsquothinsprdquo

These poems simple and homely as they may seem to us were loved andadmired by the people for whom they were written They were copied andpreservedwiththegreatestcareinthealbumsofkingsandqueensandsomeofthemwere translated into foreign languages The poemwhichwe quoted firstwas translated as an Italian sonnet in the thirteenth century and has beenpublishedinFrancTrucchisldquoPoesieItalianeInediterdquomdash

ldquoTapinamecheamavaunosparvieroamavaltantochiomenemoriaalorichiamobenmeramanieroedunquetroppopascernoldoviaoregravemontatoesalitosigravealteroassaipiugravealterochefarnonsoliaedegraveassisodentroaunverzieroeunaltradonnalaveragraveinbaligraveaisparviermiochiotaveanodritosonagliodorotifaceaportareperchegravenelluccellarfossipiugravearditoorseisalitosiccomelomareedhairottiligettieseigravefuggitoquandoerifermoneltuouccellarerdquo

One of the most original and thoughtful of the ldquoMinnesaumlngerrdquo is the oldReinmarHispoemsaregivennowforthefirsttimeinacorrectandreadable[pg059] text by Lachmann and Haupt and many a difficult passage has beenelucidated by their notes His poems however are not easy to read and weshouldhavebeenthankfulforsomemorehelpthantheeditorshavegivenusin

theirnotesThefollowingisaspecimenofReinmarspoetrymdash

ldquoHighasthesunstandsmyheartThatisbecauseofaladywhocanbewithoutchangeInhergracewherevershebeShemakesmefreefromallsorrow

ldquoIhavenothingtogiveherbutmyownlifeThatbelongstoherthebeautifulwomangivesmealwaysJoyandahighmindIfIthinkofitwhatshedoesforme

ldquoWellisitformethatIfoundhersotrueWherevershedwellshealonemakeseverylanddeartomeIfshewentacrossthewildseaThereIshouldgoIlongsomuchforher

ldquoIfIhadthewisdomofathousandmenitwouldbewellThatIkeepherwhomIshouldserveMayshetakecarerightwellThatnothingsadmayeverbefallmethroughher

ldquoIwasneverquiteblessedbutthroughherWhateverIwishtohermaysheallowittomeItwasablessedthingformeThatshetheBeautifulreceivedmeintohergracerdquo

Carlylenodoubt is rightwhenhe says that amongall thiswarblingof lovethereareinfinitetwitteringswhichexcepttheirgladnesshavelittletocharmusYetweliketoreadthemaspartofthebrighthistoryofthoseby-gonedaysOnepoetsingsmdash

ldquoIfthewholeworldwasmineFromtheSeatotheRhineIwouldgladlygiveitallThattheQueenofEnglandLayinmyarmsrdquoetc

[pg060]Who was the impertinent German that dared to fall in love with a Queen of

EnglandWedonotknowButtherecanbenodoubtthattheQueenofEnglandwhom he adored was the gay and beautiful Eleanor of Poitou the Queen ofHenry IIwho filled the heart ofmany aCrusaderwith unholy thoughtsHerdaughtertooMathildewhowasmarriedtoHenrytheLionofSaxonyinspiredmany a poet of those days Her beauty was celebrated by the ProvenccedilalTroubadours and at the court of her husband she encouraged several of herGermanvassals to follow theexampleof theFrenchandNormanknightsandsing the love of Tristan and Isolt and the adventures of the knights ofCharlemagneTheymusthavebeenhappy times those timesof theCrusadesNor have they passed away without leaving their impress on the hearts andminds of the nations of Europe TheHoly Sepulchre it is true is still in thehandsof the Infidels and thebonesof theCrusaders lieburied inunhallowedsoil and their deeds of valor are well-nigh forgotten and their chivalrousTournamentsandtheirCourtsofLovearesmiledatbyawisergenerationButmuch that is noble andheroic in the feelingsof thenineteenth centuryhas itshidden roots in the thirteenth Gothic architecture and Gothic poetry are thechildrenofthesamemotherandifthetruebutunadornedlanguageofthehearttheaspirationsofarealfaiththesorrowandjoyofatruelovearestilllistenedtobythenationsofEuropeandifwhatiscalledtheRomanticschoolisstrongenoughtoholditsgroundagainsttheclassicaltasteanditsroyalpatronssuchasLouisXIVCharlesIIandFredericktheGreatmdashweoweittothosechivalrouspoetswhodaredforthefirst[pg061]timetobewhattheywereandtosaywhattheyfeltandtowhomFaithLoveandHonorwereworthysubjectsofpoetrythoughtheylackedthesanctionofthePericleanandAugustanages

TheneweditionofthePoemsoftheldquoMinnesaumlngerrdquoisamasterpieceofGermanscholarshipItwascommencedbyLachmannthegreatestcriticafterWolfthatGermany has produced Lachmann died before the work was finished andProfessorHaupthissuccessoratBerlinundertooktofinishitHisshareintheedition particularly in the notes is greater than that of Lachmann and theaccuracywithwhichthetexthasbeenrestoredfrommorethantwentyMSSisworthyofthegreatpupilofthatgreatmaster

[pg062]

IIIYESCHYPPEOFFOOLES9

Thecriticalperiodsinthehistoryoftheworldarebeststudiedinthelivesofafew representative men The history of the German Reformation assumes alivingintelligibleandhumancharacterinthebiographiesoftheReformersandnohistorianwouldimaginethatheunderstoodthesecretspringsofthatmightyrevolutioninGermanywithouthavingreadtheworksofHuttenthetable-talkofLutherthelettersofMelancthonandthesermonsofZwingleButalthoughitiseasy tosingleout representativemen in thegreatdecisivestrugglesofhistorythey aremore difficult to find during the preparatory periods The years from1450 to 1500 are as important as the years from 1500 to 1550mdashnay to thethoughtfulhistorianthatsilentperiodofincubationisperhapsofdeeperinterestthantheviolentoutburstofthesixteenthcenturyButwhereduringthoseyearsare themenofsufficienteminence torepresent theage inwhich they livedItwasanageof transitionandpreparationofdissatisfactionandhesitationLikethewholeofthefifteenthcenturyldquoItwasrichinscholarscopiousin[pg063]pedantsbutpooringeniusandbarrenofstrongthinkersrdquoWemustnotlookforheroes in so unheroic an age but be satisfiedwithmen if they be but a headtallerthantheircontemporaries

One of themost interestingmen inwhose life andwritings the history of thepreliminaryageoftheGermanReformationmaybestudiedisSebastianBrantthefamousauthorofthefamousldquoShipofFoolsrdquoHewasbornintheyear1457TheCouncilofBaslehadfailedtofulfillthehopesoftheGermanlaityastoareformatio ecclesiaelig in capite et membris In the very year of Brants birthMartinMeyertheChancellorofMayencehadaddressedhislettertohisformerfriend AEligneas Sylviusmdasha national manifesto in boldness and vigor onlysurpassedbythepowerfulpamphletofLutherldquoTotheNobilityoftheGermanNationrdquo Germany seemed to awaken at last to her position and to see thedangersthatthreatenedherpoliticalandreligiousfreedomThenewmovementwhichhadtakenplaceinItalyinclassicallearningsupportedchieflybyGreek

refugees began to extend its quickening influence beyond the Alps AEligneasSylvius afterwardsPopePius II 1458writes in oneof his letters that poetswereheldinnoestimationinGermanythoughheadmitsthattheirpoetryislesstobeblamedforthisthantheirpatronstheprinceswhocarefarmoreforanytrifles thanforpoetryTheGermanshesaysdonotcareforsciencenorforaknowledgeofclassicalliteratureandtheyhavehardlyheardthenameofCicerooranyotheroratorIntheeyesoftheItalianstheGermanswerebarbariansandwhenConstantineLascarissawthefirstspecimenofprintinghewastoldbytheItalianprieststhatthisinventionhadlatelybeenmadeapudbarbarosinurbe[pg064]GermaniaeligTheyweredangerousneighborsmdashthesebarbarianswhocouldmake such discoveries as the art of printing and Brant lived to see the timewhen Joh Caeligsarius was able to write to a friend of his ldquoAt this momentGermany if shedoesnotsurpass Italyat leastneednotandwillnotyield toher not somuch on account of her empire as for herwonderful fecundity inlearnedmenandthealmostincrediblegrowthoflearningrdquo

This period of slowbut steady progress from the invention of printing to theCouncilofWormsisbridgedoverbythelifeofSebastianBrantwholivedfrom1457to1521BrantwasveryearlythefriendofPeterSchottandthroughhimhad been brought in contact with a circle of learned men who were busilyengagedinfoundingoneofthefirstschoolsofclassicallearningatSchlettstadtMen likeJacWimphelingJohTorrentinusFlorentiusHundiusandJohannesHugo belonged to that society Brant afterwards went to Basle to study lawBaslewasthenayounguniversityIthadonlybeenfoundedin1459butitwasalreadyasuccessfulrivalofHeidelbergThestrugglebetweentheRealistsandNominalistswas then raging all overEurope and it divided theUniversity ofBasle into two parties each of them trying to gain influence and adherentsamong the young students It has been usual to look upon theRealists as theConservative and upon the Nominalists as the Liberal party of the fifteenthcentury But although at times this was the case philosophical opinions onwhich the differences between these two parties were founded were not ofsufficientstrengthtodetermineforanylengthoftimethepoliticalandreligiousbias of either school The Realists were chiefly supported [pg 065] by theDominicans the Nominalists by the Franciscans and there is always a moregentleexpressionbeaming in theeyesof the followersof the seraphicDoctorparticularlyifcontrastedwiththesternfrownoftheDominicanOckamhimselfwas a Franciscan and those who thought with him were called doctoresrenovatoresandsophistaeligSuddenlyhoweverthetableswereturnedAtOxfordtheRealists in followingout theirprinciples inamore independentspirithad

arrived at results dangerous to thepeaceof theChurchAsphilosophers theybegan to carry out the doctrines of Plato in good earnest as reformers theylookedwistfullytotheearlycenturiesoftheChristianChurchThesameliberalandindependentspiritreachedfromOxfordtoPragueandtheexpulsionoftheGermannationfromthatuniversitymaybe traced to thesamemovementTheRealistswereat that timenolonger in thegoododoroforthodoxyandat theCouncil of Constanz the Nominalists such as Joh Gerson and Petrus deAlliacogainedtriumphswhichseemedforatimetomakethemthearbitersofpublicopinioninGermanyandtogivethemthemeansofsecuringtheChurchagainst the attacks of Huss on one side and against the more dangerousencroachmentsofthePopeandthemonksontheotherThistriumphhoweverwas of short duration All the rights which the Germans seemed to haveconqueredat theCouncilsofConstanzandBasleweresacrificedby theirownEmperorNoonedaredtosayagainwhatGregoryvonHeimburghadsaidtotheItalianclergymdashldquoQuid fines alienos invaditis quid falcem vestram inmessemalienamextenditisrdquoUnderAEligneasSylvius thepowerof thePope inGermanywasasabsoluteaseverTheNominalistpartylostall[pg066]thegroundwhichithadgainedbeforeItwaslookeduponwithsuspicionbyPopeandEmperorItwas banished from courts and universities and the disciples of the RealisticschoolbeganacompletecrusadeagainstthefollowersofOckam

JohannesHeynlinaLapideaformerheadofahouseinParismigratedtoBaslein order to lend his influence and authority to the Realist party in that risinguniversity Trithemius says of him ldquoHic doctrinam eorum Parisiensium quireales appellantur primus ad Basiliensium universitatem transtulit ibidemqueplantavitroboravitetauxitrdquoThisJohannesHeynlinaLapidehoweverthoughaviolentchampionofthethenvictoriousRealistpartywasbynomeansamanwithoutliberalsentimentsOnmanypointstheRealistsweremoretolerantoratleastmoreenlightened than theNominalistsTheycountedamong themselvesbetterscholarsthantheadherentsofOckamTheywerethefirstandforemosttopointouttheuselessnessofthedryscholasticsystemofteachinggrammarandlogic and nothing else And though they cherished their own ideas as to thesupreme authority of the Pope the divine right of the Emperor or theimmaculateconceptionof theVirgin (adogmadeniedby theDominicansanddefendedbytheFranciscans)theywerealwaysreadytopointoutabusesandtosuggestreformsTheageinwhichtheylivedwasnotanageofdecisivethoughtor decisive action Therewas awant of character in individuals aswell as inpartiesandthepointsinwhichtheydifferedwereofsmallimportancethoughtheymaskeddifferencesofgreaterweightAtBaslethemenwhoweregathered

roundJohannesaLapidewerewhatweshouldcallLiberalConservativesanditisamong[pg067]themthatwefindSebastianBrantBaslecouldthenboastofsomeofthemosteminentmenofthetimeBesidesAgricolaandWimphelingandGeilervonKaisersbergandTrithemiusReuchlinwasthereforatimeandWessel and theGreekKontablacosSebastianBrant thoughon friendly termswithmostofthesemenwastheirjuniorandamonghiscontemporariesanewgenerationgrewupmoreindependentandmorefree-spokenthantheirmastersthough as yet very far from any revolutionary views inmatters of Church orStateFeudsbrokeoutverysoonbetweentheoldandtheyoungschoolsLocherthe friend of Brantmdashthe poet who had turned his ldquoShip of Foolsrdquo into Latinversemdashpublishedapoeminwhichheattackedratherpetulantlythescholasticphilosophyand theologyWimpheling at the request ofGeilerofKaisersberghadtopunishhimforthisaudacityandhediditinapamphletfullofthemostvulgarabuseReuchlinalsohadgivenoffenseandwasattackedandpersecutedbut his party retaliated by the ldquoEpistolaelig Obscurorum Virorumrdquo Thus theConservativeorRealisticpartybecamedividedandwhenatthebeginningofanewcenturyandanewerainthehistoryoftheworldLutherraisedhisvoiceindefenseofnationalandreligiousfreedomhewas joinednotonlyby themoreadvanceddescendantsoftheNominalisticschoolbutbyallthevigorthetalentandtheintellectoftheoldConservatives

BranthimselfthoughhelivedatStrassburgupto1521didnotjointhestandardof theReformationHehad learned togrumble to find fault to abuse and tocondemnbuthistimewasgonewhenthemomentforactionarrivedAndyethehelpedtowardthe[pg068]successoftheReformationinGermanyHehadbeenoneofthefirstafterthediscoveryofprintingtousetheGermanlanguageforpoliticalpurposesHisfly-sheetshisillustratededitionshadgivenusefulhintshowtoaddressthelargemassesofthepeopleIfhelookedupontheworldasitthen was as a ship of fools and represented every weakness vice andwickedness under themilder color of foolery the peoplewho read his poemssingled out some of his fools and called them knaves The great work ofSebastianBrantwashisldquoNarrenschiffrdquoItwasfirstpublishedin1497atBasleandthefirsteditionthoughonaccountofitswood-cutsitcouldnothavebeenavery cheap book was sold off at once Edition after edition followed andtranslationswerepublishedinLatin inLow-German inDutch inFrenchandEnglish Sermons were preached on the ldquoNarrenschiffrdquo Trithemius calls itDivina Satira Locher compares Brant with Dante Hutten calls him the newlawgiver ofGerman poetry The ldquoNarrenschiffrdquo is aworkwhichwemay stillreadwithpleasurethoughitisdifficulttoaccountforitsimmensesuccessatthe

time of its publication Some historians ascribe it to the wood-cuts They arecertainlyverycleverandthereisreasontosupposethatmostof themwere ifnotactuallydrawnat least suggestedbyBranthimselfYetevenaTurnerhasfailedtorendermediocrepoetrypopularbyhisillustrationsandthereisnothingto show that the caricatures of Brant were preferred to his satires Now hissatiresitistruearenotverypowerfulnorpungentnororiginalButhisstyleisfree and easyBrant is not a ponderous poetHewrites in short chapters andmixeshisfoolsinsuchamannerthatwealwaysmeet[pg069]withavarietyofnewfacesIt is truethatall thiswouldhardlybesufficient tosecureadecidedsuccessforaworklikehisat thepresentdayBut thenwemustremember thetimeinwhichhewroteWhathad thepoorpeopleofGermanytoread towardthe end of the fifteenth century Printing had been invented and bookswerepublishedandsoldwithgreatrapidityPeoplewerenotonlyfondbutproudofreading booksReadingwas fashionable and the first foolwho entersBrantsshipisthemanwhobuysbooksButwhatwerethebooksthatwereofferedforsale We find among the early prints of the fifteenth century religioustheological and classical works in great abundance and we know that therespectableandwealthyburghersofAugsburgandStrassburgwereproudtofilltheirshelveswiththeseportlyvolumesButthenGermanaldermenhadwivesand daughters and sons and what were they to read during the long wintereveningsThepoetryofthethirteenthcenturywasnolongerintelligibleandthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturieshadproducedvery little thatwouldbe to thetasteofyoungladiesandgentlemenThepoetryoftheldquoMeistersaumlngerrdquowasnotvery exhilarating The romances of ldquoThe Book of Heroesrdquo had lost all theirnative charms under the rough treatment they had experienced at the hand oftheir latest editor Casper von der Roen The so-called ldquoMisteriesrdquo (notmysteries)might beverywell asChristmaspantomimesonce a year but theycouldnotbereadfortheirownsakelikethedramaticliteratureoflatertimesThelight literatureof thedayconsistedentirely innovelsandinspiteof theirmiserablecharactertheirpopularitywasimmenseBesidesthe[pg070]ldquoGestaRomanorumrdquowhichwere turned intoGerman verse and prosewemeetwithFrenchnovelssuchasldquoLotherandMalerrdquotranslatedbyaCountessofNassauin1437andprintedin1514ldquoPontusandSidoniardquotranslatedfromtheFrenchby Eleanor of Scotland the wife of Sigismund of Austria published 1498ldquoMelusinardquo equally from the French published 1477 The old epic poems ofldquoTristanrdquoandldquoLancelotrdquoandldquoWigaloisrdquoweretoolongandtediousPeopledidnotcareanylongerforthedeepthoughtsofWolframvonEschenbachandthebeautiful poetry of Gottfried von Strassburg They wanted only the plot thestorythedrybonesandtheseweredishedupintheprosenovelsofthefifteenth

century and afterwards collected in the so-called ldquoBook of Loverdquo TherewasroomthereforeatthattimeforaworkliketheldquoShipofFoolsrdquoItwasthefirstprintedbookthattreatedofcontemporaneouseventsandlivingpersonsinsteadofoldGermanbattlesandFrenchknightsPeoplearealwaysfondofreadingthehistoryoftheirowntimesIfthegoodqualitiesoftheiragearebroughtouttheythinkofthemselvesortheirfriendsifthedarkfeaturesoftheircontemporariesare exhibited they think of their neighbors and enemies Now the ldquoShip ofFoolsrdquo is just such a satire which ordinary people would read and read withpleasureTheymightfeelaslighttwingenowandthenbuttheywouldputdownthebookattheendandthankGodthattheywerenotlikeothermenThereisachapteronMisersmdashandwhowouldnotgladlygiveapennytoabeggarThereisachapteronGluttonymdashandwhowasevermorethanalittleexhilaratedafterdinnerThere is a chapter onChurch-goersmdashandwho everwent to [pg 071]churchforrespectabilityssakeortoshowoffagaudydressorafinedogoranewhawkThereisachapteronDancingmdashandwhoeverdancedexceptforthesakeofexerciseThereisachapteronAdulterymdashandwhoeverdidmorethanflirtwithhisneighborswifeWesometimeswishthatBrantssatirehadbeenalittlemore searching and that instead of hismany allusions to classical fools(for his book is full of scholarship) he had given us a little more of thechroniquescandaleuseofhisowntimeButhewastoogoodamantodothisandhiscontemporariesnodoubtweregratefultohimforhisforbearance

BrantspoemisnoteasytoreadThoughhewasacontemporaryofLutherhislanguage differsmuchmore frommodernGerman thanLuthers translation oftheBibleHis ldquoShipofFoolsrdquowanted a commentary and thiswant has beensupplied by one of the most learned and industrious scholars of GermanyProfessor Zarncke in his lately published edition of the ldquoNarrenschiffrdquo Thismust have been a work of many years of hard labor Nothing that is worthknowingaboutBrant andhisworkshasbeenomitted andwehardlyknowofany commentary on Aristophanes or Juvenal in which every difficulty is sohonestlymetasinProfessorZarnckesnotesontheGermansatiristTheeditorisamostminuteandpainstakingcriticHetriestoreeumlstablishthecorrectreadingofeverywordandheentersuponhisworkwithasmuchzealas if theworldcould not be saved till every tittle of Brants poem had been restored He ishowever not only a critic but a sensible and honestmanHe knowswhat isworthknowingandwhatisnotandhedoesnotallowhimselftobecarried[pg072]awaybyadesire todisplayhisownsuperioracquirementsmdashaweaknesswhichmakessomanyofhiscolleaguesforgetfuloftherealendsofknowledgeandtherealdutiesofthescholarandthehistorian

We have to say a few words on the English translation of Brants ldquoShip ofFoolsrdquoItwasnotmadefromtheoriginalbutfromLochersLatintranslationItreproduces thematterbutnot themannerof theoriginalsatireSomeportionsareaddedbythetranslatorAlexanderBarclayandinsomepartshistranslationisanimprovementontheoriginalItwasprintedin1508published1509andwentthroughseveraleditions

The following may serve as a specimen of Barclays translation and of hisoriginalcontributionstoBrantsldquoNavisStultiferardquomdash

ldquoHerebeginneththelsquoShipofFoolesrsquoandfirstofunprofitablebooksmdash

ldquoIamthefirstfooleofallthewholenavieTokeepthePompetheHelmeandeketheSayleForthisismymindethisonepleasurehaveIOfbookestohavegreatplentieandapparayleItakenowisdomebythemnotyetavayleNorthemperceavenotandthenIthemdespiseThusamIafooleandallthatsuethatguise

ldquoThatinthisShipthechiefeplaceIgoverneBythiswideSeawithfooleswandringThecauseisplaineandeasytodiscerneStillamIbusybookesassemblingFortohaveplentieitisapleasantthingInmyconceytandtohavethemayinhandeButwhattheymeanedoInotunderstande

ldquoButyetIhavethemingreatreverenceAndhonouresavingthemfromfilthandordureByoftenbrusshingandmuchdiligenceFullgoodlyboundeinpleasantcovertureOfDamasSattinorelsofVelvetpureIkeepethemsurefearingleasttheyshouldbelostForinthemisthecunningwhereinImeboast

[pg073]

ldquoButifitfortunethatanylearnedmenWithinmyhousefalltodisputation

IdrawethecurtaynestoshewemybokesthenThattheyofmycunningshouldmakeprobationIkepenottofallinaltericationAndwhiletheycommentmybookesIturneandwindeForallisinthemandnothinginmyminderdquo

InthefourthchapterldquoOfnewefassionsanddisguisedgarmentesrdquothereisattheendwhatiscalledldquoTheLenvoyofAlexanderBarclayrdquoandinitanallusiontoHenryVIIImdash

ldquoButyeproudegalantsthatthusyourselfedisguiseBeyeashamedbeholdeuntoyourprinceConsiderhissadnesshishonestiedeviseHisclothingexpressethhisinwardeprudenceYeseenoexampleofsuchinconvenienceInhishighnessbutgodlywitandgravitieEnsuehimandsorroweforyourenormitierdquo

[pg074]

IVLIFEOFSCHILLER10

Thehundredthanniversaryof thebirthdayofSchillerwhich according to theaccountspublishedintheGermannewspapersseemstohavebeencelebratedinmostpartsofthecivilizednayeventheuncivilizedworldisaneventinsomerespectsunprecedentedintheliteraryannalsofthehumanraceAnationhonorsherselfbyhonoringhersonsand it isbutnatural that inGermanyevery townand village should have vied in doing honor to the memory of one of theirgreatest poets The letters which have reached us from every German capitalrelatenomorethanwhatweexpectedThereweremeetingsandfeastingsballsandtheatricalrepresentationsTheveteranphilologistJacobGrimmaddressedtheBerlinAcademyon theoccasion in a soul-stirringoration thedirectorsoftheImperialPressatViennaseizedtheopportunitytopublishasplendidalbumor ldquoSchillerbuchrdquo [pg 075] in honor of the poet unlimited eloquence waspoured forthbyprofessorsandacademicians schoolchildren recitedSchillersballadstheGermanstudentsshoutedthemostpopularofhissongsnordidtheladiesofGermanyfailinpayingtheirtributeofgratitudetohimwhosincethedays of theMinnesaumlngers had been themost eloquent herald of female graceanddignity In the evening torchprocessionsmight be seenmarching throughthe streets bonfires were lighted on the neighboring hills houses wereilluminatedandeventhesolitarydarknessofthewindowsofthePapalNuncioatViennaaddedtothelustreoftheday11IneveryplacewhereSchillerhadspentsome years of his life local recollections were revived and perpetuated bytabletsandmonumentsThemost touchingaccountofallcamefromthesmallvillageofCleversulzbachOnthevillagecemeteryorasitiscalledinGermanthe ldquoGods-acrerdquo there stands a tombstone and on it the simple inscriptionldquoSchillersMotherrdquoOnthemorningofhersonsbirthdaythepoorpeopleofthevillage were gathered together round that grave singing one of their sacredhymnsandplantingalime-treeinthesoilwhichcoverstheheartthatlovedhimbest

But the commemoration of Schillers birthday was not confined to his nativecountryWe have seen in theGerman papers letters fromSt Petersburg andLisbon from Venice Rome and Florence from Amsterdam Stockholm andChristiana from Warsaw and Odessa from Jassy and Bucharest fromConstantinopleAlgiersandSmyrnaandlatelyfromAmericaandAustraliaalldescribing thefestivegatheringswhichweresuggestednodoubtbySchillerscosmopolitan [pg 076] countrymen but joined in most cheerfully by all thenations of the globe Poets of higher rank than SchillermdashDante Shakespeareand Goethemdashhave never aroused such world-wide sympathies and it is notwithout interest to inquire into the causeswhich have secured to Schiller thisuniversal popularity However superlative the praises which have lately beenheapedonSchillers poetryby thosewhocannot praise except in superlativeswebelievethatitwasnotthepoetbutthemantowhomtheworldhaspaidthisunprecedentedtributeofloveandadmirationAfterreadingSchillersworkswemustreadSchillerslifemdashthegreatestofallhisworksItisalifenotunknownto the English public for it has been written by Carlyle The last festivitieshowever have given birth to several new biographies Palleskes ldquoLife ofSchillerrdquohasmetwithsuchsuccessinGermanythatitwelldeservedthehonorwhichithaslatelyreceivedatthehandsofLadyWallaceandunderthespecialpatronageof theQueenofbeing translated intoEnglishAnotherverycarefulandlucidaccountofthepoetslifeisduetothepenofamemberoftheFrenchInstituteMARegnierthedistinguishedtutoroftheComtedeParis

InreadingtheselivestogetherwiththevoluminousliteraturewhichisintendedtoillustratethecharacteroftheGermanpoetwefrequentlyfeltinclinedtoaskonequestiontowhichnoneofSchillersbiographershasreturnedasatisfactoryanswerldquoWhatwerethepeculiarcircumstanceswhichbroughtoutinGermanyand in thesecondhalfof theeighteenthcenturyamanof themoralcharacterandapoetofthecreativegeniusofSchillerrdquoGrantedthathewasendowedbynaturewiththehighesttalentshowdidhegrow[pg077]tobeapoetsuchasweknowhimdifferentfromallotherGermanpoetsandyetinthoughtfeelingand language the most truly German of all the poets of Germany Are wereducedtoappealtothemysteriousworkingofanunknownpowerifwewishtoexplain to ourselves why in the same country and at the same time poeticalgeniusassumedsuchdifferentformsasareseeninthewritingsofSchillerandGoetheIsittobeascribedtowhatiscalledindividualityawordwhichintruthexplainsnothingorisitpossibleforthehistorianandpsychologisttodiscoverthehiddeninfluenceswhichactonthegrowingmindandproducethatstrikingvariety of poetical geniuswhichwe admire in theworks of contemporaneous

poets such as Schiller andGoethe inGermany orWordsworth andByron inEnglandMengrownotonlyfromwithinbutalsofromwithoutWeknowthatapoet isbornmdashpoetanasciturmdashbutwealsoknow thathischaractermustbeformed the seed is given but the furrowmust be ploughed in which it is togrow and the same grain which if thrown on cultivated soil springs intofullnessandvigorwilldwindleawaystuntedandbrokenifcastuponshallowanduntilledlandTherearecertaineventsinthelifeofeverymanwhichfashionand stamphis character theymay seem small andunimportant in themselvesbuttheyaregreatandimportanttoeachofustheymarkthatslightbendwheretwolineswhichhadbeenrunningparallelbegintodivergenevertomeetagainTheGreekscallsucheventsepochsiehalts

WehaltforamomentwelookaboutandwonderandthenchooseourfurtherwayinlifeItisthedutyofbiographerstodiscoversuchepochssuchhalting-points in the lives of their heroes andwe shall [pg 078] endeavor to do thesameinthelifeofSchillerbywatchingthevariousinfluenceswhichdeterminedthedirectionofhisgeniusatdifferentperiodsofhispoeticalcareer

TheperiodofSchillerschildhoodisgenerallydescribedwithgreatdetailbyhisbiographersWearetoldwhohisancestorswereIbelievetheywerebakersWeare informed that hismother possessed in her trousseau among other thingsfour pairs of stockingsmdashthree of cotton one of wool There are also longdiscussionsontheexactdateofhisbirthWehearagreatdealofearlysignsofgeniusor ratherweshouldsayof thingsdoneandsaidbymostchildrenbutinvestedwithextraordinarysignificanceifrememberedofthechildhoodofgreatmenTotellthetruthwecanfindnothingveryimportantinwhatwethuslearnoftheearlyyearsofSchillernordoesthepoethimselfinlateryearsdwellmuchon the recollections of his dawning mind If we must look for somedeterminatinginfluencesduringthechildhoodofSchillertheyarechieflytobefound in the character of his fatherThe fatherwasnotwhatwe should call awell-educatedmanHehadbeenbroughtupasabarberandsurgeonhadjoinedaBavarian regiment in 1745 during theAustrianwar of succession and hadactedasanon-commissionedofficerandwhenoccasionrequiredasachaplainAfterthepeaceofAix-la-ChapellehehadmarriedthedaughterofaninnkeeperHewas a braveman aGod-fearingman and as is not unfrequently the casewith half-educatedpeople amanvery fondof readingWhat he had failed toattainhimselfhewished tosee realized inhisonlysonThe followingprayerwasfoundamongthepapersofthefatherldquoAndThouBeingofallbeings[pg079]IhaveaskedTheeafterthebirthofmyonlysonthatThouwouldstaddto

his powers of intellect what I from deficient instructionwas unable to attainThouhastheardmeThanksbetoTheebounteousBeingthatThouheedesttheprayersofmortalsrdquoAmanofthisstampofmindwouldbesuretoexercisehisownpeculiarinfluenceonhischildrenHewouldmakethemlookonlifenotasamereprofessionwherethesonhasonlytofollowinthestepsofhisfatherhischildrenwouldearlybecomefamiliarwithsuchideasasldquomakingonesway inliferdquoandwouldlookforwardtoasteeppathratherthantoabeatentrackTheirthoughts would dwell on the future at a timewhen other children live in thepresentonlyandanadventurousspiritwouldberousedwithoutwhichnogreatworkhaseverbeenconceivedandcarriedout

WhenhischildrenyoungFrederickandhissistersweregrowinguptheirfatherreadtothemtheirmorningandeveningprayersandsofondwastheboyoftheOldandNewTestamentstoriesthathewouldoftenleavehisgamesinordertobe present at his fathers readings In 1765 the family left Marbach on theNeckarThefatherwasorderedbytheDukeofWurtembergtoLorchaplaceonthe frontier where he had to act as recruiting officer His son received hiseducationinthehouseofaclergymanbeganLatinatsixGreekatsevenandasfar aswe are able to see he neither seems to have consideredhimself nor tohavebeenconsideredbyhismastersasverysuperior tootherboysHewasagoodboytenderlyattachedtohisparentsfondofgamesandregularatschoolTherearebuttwomarkedfeatureswhichwehaveanopportunityofwatchinginhim as [pg 080] a boy He knew no fear and he was full of the warmestsympathy for others The first quality secured him the respect the second theloveofthosewithwhomhecameincontactHisparentswhowerepoorhadgreat difficulty in restraining his generosity He would give away his school-books and the very buckles off his shoes Both his fearlessness and universalsympathy are remarkable through the whole of his after-life Not even hisenemiescouldpointoutonetraitofcowardiceorselfishnessinanythingheeverdidorsaidorwroteTherearesomepertinentremarksonthecombinationofthesetwoqualitiessympathywithothersandcouragebytheauthorofldquoFriendsinCouncilrdquo

ldquoIfgreatnessrdquohewritesldquocanbeshutupinqualitiesitwillbefoundtoconsistincourageandinopennessofmindandsoulThesequalitiesmaynotseematfirsttobesopotentButseewhatgrowththereisinthemTheeducationofamanofopenmind is never ended Thenwith openness of soul aman sees someway into allothersoulsthatcomenearhimfeelswiththemhastheirexperienceisinhimselfapeopleSympathyistheuniversalsolventNothingisunderstoodwithoutitAddcouragetothisopennessandyouhaveamanwhocanownhimselfinthewrong

canforgivecantrustcanadventurecaninshortuseallthemeansthatinsightandsympathyendowhimwithrdquo

A plucky and warm-hearted boy under the care of an honest brave andintelligent father and a tender and religiousmothermdashthis is all we know andcaretoknowaboutSchillerduringthefirsttenyearsofhislifeIntheyear1768there begins a new period in the life of Schiller His father was settled atLudwigsburg theordinary residenceof the reigningDukeofWurtemberg theDuke Charles This man was destined to exercise a decisive influence onSchillerscharacterLikemanyGermansovereignsinthemiddleof[pg081]thelastcenturyDukeCharlesofWurtemberghadfelttheinfluenceofthoseliberalideaswhichhadfoundsopowerfulanutteranceintheworksoftheFrenchandEnglishphilosophersoftheeighteenthcenturyThephilosophywhichinFrancewassmiledatbykingsandstatesmenwhileitrousedthepeopletoinsurrectionand regicide produced in Germany a deeper impression on the minds of thesovereigns and ruling classes than of the people In the time of Frederick theGreat and Joseph II it became fashionable among sovereigns to professLiberalismandtoworkfortheenlightenmentofthehumanraceItistruethatthisliberalpolicywasgenerallycarriedoutinaratherdespoticwayandpeoplewere emancipated and enlightened very much as the ancient Saxons wereconvertedbyCharlemagneWehaveaninstanceofthis inthecaseofSchillerDukeCharles had founded an institutionwhere orphans and the sons of poorofficers were educated free of expense He had been informed that youngSchillerwasapromisingboyandlikelytoreflectcreditonhisnewinstitutionandheproceededwithoutfurtherinquirytoplacehimonthelistofhisproteacutegeacutesassigning tohimaplaceathismilitary school Itwasuseless for the father toremonstrateandexplain to theDukethathissonhadadecidedinclinationfortheChurchSchillerwassenttotheAcademyin1773andorderedtostudylawTheyoungstudentcouldnotbutseethataninjusticehadbeendonehimandtheirritationwhichitcausedwasfeltbyhimallthemoredeeplybecauseitwouldhavebeendangerous togiveexpression tohis feelingsThe resultwas thathemade no progress in the subjectswhich he had been commanded to study In1775 he was allowed to give up law not however to [pg 082] return totheology but to begin the study ofmedicine Butmedicine though at first itseemedmore attractive failed like law to call forth his full energies In themean time another interference on the part of the Duke proved even moreabortiveandtoacertainextentdeterminedthepathwhichSchillersgeniuswastotakeinlifeTheDukehadprohibitedallGermanclassicsathisAcademytheboysnevertheless succeeded in formingasecret libraryandSchiller read the

works of Klopstock Klinger Lessing Goethe and Wielands translations ofShakespeare with rapture no doubt somewhat increased by the dangers hebravedingainingaccesstothesetreasuresIn1780thesameyearinwhichhepassed his examination and received the appointment of regimental surgeonSchillerwrotehisfirsttragedyldquoTheRobbersrdquoHistastefordramaticpoetryhadbeen roused partly by Goethes ldquoGoetz von Berlichingenrdquo and ShakespearesplayspartlybyhisvisitstothetheatrewhichunderthepatronageoftheDukewas then in a very flourishing state The choice of the subject of his firstdramatic composition was influenced by the circumstances of his youth HispoeticalsympathyforacharactersuchasKarlMooramanwhosetsatdefianceall the laws of God and man can only be accounted for by the revulsion offeelingproducedonhisboyishmindbythestrictmilitarydisciplinetowhichallthe pupils at theAcademywere subjected His sense of right andwrongwasstrongenoughtomakehimpainthisheroasamonsterandtomakehiminflicton him the punishment he merited But the young poet could not resist thetemptationofthrowingabrighterlightontheredeemingpointsinthecharacterofarobberandmurdererbypointedlyplacinghim[pg083]incontrastwiththeevendarkershadesofhypocriticalrespectabilityandsaintlinessinthepictureofhis brother Franz The language in which Schiller paints his characters ispowerfulbutitisoftenwildandevencoarseTheDukedidnotapproveofhisformerproteacutegeacute theverytitle-pageofldquoTheRobbersrdquowasenough tooffendhisSereneHighnessmdashitcontainedarisinglionwiththemottoldquoIntyrannosrdquoTheDukegave awarning to the youngmilitary surgeon andwhen soon after heheardofhisgoingsecretlytoMannheimtobepresentatthefirstperformanceofhis play he ordered him to be put under military arrest All these vexationsSchillerenduredbecauseheknewfullwelltherewasnoescapefromthefavorsof his royal protectorButwhen at last hewasorderednever to publish againexcept onmedical subjects and to submit all his poetical compositions to theDukescensorship thisprovedtoomuchforouryoungpoetHisambitionhadbeenrousedHehadsatatMannheimayoungmanoftwentyunknownamidanaudienceofmenandwomenwho listenedwith rapturous applause tohisownthoughts and words That evening at the theatre of Mannheim had been adecisive eveningmdashit was an epoch in the history of his life he had felt hispowerandthecallingofhisgeniushehadperceivedthoughinadimdistancethecoursehehad to runand the laurelshehad togainWhenhesaw that thehumorof theDukewasnot likely to improve he fled fromaplacewherehiswings were clipped and his voice silenced Now this flight from one smallGermantowntoanothermayseemamatterofverylittleconsequenceatpresentButinSchillerstimeitwasamatteroflifeanddeathGermansovereignswere

accustomed[pg084]tolookupontheirsubjectsastheirpropertyWithouteventhe show of a trial the poet Schubart had been condemned to life-longconfinement by this same Duke Charles Schiller in fleeing his benefactorsdominionshadnotonlythrownawayallhischancesinlifebuthehadplacedhissafetyandthesafetyofhisfamilyinextremedangerItwasaboldperhapsareckless step But whatever we may think of it in a moral point of view ashistorianswemustlookuponitastheHegirainthelifeofthepoet

Schiller was now a man of one or two and twenty thrown upon the worldpennilesswithnothingtodependonbuthisbrainsThenexttenyearswerehardyears for him they were years of unsettledness sometimes of penury anddespairsometimesofextravaganceandfollyThisthirdperiodinSchillerslifeis notmarked by any great literary achievements Itwould be almost a blankwereitnotfortheldquoDonCarlosrdquowhichhewroteduringhisstaynearDresdenbetween1785-87HisldquoFiescordquoandldquoCabaleundLieberdquothoughtheycameoutafterhis flight fromStuttgardhadbeenconceivedbefore and theywereonlyrepeatedprotestsintheformoftragediesagainstthetyrannyofrulersandthedespotismof societyThey showno advance in thegrowthofSchillersmindYet that mind though less productive than might have been expected wasgrowingaseverymindgrowsbetweentheyearsoftwentyandthirtyanditwasgrowingchieflythroughcontactwithmenWemustmakefullallowanceforthepowerful influence exercised at that time by the literature of the day (by thewritings ofHerder Lessing andGoethe) and by political events such as theFrenchRevolutionBut ifwewatchSchillers career carefullywe see that his[pg085] characterwas chieflymoulded by his intercoursewithmenHis lifewasrichinfriendshipsandwhatmainlyupheldhiminhisstrugglesanddangerswas thesympathyofseveralhigh-bornandhigh-mindedpersons inwhomtheidealsofhisownmindseemedtohavefoundtheirfullestrealization

Next toourfaith inGod there isnothingsoessential to thehealthygrowthofour whole being as an unshaken faith in man This faith in man is the greatfeatureinSchillerscharacterandheowesittoakindProvidencewhichbroughthimincontactwithsuchnoblenaturesasFrauvonWolzogenKoumlrnerDalbergin later years with his wife with the Duke of Weimar the Prince ofAugustenburgandlastlywithGoetheTherewasatthattimeapowerfultensioninthemindsofmenandparticularlyofthehigherclasseswhichledthemtodothings which at other times men only aspire to do The impulses of a mostexaltedmoralitymdashamoralitywhich is so apt to end inmere declamation anddeceitmdashwere not only felt by them but obeyed and carried out Frau von

Wolzogen knowing nothing of Schiller except that he had been at the sameschoolwithhersonreceivedtheexiledpoet thoughfullyawarethatbydoingsoshemighthavedispleasedtheDukeandblastedherfortunesandthoseofherchildren Schiller preserved the tenderest attachment to this motherly friendthroughlifeandhisletterstoherdisplayamostcharminginnocenceandpurityofmind

AnotherfriendwasKoumlrnerayounglawyerlivingatLeipzigandafterwardsatDresdenmdasha man who had himself to earn his bread He had learned to loveSchillerfromhiswritingshereceivedhimathishouseaperfectstrangerandshared with the poor [pg 086] poet his moderate income with a generosityworthy of a prince He too remained his friend through life his son wasTheodoreKoumlrnerthepoetofldquoLyreandSwordrdquowhofellfightingasavolunteerforhiscountryagainstFrenchinvaders

AthirdfriendandpatronofSchillerwasDalbergHewasthecoadjutorandwasto have been the successor of the Elector of Hesse then an ecclesiasticalElectorateHisrankwasthatofareigningprinceandhewasmadeafterwardsbyNapoleonFuumlrst-PrimasmdashPrincePrimatemdashoftheConfederationoftheRhineBut itwasnothisstationhiswealthand influence itwashismindandheartwhichmadehimthefriendofSchillerGoetheHerderWielandJeanPaulandall themosteminent intellectsofhis timeIt isrefreshingtoreadthe lettersofthisPrinceThoughtheybelongtoalaterperiodofSchillerslifeafewpassagesmayherebequotedinorder tocharacterizehisfriendandpatronDalberghadpromisedSchiller a pensionof 4000 florins (not 4000 thalers asMRegnierasserts)assoonasheshouldsucceedtotheElectorateandSchillerinreturnhadaskedhimforsomehintswithregardtohisownfutureliteraryoccupationsThePrinceanswersldquoYour letterhasdelightedmeToberememberedbyamanofyour heart andmind is a true joy tome I do not venture to determine whatSchillers comprehensive and vivifying genius is to undertake But may I beallowedtohumblyexpressawishthatspiritsendowedwiththepowersofgiantsshouldaskthemselveslsquoHowcanIbemostusefultomankindrsquoThisinquiryIthink leads most surely to immortality and the rewards of a peacefulconscienceMayyouenjoy thepuresthappiness and think sometimesofyour[pg 087] friend and servant DalbergrdquoWhen Schiller was hesitating betweenhistoryanddramaticpoetryDalbergskeeneyediscoveredatoncethatthestagewas Schillers calling and that there his influence would be most beneficialSchillerseemedto thinkthataprofessorialchair inaGermanuniversitywasamore honorable position than that of a poet Dalberg writes ldquoInfluence on

mankindrdquo (for thisheknew tobeSchillershighest ambition) ldquodependson thevigor and strength which a man throws into his works Thucydides andXenophon would not deny that poets like Sophocles and Horace have had atleast as much influence on the world as they themselvesrdquoWhen the Frenchinvasion threatened the ruin of Germany and the downfall of the GermansovereignsDalbergwritesagain in1796withperfectserenityldquoTruecouragemustneverfailThefriendsofvirtueandtruthoughtnowtoactandspeakallthe more vigorously and straightforwardly In the end what you excellentfriendhavesobeautifullysaidinyourlsquoIdealsrsquo remains true lsquoThediligenceoftherighteousworksslowlybutsurelyandfriendship issoothingcomfort It isonlywhen I hope to behereafter of assistance tomy friends that Iwish for abetter fatersquothinsprdquo The society and friendship of such men who are rare in allcountriesandinallagesservedtokeepupinSchillersmindthoseidealnotionsofmankindwhichhehadfirstimbibedfromhisownheartandfromtheworksofphilosophersTheyfindexpressioninallhiswritingsbutaremosteloquentlydescribed inhis ldquoDonCarlosrdquoWe should like to give some extracts from thedialoguebetweenKingPhilipandtheMarquisPosabutourspaceispreciousandhardly allowsus todomore than just to glance at thoseother friends [pg088]andcompanionswhosenobilityofmindandgenerosityofheartleftsodeepanimpressonthepoetssoul

ThenameofKarlAugusttheDukeofWeimarhasacquiredsuchaworld-widecelebrityasthefriendofGoetheandSchillerthatweneednotdwelllongonhisrelation to our poet As early as 1784 Schiller was introduced to him atDarmstadt where he was invited to court to read some scenes of his ldquoDonCarlosrdquoTheDukegavehim then the titleofldquoRathrdquo and from theyear1787when Schiller first settled at Weimar to the time of his death in 1804 heremainedhisfirmfriendThefriendshipofthePrincewasreturnedbythepoetwhointhedaysofhisglorydeclinedseveraladvantageousoffersfromViennaandotherplacesandremainedat thecourtofWeimarsatisfiedwiththesmallsalarywhichthatgreatDukewasabletogivehim

TherewasbutoneotherPrincewhosebountySchilleracceptedandhisnamedeserves to be mentioned not so much for his act of generosity as for thesentimentwhichprompteditIn1792whenSchillerwasillandunabletowritehe received a letter from theHereditary Prince ofHolstein-Augustenburg andfromCountSchimmelmannWequotefromthelettermdash

ldquoYourshatteredhealthwehearrequiresrestbutyourcircumstancesdonotallow

itWillyougrudgeusthepleasureofenablingyoutoenjoythatrestWeofferyouforthreeyearsanannualpresentof1000thalersAcceptthisoffernoblemanLetnotourtitlesinduceyoutodeclineitWeknowwhattheyareworthweknownopridebut thatofbeingmencitizensof thatgreat republicwhichcomprisesmorethanthelifeofsinglegenerationsmorethanthelimitsof thisglobeYouhavetodealwithmenmdashyourbrothersmdashnotwithproudprinceswhobythisemploymentoftheirwealthwouldfainindulgebutinamorerefinedkindofpriderdquo

[pg089]NoconditionswereattachedtothispresentthoughasituationinDenmarkwasoffered if Schiller shouldwish to go there Schiller accepted the gift so noblyoffered but he never saw his unknown friends12 We owe to them humanlyspeakingthelastyearsofSchillerslifeandwiththemthemaster-worksofhisgenius fromldquoWallensteinrdquo toldquoWilliamTellrdquoAs longas theseworksare readand admired the names of these noble benefactors will be remembered andrevered

ThenameofherwhomwementionednextamongSchillersnoble friendsandcompanionsmdashwemeanhiswifemdashremindsusthatwehaveanticipatedeventsandthatweleftSchillerafterhisflightin1782attheverybeginningofhismosttryingyearsHishopesofsuccessatMannheimhadfailedThedirectorof theMannheimtheatrealsoaDalbergdeclinedtoassisthimHespentthewinteringreatsolitudeatthecountry-houseofFrauvonWolzogenfinishingldquoCabaleundLieberdquoandwritingldquoFiescordquoInthesummerof1783hereturnedtoMannheimwherehereceivedanappointmentinconnectionwiththetheatreofaboutpound40ayear Here he stayed till 1785 when he went to Leipzig and afterwards toDresdenlivingchieflyat theexpenseofhisfriendKoumlrnerThisunsettledkindoflifecontinuedtill1787andproducedaswesawlittlemorethanhistragedyof ldquoDon Carlosrdquo In the mean time however his taste for history had beendevelopedHe had been readingmore systematically atDresden and after hehadgonetoWeimarin1787hewasabletopublishin1788hisldquoHistoryoftheRevoltof the[pg090]NetherlandsrdquoOn the strengthof thishewas appointedprofessoratJenain1789firstwithoutasalaryafterwardswithaboutpound30ayearHe tells us himself how hard he had to work ldquoEvery dayrdquo he says ldquoImustcomposeawholelectureandwriteitoutmdashnearlytwosheetsofprintedmatternottomentionthetimeoccupiedindeliveringthelectureandmakingextractsrdquoHoweverhehadnowgainedapositionandhisliteraryworksbegantobebetterpaidIn1790hewasenabledtomarryaladyofrankwhowasproudtobecomethewifeofthepoorpoetandwasworthytobetheldquowifeofSchillerrdquoSchillerwasnowchieflyengagedinhistoricalresearchesHewrotehisldquoHistoryof the

ThirtyYearsWarrdquo in 1791-92 and itwas his ambition to be recognized as aGermanprofessorratherthanasaGermanpoetHehadtoworkhardinordertomakeupforlosttimeandundertheweightofexcessivelaborhishealthbrokedownHewasunable to lectureunable towrite Itwas then that thegenerouspresent of the Duke of Augustenburg freed him for a time from the mostpressingcaresandenabledhimtorecoverhishealth

Theyearsof thirty to thirty-fivewereaperiodof transitionandpreparation inSchillers life tobefollowedbyanother tenyearsofworkand triumphTheseintermediateyearswerechieflyspentinreadinghistoryandstudyingphilosophymore especially the then reigning philosophy of Kant Numerous essays onphilosophychieflyontheGoodtheBeautifulandtheSublimewerepublishedduring this intervalButwhat ismore importantSchillersmindwasenlargedenrichedand invigoratedhispoeticalgeniusby lyingfallowfora timegavepromiseof[pg091]aricherharvesttocomehispositionintheworldbecamemore honorable and his confidence in himself was strengthened by theconfidenceplacedinhimbyallaroundhimAcuriouscomplimentwaspaidhimbytheLegislativeAssemblythensittingatParisOnthe26thofAugust1792adecreewaspassedconferringthetitleofCitoyenFranccedilaisoneighteenpersonsbelonging tovariouscountries friendsof libertyanduniversalbrotherhood Inthe same listwithSchillerwere thenamesofKlopstockCampeWashingtonKosciuskoandWilberforceThedecreewassignedbyRolandMinisteroftheInterior and countersigned by Danton It did not reach Schiller till after theenthusiasm which he too had shared for the early heroes of the FrenchRevolution had given way to disappointment and horror In the month ofDecemberoftheveryyearinwhichhehadbeenthushonoredbytheLegislativeAssemblySchillerwasonthepointofwritinganappealtotheFrenchnationindefenseofLouisXVITheKingsheadhoweverhadfallenbeforethisdefensewas begun Schiller a true friend of true liberty never ceased to express hisaversiontotheviolentproceedingsoftheFrenchrevolutionistsldquoItistheworkof passionrdquo he said ldquoand not of that wisdom which alone can lead to reallibertyrdquoHeadmittedthatmanyimportantideaswhichformerlyexistedinbooksonlyor in the heads of a fewenlightenedpeople hadbecomemore generallycurrentthroughtheFrenchRevolutionButhemaintainedthattherealprincipleswhichought to form thebasisof a trulyhappypolitical constitutionwere stillhiddenfromviewPointingtoavolumeofKantsldquoCriticismofPureReasonrdquohesaidldquoTheretheyareand[pg092]nowhereelsetheFrenchrepublicwillfallasrapidly as it has risen the republican governmentwill lapse into anarchy andsoonerorlateramanofgeniuswillappear(hemaycomefromanyplace)who

willmakehimselfnotonlymasterofFrancebutperhapsalsoofagreatpartofEuroperdquoThiswasaremarkableprophecyforayoungprofessorofhistory

ThelastdecisiveeventinSchillerslifewashisfriendshipwithGoetheItdatesfrom1794andwiththisyearbeginsthegreatandcrowningperiodofSchillerslifeTothisperiodbelonghisldquoWallensteinrdquohisldquoSongoftheBellrdquohisBallads(1797-98)hisldquoMaryStuartrdquo (1800) theldquoMaidofOrleansrdquo(1801) theldquoBrideofMessinardquo(1803)andldquoWilliamTellrdquoinfactalltheworkswhichhavemadeSchiller a national poet and gained for him a worldwide reputation and animmortalname

GoethescharacterwasinmanyrespectsdiametricallyopposedtoSchillersandformanyyears itseemedimpossible that thereshouldeverbeacommunityofthought and feeling between the two Attempts to bring together these greatrivals were repeatedly made by their mutual friends Schiller had long felthimselfdrawnbythepowerfulgeniusofGoetheandGoethehadlongfeltthatSchiller was the only poet who could claim to be his peer After an earlyinterviewwithGoetheSchillerwritesldquoOnthewholethismeetinghasnotatalldiminishedtheideagreatas itwaswhichIhadpreviouslyformedofGoethebut I doubt if we shall ever come into close communication with each otherMuchthatinterestsmehasalreadyhaditsepochwithhimhisworldisnotmyworldrdquoGoethehadexpressedthesamefeelingHesawSchilleroccupyingthevery[pg093]positionwhichhehimselfhadgivenupasuntenablehesawhispowerful genius carrying out triumphantly ldquothose very paradoxes moral anddramaticfromwhichhewasstrugglingtogetliberatedrdquoldquoNounionrdquoasGoethewritesldquowas to be dreamt ofBetween two spiritual antipodes therewasmoreinterveningthanasimplediameterofthespheresAntipodesofthatsortactasakindofpoleswhichcannevercoalescerdquoHowthefirstapproachbetweenthesetwooppositepolestookplaceGoethehashimselfdescribedinapaperentitledldquoHappy Incidentsrdquo But no happy incident could have led to that gloriousfriendshipwhichstandsaloneintheliteraryhistoryofthewholeworldiftherehadnotbeenonthepartofSchillerhiswarmsympathyforallthatisgreatandnobleandonthepartofGoetheadeepinterestineverymanifestationofnaturalgeniusTheirdifferencesonalmosteverypointofartphilosophyandreligionwhich at first seemed to separate them forever only drew themmore closelytogetherwhen theydiscovered ineachother thosecompletingelementswhichproducedtrueharmonyofsoulsNorisitrighttosaythatSchillerowesmoretoGoethethanGoethetoSchillerIfSchillerreceivedfromGoethethehigherrulesofartandadeeperinsightintohumannatureGoethedrankfromthesoulofhis

friendtheyouthandvigorthepurityandsimplicitywhichweneverfindinanyof Goethes works before his ldquoHermann and Dorotheardquo And as in mostfriendshipsitwasnotsomuchGoetheashewasbutGoetheasreflectedinhisfriends soul who henceforth became Schillers guide and guardian SchillerpossessedtheartofadmiringanartsomuchmorerarethantheartofcriticisingHiseyewassoabsorbedinallthatwas[pg094]greatandnobleandpureandhigh inGoethesmind that he could not orwould not see the defects in hischaracterAndGoethewastoSchillerwhathewastonooneelseHewaswhatSchillerbelievedhimtobeafraidtofallbelowhisfriendsidealherosebeyondhimself until that high ideal was reached which only a Schiller could haveformedWithoutthisregeneratingfriendshipitisdoubtfulwhethersomeofthemostperfectcreationsofGoetheandSchillerwouldeverhavebeencalledintoexistence

We saw Schiller gradually sinking into aGerman professor the sphere of hissympathies narrowed the aim of his ambition lowered His energies wereabsorbedincollectingmaterialsandelaboratinghisldquoHistoryoftheThirtyYearsWarrdquo which was published in 1792 The conception of his great dramaticTrilogytheldquoWallensteinrdquowhichdatesfrom1791wasallowedtolanguishuntilitwastakenupagainforGoetheandfinishedforGoethein1799Goetheknewhow to admire and encourage but he also knew how to criticise and adviseSchillerbynaturemeditative rather thanobservanthadbeenmostpowerfullyattractedbyKantsidealphilosophyNexttohishistoricalresearchesmostofhistime at Jena was given to metaphysical studies Not only his mind but hislanguage suffered from the attenuating influences of that rarefied atmospherewhich pervades the higher regions of metaphysical thought His mind wasattractedbythegeneralandtheidealandlostall interestintheindividualandtherealThiswasnotarightframeofmindeitherforanhistorianoradramaticpoetInGoethetoothephilosophicalelementwasstrongbutitwaskeptunderby the practical tendencies of hismind Schiller looked for [pg095] his idealbeyond the real world and like the pictures of a Raphael his conceptionsseemed to surpass in purity and harmony all that human eye had ever seenGoethehaddiscoveredthat the truest ideal lieshiddeninreal lifeandlike themaster-works of a Michael Angelo his poetry reflected that highest beautywhichisrevealedintheendlessvarietyofcreationandmusttherebediscoveredby the artist and the poet In Schillers early works every character was thepersonificationofan idea InhisldquoWallensteinrdquowemeet for thefirst timewithreal men and real life In his ldquoDonCarlosrdquo Schiller under various disguisesmoreorlesstransparentactseveryparthimselfInldquoWallensteinrdquotheheroesof

theldquoThirtyYearsWarrdquomaintain theirownindividualityandarenot forced todiscuss thesocialproblemsofRousseauor themetaphysical theoriesofKantSchillerwashimselfawareofthischangethoughhewashardlyconsciousofitsfull bearing While engaged in composing his ldquoWallensteinrdquo he writes to afriendmdash

ldquoIdomybusinessverydifferentlyfromwhatIusedtodoThesubjectseemstobesomuchoutsidemethatIcanhardlygetupanyfeelingfor itThesubjectI treatleavesmecoldandindifferentandyetIamfullofenthusiasmformyworkWiththe exception of two characters to which I feel attached Max Piccolomini andTheklaItreatalltherestandparticularlytheprincipalcharacteroftheplayonlywiththepureloveoftheartistButIcanpromiseyouthattheywillnotsufferfromthis I look to history for limitation in order to give through surroundingcircumstancesastricterformandrealitytomyidealsIfeelsurethatthehistoricalwillnotdrawmedownorcripplemeIonlydesirethroughittoimpartlifetomycharacters and their actions The life and soul must come from another sourcethrough that power which I have already perhaps shown elsewhere and withoutwhich even the first conception of this work would of course have beenimpossiblerdquo

HowdifferentisthisfromwhatSchillerfeltin[pg096]formeryearsInwritingldquoDonCarlosrdquohelaiddownasaprinciplethatthepoetmustnotbethepainterbut the lover of his heroes and in his early days he found it intolerable inShakespearesdreamsthathecouldnowherelayhishandonthepoethimselfHewas then as he himself expresses it unable to understand nature except atsecond-hand

GoethewasSchillersfriendbuthewasalsoSchillersrivalThereisaperilousperiod in the livesofgreatmennamely the timewhen theybegin to feel thattheirpositionismadethattheyhavenomorerivalstofearGoethewasfeelingthis at the timewhen hemet SchillerHewas satiatedwith applause and hisbearing towards the public at large became careless and offensive In order tofindmenwithwhomhemightmeasurehimselfhebegantowriteonthehistoryofArtandtodevotehimselftonaturalphilosophySchillertoohadgainedhislaurelschieflyasadramaticpoetandthoughhestillvaluedtheapplauseofthepublicyethis ambitionasapoetwas satisfiedhewasprouderofhis ldquoThirtyYearsWarrdquo than of his ldquoRobbersrdquo and ldquoDon Carlosrdquo When Goethe becameintimatewithSchiller and discovered in him those powerswhich as yetwerehidden toothershefelt that therewasamanwithwhomevenhemight runaraceGoethewasnever jealousofSchillerHe felt consciousofhisowngreatpowers and he was glad to have those powers again called out by one who

would bemore difficult to conquer than all his former rivals Schiller on theotherhandperceivedinGoethethetruedignityofapoetAtJenahisambitionwas to have the title of Professor ofHistory atWeimar he saw that itwas agreaterhonor tobecalledapoetand the friendofGoethe [pg097]Whenhesaw thatGoethe treated him as his friend and that theDuke and his brilliantcourt looked upon him as his equal Schiller too modest to suppose he hadearnedsuchfavorswasfilledwithanewzealandhispoeticalgeniusdisplayedfora timeanalmost inexhaustibleenergyScarcelyhadhisldquoWallensteinrdquobeenfinished in1799whenhebeganhisldquoMaryStuartrdquoThisplaywasfinished inthesummerof1800andanewonewas taken inhand in thesameyearmdashtheldquoMaidofOrleansrdquoInthespringof1801theldquoMaidofOrleansrdquoappearedonthestagetobefollowedin1803bytheldquoBrideofMessinardquoandin1804byhislastgreatworkhisldquoWilliamTellrdquoDuringthesametimeSchillercomposedhisbestballads his ldquoSong of the Bellrdquo his epigrams and his beautiful Elegy not tomention his translations and adaptations of English and French plays for thetheatreatWeimarAfterhisldquoWilliamTellrdquoSchillercouldfeelthathenolongerowed his place by the side ofGoethe to favor and friendship but to his ownworkandworthHisracewasrunhislaurelsgainedHishealthhoweverwasbrokenandhisbodilyframetooweaktosupportthestrainofhismightyspiritDeathcametohisreliefgivingresttohismindandimmortalitytohisname

LetuslookbackoncemoreonthelifeofSchillerThelivesofgreatmenarethelives of martyrs we cannot regard them as examples to follow but rather astypesofhumanexcellencetostudyandtoadmireThelifeofSchillerwasnotone which many of us would envy it was a life of toil and suffering ofaspirationratherthanoffulfillmentalongbattlewithscarcelyamomentofrestfortheconquerortoenjoyhishard-wontriumphsToanambitiousmanthe[pg098] last tenyearsof thepoets lifemightseemanamplerewardfor the thirtyyearswaroflifewhichhehadtofightsingle-handedButSchillerwastoogreatamantobeambitiousFamewithhimwasameansneveranobjectTherewasahigheranobleraiminhislifewhichupheldhiminallhisstrugglesFromtheverybeginningofhiscareerSchillerseemstohavefeltthathislifewasnothisHe never lived for himself he lived andworked formankindHe discoveredwithinhimselfhowmuchtherewasofthegoodthenobleandthebeautifulinhuman nature he had never been deceived in his friends And such was hissympathywiththeworldatlargethathecouldnotbeartoseeinanyrankoflifethe imageofman created in the likenessofGod distortedby cunning prideandselfishnessHiswholepoetrymaybesaidtobewrittenonthesimpletextldquoBetruebegoodbenoblerdquo Itmayseemashort textbut truth isveryshort

and thework of the greatest teachers ofmankind has always consisted in theunflinchinginculcationoftheseshorttruthsThereisinSchillersworksakernelfullofimmortalgrowthwhichwillendurelongafterthebrilliantcolorsofhispoetryhavefadedawayThatkernelisthemanandwithoutitSchillerspoetrylike all other poetry is but the song of sirens Schillers character has beensubjected to that painful scrutiny towhich inmodern times the characters ofgreatmen are subjected everything he ever did or said or thought has beenpublishedandyetitwouldbedifficultinthewholecourseofhislifetopointoutoneactonewordonethoughtthatcouldbecalledmeanuntrueorselfishFromthebeginningtotheendSchillerremainedtruetohimselfheneveractedapartheneverbargainedwith theworldWe [pg099]maydiffer fromhimonmany points of politics ethics and religion but though we differ we mustalwaysrespectandadmireHislifeisthebestcommentaryonhispoetrythereisneveradiscrepancybetweenthetwoAsmerecriticswemaybeabletoadmireapoetwithoutadmiringthemanbutpoetryitshouldberememberedwasnotmeantforcriticsonlyanditshighestpurposeisneverfulfilledexceptwhereaswithSchillerwecanlistentothepoetandlookuptotheman

[pg100]

VWILHELMMUumlLLER131794-1827

Seldomhasapoetinashortlifeofthirtyyearsengravenhisnamesodeeplyonthe memorial tablets of the history of German poetry as Wilhelm MuumlllerAlthoughtheyouthfuleffortsofapoetmaybeappreciatedbythosefewwhoareabletoadmirewhatisgoodandbeautifuleventhoughithasneverbeforebeenadmired by others yet in order permanently to win the ear and heart of hispeople a poetmust livewith the people and take part in themovements andstrugglesofhisageThusonlycanhehopetostirandmouldthethoughtsofhiscontemporariesandtoremainapermanentlivingpowerintherecollectionsofhis countrymen Wilhelm Muumlller died at the very moment when the richblossomsofhispoeticgeniuswereformingfruitandafterhehadwarmedandquickened theheartsof theyouthofGermanywith the lyric songsofhisownyouthonlyashortspanof timewasgrantedhimtoshowtheworldashedidmoreespeciallyinhisldquoGreekSongsrdquoandldquoEpigramsrdquo[pg101]thehighergoaltowardwhichheaspired In thesehis lastworksone readilyperceives thathispoetry would not have reflected the happy dreams of youth only but that hecouldperceivethepoetryoflifeinitssorrowsasclearlyasinitsjoysanddepictitintrueandvividcolors

Onemay I thinkdivide the friendsandadmirersofWilhelmMuumlller into twoclasses thosewhorejoiceanddelight inhisfreshand joyoussongsand thosewho admire the nobleness and force of his character as shown in the poemscelebrating thewar ofGreek independence and in his epigramsAll poetry isnotforeveryonenorforeveryoneatalltimesTherearecriticsandhistoriansof literature who cannot tolerate songs of youth of love and of wine theyalways ask ldquowhyrdquo and ldquowhereforerdquo and they demand in all poetry beforeanythingelsehighordeep thoughtsNodoubt therecanbenopoetrywithoutthoughtbuttherearethoughtswhicharepoeticalwithoutbeingdrawnfromthedeepestdepthsoftheheartandbrainnaywhicharepoeticaljustbecausetheyare as simple and true and natural as the flowers of the field or the stars of

heavenThereisapoetryfortheoldbutthereisalsoapoetryfortheyoungTheyoung demand in poetry an interpretation of their own youthful feelings andfirst learn truly to understand themselves through those poets who speak forthem as they would speak for themselves had nature endowed them withmelodyofthoughtandharmonyofdictionYouthisandwillremainthemajorityof theworld andwill let no gloomy brow rob it of its poetic enthusiasm foryoungloveandoldwineTrueyouthisnotover-criticaltrueitdoesnotknowhow to speakorwrite in learnedphrasesof themeritsof its favorite [pg102]poetsButforallthatwhereisthepoetwhowouldnotratherliveinthewarmrecollection of the never-dying youth of his nation than in voluminousencyclopaeligdiasoreveninthemarbleWalhallasofGermanyThestoryandthesongs of a millers man who loves his masters daughter and of a millersdaughterwholovesahuntsmanbettermayseemverytrivialcommonplaceandunpoeticaltomanyamanoffortyorfiftyButtherearemenoffortyandfiftywhohaveneverlostsightofthebrightbutnowfar-offdaysoftheirownyouthwhocanstillrejoicewiththosethatrejoiceandweepwiththosethatweepandlove with those that lovemdashaye who can still fill their glasses with old andyoungandinwhoseeyesevery-daylifehasnotdestroyedthepoeticbloomthatrests everywhereon life so long as it is livedwithwarmandnatural feelingsSongswhich like theldquoBeautifulMillersDaughterrdquo and theldquoWinter JourneyrdquocouldsopenetrateandagainspringforthfromthesoulofFranzSchubertmaywellstirtheverydepthsofourownheartswithouttheneedoffearingthewiselooksofthosewhopossesstheartofsayingnothinginmanywordsWhyshouldpoetrybelessfreethanpaintingtoseekforwhatisbeautifulwhereverahumaneyecandiscoverwhereverhumanartcanimitateitNooneblamesthepainterifinsteadofgiddypeaksortoweringwaveshedelineatesonhiscanvasaquietnarrowvalleyfilledwithagreenmistandenlivenedonlybyagraymillandadark brown mill-wheel from which the spray rises like silver dust and thenfloatsawayandvanishesintheraysofthesunIswhatisnottoocommonforthepainter toocommonfor thepoet Isan idyl in the truestwarmest softestcolorsofthesoullikethe[pg103]ldquoBeautifulMillersDaughterrdquolessaworkofartthanalandscapebyRuysdaelAndobserveinthesesongshowtheexecutionsuits the subject their tone is thoroughly popular and reminds many of usperhaps too much of the popular songs collected by Arnim and Brentano inldquoDesKnabenWunderhornrdquoButthiscouldnotbehelpedTheocrituscouldnotwritehis idyls ingrandAtticGreekheneeded thehomelinessof theBœotiandialect It was the same with Wilhelm Muumlller who must not be blamed forexpressionswhich nowperhapsmore than formerlymay sound to fastidiousearstoohomelyorcommonplace

His simple and natural conception of nature is shownmost beautifully in theldquoWanderers Songsrdquo and in the ldquoSpring Wreath from the Plauen ValleyrdquoNowhere do we find a labored thought or a labored word The lovely springworldisdepictedexactlyasitisbutoverallisthrownthelifeandinspirationofa poets eye and a poets mind which perceives and gives utterance to whatothers fail to see and silent nature cannot utter It is this recognition of thebeautifulinwhatisinsignificantofgreatnessinwhatissmallofthemarvelousinordinarylifemdashyesthisperceptionofthedivineineveryearthlyenjoymentmdashwhichgivesitsowncharmtoeachofWilhelmMuumlllerssmallestpoemsandendearsthemsotrulytothosewhoamidstthehurryoflifehavenotforgottenthedelightofabsorptioninnaturewhohaveneverlosttheirfaithinthemysteryofthedivinepresenceinall thatisbeautifulgoodandtrueonearthWeneedonlyreadtheldquoFruumlhlingsmahlrdquoorldquoPfingstenrdquotoseehowawholeworldayeawholeheavenmaybemirroredinthetiniestdropofdew

And as enjoyment of nature finds so clear an echo [pg 104] in the poetry ofWilhelm Muumlller so also does the delight which man should have in manDrinkingsongsandtablesongsdonotbelongtothehighestflightsofpoetrybutifthedelightsoffriendlymeetingsandgreetingsbelongtosomeofthebrightestmomentsofhumanhappinesswhy shouldapoethold them tobebeneathhismuseThereissomethingespeciallyGermaninalldrinkingsongsandnoothernationhashelditswineinsuchhonorCanoneimagineEnglishpoemsonportandsherryorhasaFrenchmanmuchtotellusofhisBordeauxorevenofhisBurgundy The reason that the poetry of wine is unknown in England andFranceisthatinthesecountriespeopleknownothingofwhatlendsitspoetrytowine namely the joyous consciousness ofmutual pleasure the outpouring ofheartsthefeelingofcommonbrotherhoodwhichmakeslearnedprofessorsanddivines generals and ministers men once more at the sound of the ringingglassesThispurelyhumandelightintheenjoymentoflifeintheflavoroftheGermanwineand in theyethigher flavorof theGermanSymposium finds ithappiest expression in thedrinking songsofWilhelmMuumlllerTheyhaveoftenbeensettomusicbythebestmastersandhavelongbeensungbythehappyandjoyousThenameofthepoetisoftenforgottenwhilstmanyofhissongshavebecomepopularsongs justbecause theyweresungfromtheheartandsouloftheGermanpeopleasthepeoplewerefiftyyearsagoandasthebestofthemstillareinspiteofmanychangesintheFatherland

ItiseasytoseethataserioustoneisnotwantingeveninthedrinkingsongsThewinewasgoodbut the timeswerebadThosewho likeWilhelmMuumlllerhad

sharedinthegreatsufferingsandthegreat[pg105]hopesoftheGermanpeopleandwhothensawthatafterallthesacrificesthathadbeenmadeallwasinvainallwas again as bad or evenworse than before couldwith difficulty concealtheirdisaffectionhoweverhelplesstheyfeltthemselvesagainstthebrutalitiesofthose in power Many who like Wilhelm Muumlller had labored to reanimateGerman popular feeling who like him had left the university to sacrifice ascommonsoldierstheirlifeandlifeshappinesstothefreedomoftheFatherlandandwho then saw how the terror felt by the scarcely rescued princes of theirdeliverersandthefearofforeignnationsofaunitedandstrongGermanyjoinedhandinhandtodestroythepreciousseedsowninbloodandtearsmdashcouldnotalwayssuppress theirgloomyangeratsuchfaint-heartedweak-mindedpolicyOn the firstof January1820WilhelmMuumlllerwrote thus in thededicationofthesecondpartofhisldquoLettersfromRomerdquotohisfriendAtterbomtheSwedishpoetwithwhomhehadbutashorttimebeforepassedtheCarnivaltimeinItalyjoyouslyandcarelesslyldquoAndthusIgreetyouinyouroldsacredFatherlandnotjokingly and merrily like the book whose writer seems to have become astranger to me but earnestly and briefly for the great fast of the Europeanworld expecting the passion and waiting for deliverance can endure noindifferentshrugoftheshouldersandnohollowcompromisesandexcusesHewhocannotactatthistimecanyetrestandmournrdquoForsuchwordsveiledastheywere resignedas theywere the fortressofMayencewasat that time theusualanswer

ldquoDeutschundfreiundstarkundlauterIndemdeutschenLand

IstderWeinalleingebliebenAnderRheinesStrand

[pg106]IstdernichteinDemagoge

WersolleinerseinMainzdustolzeBundesfeste

Sperrihnnurnichteinrdquo14

ThatWilhelmMuumlller escaped the petty and annoyingpersecutions of the thenpolicesystemheowedpartlytotheretiredlifeheledinhislittlenativecountrypartly to his own good spiritswhich prevented him from entirely sinking themaninthepoliticianHehadsomeenemiesinthelittlecourtwhoseDukeandDuchesswerepersonallysoattachedtohimAprosperouslifesuchashiscouldnotfailtoattractenvyandhisfrankguilelesscharactergaveplentyofoccasion

forsuspicionButtheonlyanswerwhichhevouchsafedtohisdetractorswasmdash

ldquoUndlasstmirdochmeinvollesGlassUndlasstmirmeinengutenSpassMitunsrerschlechtenZeitWerbeidemWeinesingtundlachtDenthutihrHerrnnichtindieAchtEinKindistFroumlhligkeitrdquo15

WilhelmMuumlllerevidentlyfeltthatwhenwordsarenotdeedsordonotleadtodeedssilenceismoreworthyofamanthanspeechHeneverbecameapoliticalpoet at least never in his own country But when the rising of the GreeksappealedtothosehumansympathiesofChristiannationswhichcanneverbe[pg107]quiteextinguishedandwhenheretoothefaint-heartedpolicyofthegreatpowersplayedandbargainedoverthegreateventsintheeastofEuropeinsteadoftrustingtothoseprincipleswhichalonecansecurethetrueandlastingwell-beingofstatesaswellasofindividualsthenthelongaccumulatedwrathofthepoetandof themanburst forthandfoundutterance in thesongson theGreekwar of independence Human Christian political and classical sympathiesstirredhisheartandbreathedthatlifeintohispoemswhichmostofthemstillpossessItisastonishinghowayoungmaninasmallisolatedtownlikeDessaualmostshutoutfromintercoursewiththegreatworldcouldhavefollowedstepbysteptheeventsoftheGreekrevolutionseizingonalltherightthebeautythegrandeur of the struggle making himself intimately acquainted with thedominant characters whilst he at the same time mastered the peculiar localcoloringofthepassingeventsWilhelmMuumlllerwasnotonlyapoetbuthewasintimately acquainted with classic antiquity He knew the Greeks and theRomansAndjustasduringhisstayinRomeherecognizedatallpointstheoldinwhatwasnewandeverywheresoughttofindwhatwaseternalintheeternalcity so now with him the modern Greeks were inseparably joined with theancientAknowledgeofthemodernGreeklanguageappearedtohimthenaturalcompletion of the study of old Greek and it was his acquaintance with thepopularsongsofmodernaswellasofancientHellasthatgavethecolorwhichimparted such a vivid expression of truth and naturalness to his own GreeksongsItwasthusthattheldquoGriechenLiederrdquoarosewhichappearedinseparatebut rapid numbers and found great favorwith the people But [pg 108] eventhese ldquoGriechen Liederrdquo caused anxiety to the paternal governments of thosedaysmdash

ldquoRuhundFriedewillEuropamdashwarumhastdusiegestoumlrtWarummitdemWahnderFreiheiteigenmaumlchtigdichbethoumlrtHoffaufkeinesHerrenHuumllfegegeneinesHerrenFrohnAuchdesTuumlrkenkaisersPolsternenntEuropaeinenThronrdquo16

His last poemswere suppressed by the Censor as well as his ldquoHymn on theDeath of Raphael Riegordquo Some of these were first published long after hisdeathothersmusthavebeenlostwhilstintheCensorshands

TwooftheGreeksongsldquoMarkBozzarisrdquoandldquoSongbeforeBattlerdquomayhelptheEnglishreadertoformhisownopinionbothofthepoeticalgeniusandofthecharacterofWilhelmMuumlllermdash

MARKBOZZARI17

OeffnedeinehohenThoreMissolunghiStadtderEhrenWoderHeldenLeichenruhendieunsfroumlhlichsterbenlehrenOeffnedeinehohenThoreoumlffnedeinetiefenGruumlfteAufundstreueLorberreiseraufdenPfadundindieLuumlfteMarkBozzarisedlenLeibbringenwirzudirgetragenMarkBozzarisWerdarfswagensolchenHeldenzubeklagenWillstzuerstduseineWundenoderseineSiegezaumlhlenKeinemSiegwirdeineWundekeinerWundeinSieghierfehlenSiehaufunsernLanzenspitzensichdieTurbanhaumlupterdrehenSiehwieuumlberseinerBahredieOsmanenfahnenwehenSiehosiehdieletztenWerkedievollbrachtdesHeldenRechteIndemFeldvonKarpinissiwoseinStahlimBlutezechteInderschwarzenGeisterstunderieferunsreScharzusammenFunkenspruumlhtenunsreAugendurchdieRachtwieWetterflammenUebersKniezerbrachenwirjauchzendunsrerSchwerterScheidenUmmitSenseneinzumaumlhenindiefeistenTuumlrkenweidenUndwirdruumlcktenunsdieHaumlndeundwirstrichenunsdieBaumlrte[pg109]UndderstampftemitdemFuszeundderriebanseinemSchwerteDaerschollBozzarisStimmeldquoAufinsLagerderBarbarenAufmirnachVerirrteuchnichtBruumlderinderFeindeScharenSuchtihrmichimZeltdesPaschaswerdetihrmichsicherfindenAufmitGottErhilftdieFeindehilftdenTodauchuumlberwindenAufrdquoUnddieTrompeteriszerhastigausdesBlaumlsersHaumlnden

UndstieszselbsthineinsohelldaszesvondenFelsenwaumlndenHellerstetsundhellermusztesichverdoppelndwiderhallenAberhellerwiderhalltesdochinunsernHerzenallenWiedesHerrenBlitzundDonnerausderWolkenburgderNaumlchteAlsotrafdasSchwertderFreiendieTyrannenunddieKnechteWiedieTubadesGerichteswirddereinstdieSuumlnderweckenAlsoscholldurchsTuumlrkenlagerbrausenddieserRufderSchreckenldquoMarkBozzariMarkBozzariSuliotenSuliotenrdquoSolcheinguterMorgengruszwarddenSchlaumlferndaentbotenUndsieruumltteltensichaufundgleichhirtenlosenSchafenRanntensiedurchalleGassenbissieaneinandertrafenUndbethoumlrtvonTodesengelndiedurchihreSchwaumlrmegingenBruumldersichinblinderWuthstuumlrzteninderBruumlderKlingenFragdieNachtnachunsernThatensiehatunsimKampfgesehenmdashAberwirdderTagesglaubenwasindieserNachtgeschehenHundertGriechentausendTuumlrkenalsowardieSaatzuschauenAufdemFeldvonKarpinissialsdasLichtbegannzugrauenMarkBozzariMarkBozzariunddichhabenwirgefundenmdashKenntlichnurandeinemSchwertekenntlichnurandeinenWundenAndenWundendieduschlugestundandenendiedichtrafenmdashWieduesverheiszenhattestindemZeltdesPaschasschlafen

OeffnedeinehohenThoreMissolunghiStadtderEhrenWoderHeldenLeichenruhendieunsfroumlhlichsterbenlehrenOeffnedeinetiefenGruumlftedaszwirindenheilgenStaumlttenNebenHeldenunsernHeldenzudemlangenSchlafebettenmdashSchlafebeidemdeutschenGrafenGrafenNormannFelsderEhrenBisdieStimmendesGerichtesalleGraumlberwerdenleeren

MARKBOZZARIS

OpenwideproudMissolonghiopenwidethyportalshighWherereposethebonesofheroesteachuscheerfullytodieOpenwidethyloftyportalsopenwidethyvaultsprofoundUpandscatterlaurelgarlandstothebreezeandonthegroundMarkBozzarisnoblebodyisthefreighttotheewebearmdashMarkBozzarisWhoforherogreatashetoweepwilldareTellhiswoundshisvictoriesoverWhichinnumbergreatestbeEveryvictoryhasitswoundandeverywounditsvictory

SeeaturbanedheadisgrimlysetonallourlanceshereSeehowtheOsmanlisbannerswathesinpurplefoldshisbier[pg110]SeeOseethelatesttrophieswhichourherosglorysealedWhenhisglaivewithgorewasdrunkenongreatKarpinissisfieldInthemurkiesthourofmidnightdidweathiscallariseThroughthegloomlikelightning-flashesflashedthefuryfromoureyesWithashoutacrossourkneeswesnappedthescabbardsofourswordsBetterdowntomowtheharvestofthemellowTurkishhordesAndweclaspedourhandstogetherandeachwarriorstrokedhisbeardAndonestampedtheswardanotherrubbedhisbladeandvoweditswierdThenBozzarisvoiceresoundedldquoOntothebarbarianslairOnandfollowmemybrothersseeyoukeeptogetherthereShouldyoumissmeyouwillfindmesurelyinthePashastentOnwithGodThroughHimourfoemendeathitselfthroughHimisshentOnrdquoAndswifthesnatchedthebuglefromthehandsofhimthatblewAndhimselfawokeasummonsthatoerdaleandmountainflewTilleachrockandcliffmadeanswerclearandclearertothecallButaclearerechosoundedinthebosomofusallAsfrommidnightsbattlementedkeepthelightningsoftheLordSweepsosweptourswordsandsmotethetyrantsandtheirslavishhordeAsthetrumpofdoomshallwakensinnersintheirgravesthatlieSothroughalltheTurkishleaguerthunderedhisappallingcryldquoMarkBozzarisMarkBozzarisSuliotessmitethemintheirlairrdquoSuchthegoodlymorninggreetingthatwegavethesleepersthereAndtheystaggeredfromtheirslumberandtheyranfromstreettostreetRanlikesheepwithoutashepherdstrikingwildatalltheymeetRanandfrenziedbyDeathsangelswhoamidsttheirmyriadsstrayedBrotherinbewilderedfurydashedandfellonbrothersbladeAskthenightofourachievementsItbeheldusinthefightButthedaywillnevercreditwhatwedidinyondernightGreeksbyhundredsTurksbythousandstherelikescatteredseedtheylayOnthefieldofKarpinissiwhenthemorningbrokeingrayMarkBozarrisMarkBozarrisandwefoundtheegashedandmownBythyswordaloneweknewtheeknewtheebythywoundsaloneBythewoundsthyhandhadclovenbythewoundsthatseamedthybreastLyingasthouhadstforetoldusinthePashastentatrest

OpenwideproudMissolonghiopenwidethyportalshigh

WherereposethebonesofheroesteachuscheerfullytodieOpenwidethyvaultsWithintheirholyboundsacouchwedmakeWhereourherolaidwithheroesmayhislastlongslumbertakeRestbesidethatRockofHonorbraveCountNormannrestthyheadTillatthearchangelstrumpetallthegravesgiveuptheirdead

[pg111]

LIEDVORDERSCHLACHT

WerfuumlrdieFreiheitkampftundfaumllltdeszRuhmwirdbluumlhendstehnSolangefreidieWindenochdurchfreieLuumlftewehnSolangefreiderBaumlumeLaubnochrauschtimgruumlnenWaldSolangdesStromesWogenochfreinachdemMeerewalltSolangdesAdlersFittichfreinochdurchdieWolkenfleugtSolangeinfreierOdemnochausfreiemHerzensteigt

WerfuumlrdieFreiheitkaumlmpftundfaumllltdeszRuhmwirdbluumlhendstehnSolangefreieGeisternochdurchErdundHimmelgehnDurchErdundHimmelschwebternochderHeldenSchattenreihnUndrauschtumunsinstillerNachtinhellemSonnenscheinImSturmderstolzeTannenbrichtundindemLuumlftchenauchDasdurchdasGrasaufGraumlbernspieltmitseinemleisenHauchInfernerEnkelHausenochumalleWiegenkreistAufHellasheldenreicherFlurderfreienAhnenGeistDerhauchtinWundertraumlumenschondenzartenSaumluglinganUndweihtinseinemerstenSchlafdasKindzueinemMannDenJuumlnglinglocktseinRufhinausmitniegefuumlhlterLustZurStaumlttewoeinFreierfieldagreifterindieBrustDemZitterndenundSchauerziehnihmdurchdastiefeHerzErweisznichtobesWonneseiobesderersteSchmerzHerabduheilgeGeisterscharschwellunsreFahnenaufBefluumlgleunsrerHerzenSchlagundunsrerFuumlseLaufWirziehennachderFreiheitausdieWaffeninderHandWirziehenausaufKampfundTodfuumlrGottfuumlrsVaterlandIhrseidmitunsihrrauschtumunseurGeisterodemziehtMitzauberischenToumlnenhindurchunserJubelliedIhrseidmitunsihrschwebtdaherihrausThermopylaumlIhrausdemgruumlnenMarathonihrvonderblauenSee

AmWolkenfelsenMykaleamSalaminerstrandIhrallausWaldFeldBergundThalimweitenGriechenland

SONGBEFOREBATTLE

WhoeerforfreedomfightsandfallshisfamenoblightshallknowAslongasthroughheavensfreeexpansethebreezesfreelyblowAslongasintheforestwildthegreenleavesflutterfreeAslongasriversmountain-bornrollfreelytothesea[pg112]AslongasfreetheeagleswingexultingcleavestheskiesAslongasfromafreemansheartafreemansbreathdothrise

WhoeerforfreedomfightsandfallshisfamenoblightshallknowAslongasspiritsofthefreethroughearthandairshallgoThroughearthandairaspirit-bandofheroesmovesalwaysTisnearusatthedeadofnightandinthenoontidesblazeInthestormthatlevelstoweringpinesandinthebreezethatwavesWithlowandgentlebreaththegrassuponourfathersgravesTheresnotacradleintheboundsofHellasbroadandfairButthespiritofourfree-bornsiresissurelyhoveringthereItbreathesindreamsoffairy-landupontheinfantsbrainAndinhisfirstsleepdedicatesthechildtomanhoodspainItssummonslurestheyouthtostandwithnew-bornjoypossessedWhereonceafreemanfellandthereitfireshisthrillingbreastAndashudderrunsthroughallhisframeheknowsnotifitbeAthrobofraptureorthefirstsharppangofagonyComeswellourbannersonthebreezethousacredspirit-bandGivewingstoeverywarriorsfootandnervetoeveryhandWegotostrikeforfreedomtobreaktheoppressorsrodWegotobattleandtodeathforourcountryandourGodYearewithuswehearyourwingswehearinmagictone

Yourspirit-voicethepaeliganswellandminglewithourownYearewithusyethrongaroundmdashyoufromThermopylaeligYoufromtheverdantMarathonyoufromtheazureseaBythecloud-cappedrocksofMykaleatSalamismdashallyouFromfieldandforestmountandglenthelandofHellasthrough

WhoeerforfreedomfightsandfallshisfamenoblightshallknowAslongasthroughheavensfreeexpansethebreezesfreelyblowAslongasintheforestwildthegreenleavesflutterfreeAslongasriversmountain-bornrollfreelytotheseaAslongasfreetheeagleswingexultingcleavestheskiesAslongasfromafreemansheartafreemansbreathdothrise

WhenwerememberallthatwascompressedintothisshortlifewemightwellbelievethatthisceaselessacquiringandcreatingmusthavetiredandweakenedandinjuredbothbodyandmindSuchhoweverwasnotthecaseAllwhoknewthe poet agree in stating that he never overworked himself and that heaccomplishedallhedidwiththemostperfecteaseandenjoymentLetusonlyremember howhis life as a studentwas broken into by his service during thewar howhis journey to Italy occupied several years of his life [pg113] howlaterinDessauhehadtofollowhisprofessionasteacherandlibrarianandthenletusturnourthoughtstoalltheworkofhishandsandthecreationsofhismindandweareastonishednotonlyattheamountofworkdonebutstillmoreatthefinished formwhich distinguishes all hisworks Hewas one of the first whowithZeuneVon derHagen and the brothersGrimm labored to reawaken aninterest inancientandmediaeligvalGerman literatureHewasa favoritepupilofWolfandhisldquoHomerischeVorschulerdquodidmorethananyotherworkatthattimeto propagate the ideas of Wolf He had explored the modern languages ofEuropemdashFrench Italian English and Spanish and his critiques in all thesefieldsofliteratureshowhowintimatelyacquaintedhewaswiththebestauthorsof these nations Besides all this he worked regularly for journals andencyclopaeligdias andwas engagedco-editorof thegreat ldquoEncyclopaeligdiaofArtsand Sciencesrdquo by Ersch and Gruber He also undertook the publication of aldquoLibraryoftheGermanPoetsoftheSeventeenthCenturyrdquoandallthiswithoutmentioning his poems and novels in the short space of a life of thirty-threeyears

Ialmostforget thatIamspeakingofmyfatherfor indeedIhardlyknewhimandwhenhisscientificandpoeticactivityreacheditsendhewasfaryounger

thanIamnowIdonotbelievehoweverthatanaturalaffectionandvenerationforthepoetdeprivesusoftherightofjudgingItiswellsaidthatloveisblindbutlovealsostrengthensandsharpensthedulleyesothatitseesbeautywherethousandspassbyunmovedIfonereadsmostofourcriticalwritingsitwouldalmost appear as if the chief duty of the reviewer were to find out the weakpointsandfaultsof[pg114]everyworkofartNothinghassoinjuredtheartofcriticism as this prejudice A critic is a judge but a judge though he is noadvocate should also be no prosecutor The weak points of any work of artbetraythemselvesonlytoosoonbutinordertodiscoveritsbeautiesnotonlyasharpbutanexperiencedeye isneededand loveandsympathyarenecessaryaboveanythingelseItistheheartthatmakesthecriticnotthenoseItiswellknown how many of the most beautiful spots in Scotland and Wales andCornwall were not many years ago described as wastes and wildernessesRichmondandHamptonCourtwereadmiredpeopletravelledalsotoVersaillesandadmiredtheoftenadmiredblueskyofItalyButpoetssuchasWalterScottandWordsworthdiscoveredthebeautiesoftheirnativelandWhereothershadonly lamented over bare and wearisome hills they saw the battle-fields andburial-placesoftheprimevalTitanstrugglesofnatureWhereotherssawnothingbutbarrenmoorsfullofheatherandbroomthelandintheireyeswascoveredaswithacarpetsofterandmorevariegatedthanthemostpreciousloomofTurkeyWhereotherslost theirtemperat thegraycoldfogtheymarveledat thesilverveilofthebrideofthemorningandthegoldilluminationofthedepartingsunNoweverycockneycanadmirethesmallestlakeinWestmorelandorthebarestmoor in the HighlandsWhy is this Because few eyes are so dull that theycannotseewhatisbeautifulafterithasbeenpointedouttothemandwhentheyknow that they need not feel ashamed of admiring it It is the samewith thebeautiesofpoetryaswiththebeautiesofnatureWemustfirstdiscoverwhatisbeautiful in poetry and when it is discovered communicate it [pg 115]otherwise the authors of Scotch ballads are but strolling singers and theNiebelungensongsareasFredericktheGreatsaidnotworthpowderandshotThetradeoffault-findingisquicklylearnttheartofadmirationisadifficultartatleastforlittlemindsnarrowheartsandtimidsoulswhoprefertreadingbroadand safe paths Thus many critics and literary historians have rushed by thepoems ofWilhelmMuumlller just like travellerswho go on in the beaten trackpassingbyontherighthandandontheleftthemostbeautifulscenesofnatureandwho only stand still and open both eyes andmouthwhen their ldquoMurrayrdquotellsthemthereissomethingtheyoughttoadmireShouldanoldmanwhoisathome here meet them on their way and counsel the travellers to turn for amomentfromthehighroadinordertoaccompanyhimthroughashadypathtoa

millmanymayfeelatfirstfullofuneasinessanddistrustButwhentheyhaverefreshed themselves in the dark green valley with its lively mill stream anddelicious wood fragrance they no longer blame their guide for having calledsomewhatloudlytothemtopauseintheirjourneyItissuchapausethatIhavetriedinthesefewintroductorylinestoenforceonthereaderandIbelievethatItoomayreckononpardonifnotonthanksfromthosewhohavefollowedmysuddencall

[pg116]

VIONTHELANGUAGEANDPOETRYOFSCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN

AfterallthathasbeenwrittenabouttheSchleswig-Holsteinquestionhowlittleis known about those whom that question chiefly concernsmdashthe Schleswig-HolsteinersTheremaybeavaguerecollectionthatduringthegeneralturmoilof1848theGermaninhabitantsoftheDuchiesroseagainsttheDanesthattheyfoughtbravelyandatlastsuccumbednottothevalorbuttothediplomacyofDenmarkButafter the treatyofLondon in1852haddisposedof themas thetreatyofViennahaddisposedofotherbravepeopletheysankbelowthehorizonofEuropean interestsnever to rise again itwas fondlyhoped till thepresentgenerationhadpassedaway

Yet theseSchleswig-Holsteinershaveaninterestof theirownquiteapartfromthepoliticalcloudsthathavelatelygatheredroundtheircountryEversinceweknow anything of the history of Northern Europe we find Saxon racesestablishedas the inhabitantsof thatnorthernpeninsulawhichwas thencalledtheCimbricChersoneseThefirstwriterwhoevermentionsthenameofSaxonsisPtolemy18andhespeaksofthemassettledinwhatisnowcalledSchleswig-Holstein19[pg117]AtthetimeofCharlemagnetheSaxonraceisdescribedtous as consisting of three tribes the Ostfalai Westfalai and Angrarii TheWestphalianswere settled near theRhine theEastphalians near theElbe andtheintermediatecountrywashedbytheWeserwasheldbytheAngrarii20ThenameofWestphaliaisstill inexistencethatofEastphaliahasdisappearedbutitsmemorysurvivesintheEnglishsterlingEastphaliantraderstheancestorsofthe merchant princes of Hamburg were known in England by the name ofEasterlings and their money being of the purest quality easterling in Latinesterlingus shortened to sterling became thegeneral nameof pureor sterlingmoneyThenameofthethirdtribetheAngrariicontinuedthroughtheMiddleAges as the nameof a people and to the present daymyown sovereign the

DukeofAnhaltcallshimselfDukeofldquoSachsenEngernundWestphalenrdquoButthenameoftheAngrariiwasmeanttofulfillanotherandmoregloriousdestinyThenameAngrariiorAngarii21isacorruptionoftheoldernameAngrivariithefamous German race mentioned by Tacitus as the neighbors of theCherusciThese Angrivarii are in later documents called Anglevarii The terminationvarii22 represents thesamewordwhichexists inA-Sasware for instance inCant-ware inhabitants of Kent or Cant-ware-burh Canterbury burh-wareinhabitantsofatownburghersItisderivedfromweriantodefendtoholdandmaybeconnectedwithweraman[pg118]Thesame termination is found inAnsivarii or Ampsivarii probably also in Teutonoarii instead of TeutoniChattuariinsteadofChatti

Theprincipal seatsof theseAngrariiwere aswe saw between theRhine andElbebutTacitus23knowsofAngliiieAngriieastoftheElbeandanoffshootof the same Saxon tribe is found very early in possession of that famouspeninsulabetween theSchleiand theBayofFlensburgon theeasterncoastofSchleswig24whichbyLatinwriterswascalledAngliaieAngriaToderivethenameofAngliafromtheLatinangulus25cornerisaboutasgoodanetymologyasthekind-heartedremarkofStGregorywhointerpretedthenameofAnglibyangeliFromthatAngliatheAnglitogetherwiththeSaxonsandJutsmigratedtotheBritishIslesinthefifthcenturyandthenameoftheAngliasthatofthemostnumeroustribebecameintimethenameofEnglaland26IntheLatinlawsascribed toKingEdward theConfessor a curious supplement is foundwhichstates ldquothat the Juts (Guti) came formerly from the noble blood of theAnglinamelyfromthestateofEngraandthattheEnglishcamefromthesamebloodThe Juts therefore like the Angli of Germany should always be received inEnglandasbrothersandascitizensoftherealmbecausetheAngliofEnglandand Germany had always intermarried and had fought together against theDanesrdquo27

[pg119]Like theAngli ofAnglia the principal tribes clustering round the base of theCimbric peninsula and known by the general name of Northalbingi orTransalbiani alsoNordleudi were all offshoots of the Saxon stem Adam ofBremen(215)dividesthemintoTedmarsgoiHolcetaeandSturmariiIntheseitiseasytorecognizethemodernnamesofDithmarschenHoltsetenorHolstenandStormarnItwouldrequiremorespacethanwecanaffordwerewetoenterinto the arguments by which Grimm has endeavored to identify theDithmarschenwiththeTeutonitheStormarnwith theCimbriand theHolsten

with the Harudes His arguments if not convincing are at least highlyingenious and may be examined by those interested in these matters in hisldquoHistoryoftheGermanLanguagerdquopp633-640

FormanycenturiestheSaxoninhabitantsofthoseregionshavehadtobearthebrunt of the battle between theScandinavian and theGerman races From thedayswhentheGermanEmperorOthoI(died973)hurledhisswiftspearfromthenorthernmostpromontoryofJutlandintotheGermanOceantomarkthetruefrontierofhisempiretothedaywhen[pg120]ChristianIXputhisunwillingpentothatDanishconstitutionwhichwastoincorporateallthecountrynorthoftheEiderwithDenmark theyhavehad toshare inall the triumphsandall thehumiliationsoftheGermanracetowhichtheyarelinkedbythestrongtiesofacommonbloodandacommonlanguage

SuchconstanttrialsandvicissitudeshavetoldonthecharacteroftheseGermanborderers and have made them what they are a hardy and determined yetcareful and cautious race Their constant watchings and struggles against theslowencroachmentsor sudden inroadsofanenemymore inveterateeven thanthe Danesmdashnamely the seamdashhad imparted to them from the earliest timessomewhatofthatwarinessandperseverancewhichweperceiveinthenationalcharacterof theDutchand theVenetiansBut the freshbreezesof theGermanOceanandtheBaltickepttheirnerveswellbracedandtheirheartsbuoyantandformusculardevelopmentthearmsofthesesturdyploughersoftheseaandthelandcanviewiththoseofanyoftheirneighborsontheislesorontheContinentHolsten-treue ieHolstein-truth isproverbial throughoutGermany and it hasstoodthetestoflongandfearfultrials

There isbutonewayofgainingan insight into the real characterof apeopleunlesswecanactually liveamong themforyearsand that is toexamine theirlanguage and literatureNow it is true that the language spoken inSchleswig-Holstein is notGermanmdashat least not in theordinary senseof thewordmdashandonemaywellunderstandhowtravellersandcorrespondentsofnewspaperswhohavepickeduptheirGermanphrasesfromOllendorfandwhoonthe[pg121]strengthof this try toenter intoaconversationwithHolsteinpeasants shouldarriveat theconclusion that thesepeasantsspeakDanishoratallevents thattheydonotspeakGerman

TheGermansofSchleswig-HolsteinareSaxonsandalltrueSaxonsspeakLow-GermanandLow-GermanismoredifferentfromHigh-GermanthanEnglishis

fromLowlandScotchLow-Germanhowever isnot tobemistakenforvulgarGermanIt istheGermanwhichfromtimeimmemorialwasspokeninthelowcountries and along the northern sea-coast of Germany as opposed to theGermanofthehighcountryofSwabiaThuringiaBavariaandAustriaThesetwo dialects differ from each other like Doric and Ionic neither can beconsideredasacorruptionoftheotherandhoweverfarbackwetracethesetwobranchesoflivingspeechweneverarriveatapointwhentheydivergefromonecommonsourceTheGothicofthefourthcenturypreservedinthetranslationoftheBiblebyUlfilas isnotashasbeensooftensaid themotherbothofHighand Low German It is to all intents and purposes Low-German only Low-German in its most primitive form and more primitive therefore in itsgrammaticalframeworkthantheearliestspecimensofHigh-GermanalsowhichdateonlyfromtheseventhoreighthcenturyThisGothicwhichwasspokeninthe east of Germany has become extinct The Saxon spoken in the north ofGermanycontinuesitsmanifoldexistencetothepresentdayintheLow-Germandialects inFrisian inDutch and inEnglishThe restofGermanywasand isoccupiedbyHigh-GermanIntheWesttheancientHigh-GermandialectoftheFrankshasbeenabsorbedinFrenchwhiletheGermanspokenfrom[pg122]theearliesttimesinthecentreandsouthofGermanyhassuppliedthebasisofwhatisnowcalledtheliteraryandclassicallanguageofGermany

Although the literature of Germany is chiefly High-German there are a fewliterarycompositionsbothancientandmoderninthedifferentspokendialectsof thecountry sufficient to enable scholars todistinguishat leastninedistinctgrammatical settlements in the Low-German branch Gothic Saxon Anglo-SaxonFrisianandDutch in theHigh-GermanbranchThuringianFrankishBavarian and Alemannish Professor Weinhold is engaged at present inpublishing separate grammars of six of these dialects namely ofAlemannishBavarianFrankishThuringian Saxon andFrisian and in his greatGermanGrammar Jacob Grimm has been able to treat these together with theScandinavian tongues as somanyvarieties of one common primitive typeofTeutonicspeech

But although in the early days of German life the Low and High Germandialectswereon termsofperfect equalityLow-Germanhas fallenback in theracewhileHigh-GermanhaspressedforwardwithdoublespeedHigh-Germanhasbecomethe languageof literatureandgoodsociety It is taught inschoolspreached in church pleaded at the bar and even in places where ordinaryconversationisstillcarriedoninLow-GermanHigh-Germanisclearlyintended

tobethelanguageofthefutureAtthetimeofCharlemagnethiswasnotsoandoneof theearliest literarymonumentsof theGerman language theldquoHeliandrdquoie the Saviour is written in Saxon or Low-German The Saxon Emperorshowever did little for German literature while the Swabian Emperors wereproudofbeing thepatronsofartandpoetry [pg123]The languagespokenattheir court beingHigh-German the ascendency of that dialectmay be said todatefromtheirdaysthoughitwasnotsecuredtillthetimeoftheReformationwhenthetranslationoftheBiblebyLutherputafirmandlastingstamponwhathassincebecometheliteraryspeechofGermany

But languageeven thoughdeprivedof literarycultivationdoesnoteasilydieThoughatpresentpeoplewritethesamelanguagealloverGermanythetownsand villages teem everywhere with dialects both High and Low In HanoverBrunswick Mecklenburg Oldenburg the Free Towns and in Schleswig-Holstein the lower orders speak their own German generally called Platt-Deutsch and in many parts of Mecklenburg Oldenburg Ostfriesland andHolsteinthehigherrankstooclingintheirevery-dayconversationtothismorehomely dialect28 Children frequently [pg 124] speak two languages High-German at school Low-German at their games The clergyman speaks High-German when he stands in the pulpit but when he visits the poor he mustaddress themintheirownpeculiarPlattThelawyerpleads in the languageofSchiller andGoethe butwhenhe examineshiswitnesseshehas frequently tocondescendtothevulgartongueThatvulgartongueisconstantlyrecedingfromthe towns it is frightened away by railways it is ashamed to show itself inparliamentButitislovedallthemorebythepeopleitappealstotheirheartsanditcomesbacknaturallytoallwhohaveevertalkedittogetherintheiryouthIt is thesamewith the localpatoisofHigh-GermanEvenwhereatschool thecorrectHigh-GermanistaughtandspokenasinBavariaandAustriaeachtownstill keeps its own patois and the people fall back on it as soon as they areamongthemselvesWhenMariaTheresawenttotheBurgtheatertoannouncetothe people ofVienna the birth of a son and heir she did not address them inhigh-flown literary German She bent forward from her box and called outldquoHoumlrts der Leopold hot aacuten Buebaacuterdquo ldquoHear Leopold has a boyrdquo In GermancomediescharactersfromBerlinLeipzigandViennaareconstantlyintroducedspeakingtheirownlocaldialectsInBavariaStyriaandtheTyrolmuchofthepoetry of the people iswritten in their patois and in some parts ofGermanysermons even and other religious tracts continue to be published in the localvernaculars

[pg125]TherearehereandthereafewenthusiasticchampionsofdialectsparticularlyofLow-GermanwhostillcherishahopethatHigh-GermanmaybethrownbackandLow-GermanrestoredtoitsrightsandformerdominionYetwhatevermaybethoughtoftherelativeexcellencesofHighandLowGermanmdashandinseveralpoints no doubt Low-German has the advantage of High-Germanmdashyetpractically thebattlebetweenthe twoisdecidedandcannotnowberenewedThe national language of Germany whether in the South or the North willalwaysbetheGermanofLutherLessingSchillerandGoetheThishoweverisnoreasonwhythedialectswhetherofLoworHighGermanshouldbedespisedor banishedDialects are everywhere the natural feeders of literary languagesandanattempttodestroythemifitcouldsucceedwouldbelikeshuttingupthetributariesofgreatrivers

After these remarks it will be clear that if people say that the inhabitants ofSchleswig-Holstein do not speak German there is some truth in such astatementatleastjustenoughoftruthtoconcealthetruthItmightbesaidwithequal correctness that the people of Lancashire do not speak English But iffromthisaconclusion is tobedrawn that theSchleswig-Holsteiners speakingthis dialect which is neither German nor Danish might as well be taught inDanishasinGermanthisisnotquitecorrectandwoulddeceivefewifitwereadducedasanargumentforintroducingFrenchinsteadofEnglishinthenationalschoolsofLancashire

TheSchleswig-Holsteinershavetheirowndialectandclingtoitastheyclingtomany things which in other parts of Germany have been discarded as old-fashioned [pg 126] and useless ldquoOll Knust houmllt HusrdquomdashldquoStale bread lastslongestrdquomdashisoneof theirproverbsBut they read theirBible inHigh-GermantheywritetheirnewspapersinHigh-GermananditisinHigh-Germanthattheirchildren are taught and their sermons preached in every town and in everyvillageItisbutlatelythatLow-GermanhasbeentakenupagainbySchleswig-Holstein poets and some of their poems though intended originally for theirownpeopleonlyhavebeen readwithdelightevenby thosewhohad tospellthemoutwith thehelpofadictionaryandagrammarThiskindofhomespunpoetryisasignofhealthynationallifeLikethesongsofBurnsinScotlandthepoemsofKlausGrothandothersrevealtousmorethananythingelsetherealthoughtsandfeelingstheevery-daycaresandoccupationsofthepeoplewhomtheyrepresentandtowhoseapprovalalonetheyappealButasScotlandproudthoughshewellmaybeofherBurnshasproducedsomeofthebestwritersof

English Schleswig-Holstein too small as it is in comparison with ScotlandcountsamongitssonssomeillustriousnamesinGermanliteratureNiebuhrthegreat traveller and Niebuhr the great historian were both Schleswig-Holsteiners though during their lifetime that name had not yet assumed thepoliticalmeaninginwhichitisnowusedKarstenNiebuhrthetravellerwasaHanoverian by birth but having early entered the Danish service he wasattachedtoascientificmissionsentbyKingFrederickVtoEgyptArabiaandPalestinein1760AlltheothermembersofthatmissionhavingdieditwaslefttoNiebuhrafterhisreturnin1767topublishtheresultsofhisownobservationsandof thoseofhiscompanionsHisldquoDescriptionofArabiardquoand[pg127]hisldquoTravels in Arabia and the Adjoining Countriesrdquo though published nearly ahundredyears ago are still quotedwith respect and their accuracyhashardlyeverbeenchallengedNiebuhrspenttherestofhislifeasakindofcollectorandmagistrate at Meldorf a small town of between two and three thousandinhabitants in Dithmarschen He is described as a square and powerful manwholivedtoagoodoldageandwhoevenwhenhehadlosthiseyesightusedto delight his family and a large circle of friends by telling them of theadventures inhisOriental travelsof the starrynightsof thedesert andof thebrightmoonlightofEgyptwhereridingonhiscamelhecouldfromhissaddlerecognize every plant thatwas growing on the groundNorwere the listenersthat gathered round him unworthy of the old traveller Like many a smallGermantownMeldorfthehomeofNiebuhrhadasocietyconsistingofafewgovernmentofficialsclergymenandmastersatthepublicschoolmostofthemmenof cultivatedmind andquite capable of appreciating amanofNiebuhrspowers Even the peasants there were not the mere clods of other parts ofGermanyTheywere awell-to-do race and by nomeans illiterateTheir sonsreceivedattheGymnasiumofMeldorfaclassicaleducationandtheywereabletomixwitheaseandfreedominthesocietyoftheirbettersThemosthospitablehouse atMeldorfwas that ofBoie theHighSheriff ofDithmarschenHehadformerly atGoumlttingen been the life and soul of a circle of friendswho havebecome famous in the history of German literature under the name ofldquoHainbundrdquo That ldquoHainbundrdquo or Grove-club included Buumlrger the author ofldquoLenorerdquo Voss the translator of Homer the Counts Stolberg Houmllty and [pg128]othersWithGoethetooBoiehadbeenontermsofintimacyandwheninafterlifehesettleddownatMeldorfmanyofhisoldfriendshisbrother-in-lawVossCountStolbergClaudiusandotherscametoseehimandhisillustrioustownsmanNiebuhrManyaseedwassowntheremanysmallgermsbegan toripeninthatremotetownofMeldorfwhichareyieldingfruitatthepresentdaynot in Germany only but here in England The sons of Boie fired by the

descriptions of the old blind traveller followed his example and becamedistinguished as explorers and discoverers in natural history Niebuhrs sonyoungBarthold soonattracted theattentionof allwhocame to seehis fatherparticularlyofVossandhewasenabledbytheirhelpandadvicetolayinearlyyouththatfoundationofsolidlearningwhichfittedhimintheintervalsofhischeckered life to become the founder of a new era in the study of AncientHistoryAndhowcuriousthethreadswhichbindtogetherthedestiniesofmenhowmarveloustheraysoflightwhichemanatingfromthemostdistantcentrescrosseachotherintheironwardcourseandgivetheirownpeculiarcoloringtocharacters apparently original and independentWe have read of late in theConfessions of a modern St Augustine how the last stroke that severed hisconnectionwiththeChurchofEnglandwastheestablishmentoftheJerusalembishopric But for that event Dr Newman might now be a bishop and hisfriendsastrongpartyintheChurchofEnglandWell thatJerusalembishopricowes something toMeldorf The young schoolboy ofMeldorfwas afterwardstheprivatetutorandpersonalfriendoftheCrown-PrinceofPrussiaandhethusexercised an influence both on the political and the religious views of KingFrederick[pg129]WilliamIVHewaslikewisePrussianAmbassadoratRomewhenBunsenwas there as a young scholar full of schemes andplanninghisownjourneytotheEastNiebuhrbecamethefriendandpatronofBunsenandBunsenbecamehissuccessorinthePrussianembassyatRomeItiswellknownthat the Jerusalembishopricwasa long-cherishedplanof theKingofPrussiaNiebuhrspupilandthatthebillfortheestablishmentofaProtestantbishopricatJerusalem was carried chiefly through the personal influence of Bunsen thefriendofNiebuhrThusweseehowallthingsareworkingtogetherforgoodorforevilthoughwelittleknowofthegrainsofdustthatarecarriedalongfromallquartersoftheglobetotelllikeinfinitesimalweightsinthescalesthatdecidehereafterthejudgmentofindividualsandthefateofnations

If Holstein and more particularly Dithmarschen of which Meldorf had informerdaysbeenthecapitalmayclaimsomeshareinNiebuhrthehistorianmdashifhehimselfasthereadersofhishistoryarewellawareisfondofexplainingthesocial and political institutions ofRomeby references towhat he had seen orheard of the little republic of Dithmarschenmdashit is certainly a curiouscoincidence that the onlyworthy successor ofNiebuhr in the field ofRomanhistoryTheodoreMommsen is likewiseanativeofSchleswigHisHistoryofRome though it did not produce so complete a revolution as the work ofNiebuhr stands higher as a work of art It contains the results of Niebuhrscritical researches sifted and carried on by a most careful and thoughtful

disciple It is in many respects a most remarkable work particularly inGermany The fact that it is readable and has become a popular book hasexcitedthewrathofmanycriticswhoevidently[pg130]consideritbeneaththedignityofa learnedprofessor thatheshoulddigesthisknowledgeandgivetotheworldnotallandeverythinghehasaccumulatedinhisnote-booksbutonlywhatheconsidersreallyimportantandworthknowingThefactagainthathedoesnotloadhispageswithreferencesandlearnednoteshasbeentreatedlikeacrimen lœsaeligmajestatis and yetwith all the clamor and clatter that has beenraisedfewauthorshavehadsolittletoalterorrectifyintheirlatereditionsasMommsen To have produced two such scholars historians and statesmen asNiebuhrandMommsenwouldbeanhonor toanykingdominGermanyhowmuchmore to the small duchyofSchleswig-Holstein inwhichwehavebeentoldsooftenthatnothingisspokenbutDanishandsomevulgardialectsofLow-German

WelleventhosevulgardialectsofLow-Germanandthepoemsandnovelsthathave been written in them by true Schleswig-Holsteiners are well worth amoments consideration In looking at their language an Englishman at oncediscovers a number of old acquaintances words which wewould look for invaininSchillerorGoetheWeshallmentionafew

BlackmeansblackinHigh-GermanitwouldbeschwarzDeblackistheblackhorseblackupwitisblackonwhitegifmekkilunblakgivemequillandinkBlid isblithe insteadof theHigh-GermanmildBottervogel orbotterhahnorbotterhex is butterfly insteadof schmetterling It is a common superstition inthe North of Germany that one ought to mark the first butterfly one sees inspringAwhiteonebetokensmourningayellowoneachristeningavariegatedoneaweddingBregenorbrehmisusedinsteadoftheHigh-GermangehirnitistheEnglishbrain[pg131]PeoplesayofaveryfoolishpersonthathisbrainisfrozendebrehmisemverfrornThepeculiarEnglishbutwhichhasgivensomuch trouble to grammarians and etymologists exists in the Holstein butenliterallyoutsidetheDutchbuitentheOld-Saxonbi-ucirctanButeninGermanisaregularcontractionjustasbinnenwhichmeansinsidewithinduringHebenistheEnglishheavenwhile the commonGermanname isHimmelHuumlckup is asighandnodoubttheEnglishhiccoughDuumlsigisdizzytalkigistalkative

TherearesomecuriouswordswhichthoughtheyhaveaLow-Germanlookarenot to be found in English or Anglo-Saxon Thus plitsch which is used inHolstein in the sense of clever turns out to be a corruption of politisch ie

politicalKruumldschmeans particular or over nice it is a corruption of kritischcriticalKatolschmeansangrymadandisacorruptionofcatholicieRomanCatholic Kraumlnsch means plucky and stands for courageux Fraumlnksch ieFrankishmeansstrangeFlaumlmschieFlemishmeanssulkyandisusedtoformsuperlativesPolschiePolishmeanswildForschmeansstrongandstrengthand comes from the French force Kluumlr is a corruption of couleur andKunkelfusenstandsforconfusionorfibs

SomeidiomaticandproverbialexpressionstoodeservetobenotedInsteadofsaying ldquoThe sun has setrdquo the Holsteiners fond as they are of their beerparticularlyintheeveningafteraharddaysworksayldquoDeSuumlnngeihttoBeerrdquoldquoThesungoestobeerrdquoIfyouaskinthecountryhowfaritistosometownorvillageapeasantwillanswerldquonHunnblaffrdquoldquoAdogsbarkrdquoifitisquitecloseor ldquon Pip Tobackrdquo ldquoA pipe of tobaccordquo meaning about half an hour Of aconceited[pg132] fellow they say ldquoHecirc houmlrt deFleacutegn hostenrdquoldquoHe hears thefliescoughingrdquoIfamanisfullofgreatschemesheistoldldquoInGedankenfoumlrtdeBurocirckintKutschrdquoldquoInthoughtthepeasanttoodrivesinacoachrdquoAmanwho boasts is asked ldquoPracher haumlst ocirck Luumls oder schuppst di man sordquoldquoBraggarthaveyoureallyliceordoyouonlyscratchyourselfasifyouhadrdquo

ldquoHolsteinsingtnichtrdquoldquoHolsteindoesnotsingrdquoisacuriousproverbandifitismeanttoexpresstheabsenceofpopularpoetryinthatcountryitwouldbeeasyto convict it of falsehood by a list of poetswhoseworks though unknown tofame beyond the limits of their own country are cherished and deservedlycherishedbytheirowncountrymenThebestknownamongtheHolsteinpoetsis Klaus Groth whose poems published under the title of ldquoQuickbornrdquo iequickbournorlivingspringshowthatthereisawelloftruepoeticalfeelinginthatcountryandthatitsstrainsareallthemoredeliciousandrefreshingiftheybubbleupinthenativeaccentofthecountryKlausGrothwasbornin1819Hewasthesonofamillerandthoughhewassenttoschoolhehadfrequentlytowork in the field in summer and make himself generally useful Like manySchleswig-Holsteinersheshowedadecidedtalentformathematicsbutbeforehewassixteenhehadtoearnhisbreadandworkasaclerkintheofficeofalocal magistrate His leisure hours were devoted to various studies GermanDanishmusicpsychologysuccessivelyengagedhisattentionInhisnineteenthyear he went to the seminary at Tondern to prepare himself to become aschoolmaster There he studiedLatin French Swedish and after three yearswas appointed teacher at a girls school Though he had to give forty-threelessons a week he [pg 133] found time to continue his own reading and he

acquiredaknowledgeofEnglishDutchIcelandicandItalianAtlasthoweverhishealthgavewayandin1847hewasobligedtoresignhisplaceDuringhisillnesshispoeticaltalentwhichhehimselfhadnevertrustedbecameasourceofcomforttohimselfandtohisfriendsandthewarmreceptionwhichgreetedthe first editionofhis ldquoQuickbornrdquomade himwhat hewasmeant to bemdashthepoetofSchleswig-Holstein

HispoliticalpoemsarefewandthoughatrueSchleswig-HolsteinerathearthehasalwaysdeclinedtofightwithhispenwhenhecouldnotfightwithhisswordInthebeginningofthisyearhoweverhepublishedldquoFiveSongsforSingingandPrayingrdquowhichthoughtheyfailtogiveanadequateideaofhispowerasapoetmaybeofinterestasshowingthedeepfeelingsofthepeopleintheirstruggleforindependence The text will be easily intelligible with the help of a literalEnglishtranslation

DUTSCHEEHRANDDUTSCHEEER

Fruumlhling1848

DarkeemnSoldatenaeligwerdeElfHurahhurahnatNornSekeemnsodichtasWagganWaggUnasenKoppelvullKorn

GundagSoldatenwokamtjuumlherVunalleBargendeKruumlzunQuerUtduumltschenLandennatduumltscheMeermdashSowannertuntrecktdatHeer

WatliggtsoebenasweertdeSeeWatschintsogelasGoldDatisdeMarschenerSaatunStaatDatisdeHolstenerStoet

[pg134]

GundagjuumlHolstenopduumltscheEerGundagjuumlFriesenantduumltscheMeer

TolebenunstarbenvaeligrduumltscheEhrSowannertuntrecktdatHeer

GermanHonorandGermanEarth

Spring1848

TherecamesoldiersacrosstheElbeHurrahhurrahtotheNorthTheycameasthickaswaveonwaveAndlikeafieldfullofcorn

GooddaysoldierswhencedoyoucomeFromallthehillsontherightandleftFromGermanlandstotheGermanseamdashThuswandersandmarchesthehost

WhatliessostillasitweretheseaWhatshinessoyellowasgoldThesplendidfieldsoftheMarshestheyareTheprideoftheHolstenrace

GooddayyeHolstenonGermansoilGooddayyeFriesiansontheGermanseaToliveandtodieforGermanhonormdashThuswandersandmarchesthehost

Sommer1851

DattrecktsotrurigaeligwerdeElfInTrittunSchrittsoswarmdashDeSwalwdewannertdeHatbartrecktmdashSekamtweddertotokumJahr

AdeadeduduumltschesHeerldquoAdeadeduHolstenmeerAdeopHoffenunWiederkehrrdquoWitruertalleenantMeer

DeStorchkumtwedderdeSwalwdesingtSofroumlhlichasalltovaeligrmdashWannkumtdeduumltscheAdlerunbringtDiwedderduduumltscheEhr

[pg135]

WakopduFlothwakopduMeerWakopduDunnerunweekdeEerWisittopHaeligpenunWedderkehrmdashWitruertalleenantMeer

Summer1851

TheymarchsosadacrosstheElbeSoheavystepbystepmdash

TheswallowwandersthestorkdepartsmdashTheycomebackintheyeartocome

AdieuadieuthouGermanhostldquoAdieuadieuthouHolstenseaAdieuinhopeandtomeetagainrdquoWemournalonebythesea

ThestorkcomesbacktheswallowsingsAsblitheaseverbeforemdashWhenwilltheGermaneaglereturnAndbringtheebackthouGermanhonor

WakeupthoufloodwakeupthouseaWakeupthouthunderandrousethelandWearesittinginhopetomeetagainmdashWemournalonebythesea

Winter1863

DarkumtenBrusenasVaeligrjahswindDatdraelighntaswaeligrdatdeFlothmdashWilltFroumlhjahrkamentoWihnachtstidHoumllptGottunssuumllbninneNoth

VunalleBargendeKruumlzunQuerDarisdatwedderdatduumltscheHeerDatgeltopNuoderNimmermehrSorettsededuumltscheEhr

WihoumlrtdenAdlerhekumthekumtNocheenmalhaeligptwiunharrtIstFriheitendlichdeheunsbringtlstWahrheitwatderutward

SunsthoumllpunsHimmelnugeittnimehrHoumllpduunbringunsdenHerzogher[pg136]

DennwuumllltwistarbenvaeligrduumltscheEhrDennbegravtunsinduumltscheEer

30December1863

Winter1863

TherecomesablastlikewinterstormItroarsasitwerethefloodIsthespringcomingatChristmas-tideDoesGodhimselfhelpusinourneed

FromallthehillsontherightandleftThereagaincomestheGermanhostItistobenoworneverOsavetheGermanhonor

WeheartheeaglehecomeshecomesOncemorewehopeandwaitIsitfreedomatlasthebringstousIsittruthwhatcomesfromthence

ElseHeavenhelpusnowitgoesnomoreHelpthouandbringusourDukeThenwillwedieforGermanhonorThenburyusinGermanearth

December301863

ItisnothoweverinwarsongsorpoliticalinvectivethatthepoeticalgeniusofKlausGrothshowstoadvantageHispropersphere is thequiet idyla truthfulandthoughtfuldescriptionofnatureareproductionofthesimplestanddeepestfeelings of the human heart and all this in the homely honest and heartfeltlanguage of his own ldquoPlattDeutschrdquo That the example of Burns has told onGroththatthepoetryoftheScotchpoethasinspiredandinspiritedthepoetofSchleswig-HolsteinisnottobedeniedButtoimitateBurnsandtoimitatehimsuccessfully is no mean achievement and Groth would be the last man todisownhismasterThepoemldquoMinJehannrdquomighthavebeenwrittenbyBurnsIshallgiveafreemetricaltranslationofitbutshouldadvisethereader[pg137]totrytospellouttheoriginalformuchofitscharmliesinitsnativeformand

to turn Groth even into High-German destroys his beauty as much as whenBurnsistranslatedintoEnglish

MINJEHANN

IkwullwiweernnochkleenJehannDoweerdeWeltsogrot

WesetenopdenSteenJehannWeestnochbyNawersSot

AnHebenselldestilleMaanWisegenwaheleepUnsnackenwadeHimmelhochUnwadeSotwuldeep

WeestnochwastilldatweerJehannDarroumlhrkeenBlattanBom

SoisdatnunimehrJehannAshoumlchstensnochinDrom

OchnewenndodeSchepersungmdashAlleenintwideFeldNiwahrJehanndatweerenTonmdashDeeenzigeopdeWelt

MituumlnnerinneSchummerntidDennwardmisotoMod

DennloumlpptmitlangsdenRuumlggsohittAsdomalsbidenSot

DendreihikmisohastiumAsweeriknichalleenDochAllenswatikfinnJehannDatismdashikstahunween

MYJOHN

IwishwestillwerelittleJohnTheworldwasthensowide

WhenonthestonebyneighborsbournWerestedsidebyside

Wesawthemooninsilverveiled

SailsilentthroughtheskyOurthoughtsweredeeperthanthebournAndastheheavenshigh

YouknowhowstillitwasthenJohnAllnatureseemedatrest

[pg138]SoisitnownolongerJohn

OrinourdreamsatbestThinkwhentheshepherdboythensangAloneoeralltheplainAyeJohnyouknowthatwasasoundWeneershallhearagain

SometimesnowJohntheeventidesTheself-samefeelingsbring

MypulsesbeatasloudandstrongAsthenbesidethespring

AndthenIturnaffrightedroundSomestrangertodescryButnothingcanIseemyJohnmdashIamaloneandcry

ThenextpoemisalittlepopularballadrelatingtoatraditionverycommononthenortherncoastofGermanybotheast andwestof thepeninsulaof islandsswallowedbytheseatheirspirespinnaclesandroofsbeingoncertaindaysstillvisibleandtheirbellsaudiblebelowthewavesOneoftheseislandswascalledBuumlsenorOldBuumlsumandissupposedtohavebeensituatedoppositethevillagenow called Buumlsen on the west coast of Dithmarschen Strange to say theinhabitantsofthatislandinspiteoftheirtragicfatearerepresentedratherinacomicallightastheBœotiansofHolstein

WATSIKDATVOLKVERTELLT

OlBuumlsum

OlBuumlsenhggtintwilleHaffDeFlothdekeemunwoumlhlenGraffDeFlothdekeemunspoumllunspoumll

BetsedeInseluumlnnerwoumlhlDarblevkeenSteendarblevkeenPahlDatWaterschaeligldatallhendalDarweerkeenBeestdarweerkeenHundDeligtnuallindepenGrundUnAllenswatderlevunlachDatdeckdeSeemitdepeNach[pg139]MituumlnnerindeholleEbbSosuumlhtmanvunneHuumlsdeKoumlppDennduktdeThornherututSandAsweertenFingervunenHandDennhoumlrtmansachdeKlockenklingnDennhoumlrtmansachdeKantersingnDenngeitdatlisendaeligrdeLuftldquoBegrabtdenLeibinseineGruftrdquo

WHATTHEPEOPLETELL

OldBuumlsum

OldBuumlsensankintothewavesTheseahasmadefullmanygravesThefloodcamenearandwashedaroundUntiltherocktodustwasgroundNostoneremainednobelfrysteepAllsankintothewatersdeepTherewasnobeasttherewasnohoundTheyallwerecarriedtothegroundAndallthatlivedandlaughedaroundTheseanowholdsingloomprofoundAttimeswhenlowthewaterfallsThesailorseesthebrokenwallsThechurchtowerpeepsfromoutthesandLiketothefingerofahandThenhearsonelowthechurchbellsringingThenhearsonelowthesextonsingingAchantiscarriedbythegustldquoGiveearthtoearthanddusttodustrdquo

In the Baltic too similar traditions are current of sunken islands and townsburied in the seawhich are believed to be visible at certain times Themostfamous tradition is that of the ancient town of Vinetamdashonce it is said thegreatestemporiuminthenorthofEuropemdashseveraltimesdestroyedandbuiltupagaintillin1183itwasupheavedbyanearthquakeandswallowedbyafloodThe ruinsofVineta arebelieved tobevisiblebetween the coastofPomeraniaandtheislandofRuumlgenThistraditionhassuggestedoneofWilhelmMuumlllersmdashmyfathersmdashlyricalsongspublishedinhisldquoStonesandShells fromtheIslandof[pg140]Ruumlgenrdquo1825ofwhichIamabletogiveatranslationbyMrJAFroude

VINETA

AusdesMeerestiefemtiefemGrundeKlingenAbendglockendumpfundmatt

UnszugebenwunderbareKundeVonderschoumlnenaltenWunderstadt

InderFluthenSehoosshinabgesunkenBliebenuntenihreTruumlmmerstehn

IhreZinnenlassengoldneFunkenWiederscheinendaufdemSpiegelsehn

UndderSchifferderdenZauberschimmerEinmalsahimhellenAbendroth

NachderselbenStelleschiffterimmerObauchringsumherdieKlippedroht

AusdesHerzenstiefemtiefemGrundeKlingtesmirwieGlockendumpfundmatt

AchsiegebenwunderbareKundeVonderLiebediegeliebteshat

EineschoumlneWeltistdaversunkenIhreTruumlmmerbliebenuntenstehn

LassensichalsgoldneHimmelsfunkenOftimSpiegelmeinerTraumlumesehn

UnddannmoumlchtichtauchenindieTiefenMichversenkenindenWiederschein

UndmiristalsobmichEngelriefenIndiealteWunderstadtherein

VINETA

FromtheseasdeephollowfaintlypealingFaroffeveningbellscomesadandslow

[pg141]Faintlyrisethewondroustalerevealing

Oftheoldenchantedtownbelow

OnthebosomofthefloodrecliningRuinedarchandwallandbrokenspire

DownbeneaththewaterymirrorshiningGleamandflashinflakesofgoldenfire

AndtheboatmanwhoattwilighthourOncethatmagicvisionshallhaveseen

HeedlesshowthecragsmayroundhimlourEvermorewillhauntthecharmeacutedscene

FromtheheartsdeephollowfaintlypealingFarIhearthembell-notessadandslow

AhawildandwondroustalerevealingOfthedrowneacutedwreckoflovebelow

ThereaworldinlovelinessdecayingLingersyetinbeautyereitdie

PhantomformsacrossmysensesplayingFlashlikegoldenfire-flakesfromthesky

LightsaregleamingfairybellsareringingAndIlongtoplungeandwanderfree

WhereIheartheangel-voicessingingInthoseancienttowersbelowthesea

IgiveafewmorespecimensofKlausGrothspoetrywhichIhaveventuredtoturnintoEnglishverseinthehopethatmytranslationsthoughveryimperfectmayperhapsonaccountof theirvery imperfectionexciteamongsomeofmyreadersadesiretobecomeacquaintedwiththeoriginals

HESAumlMISOVEL

HesaumlmisoveluniksaumlemkeenWortUnallwatiksaumlweerJehannikmuttfort

[pg142]II

HesaumlmivunLevunvunHimmelunEerHesaumlmivunallensmdashikweetnimalmehr

HesaumlmisoveluniksaumlemkeenWort

UnallwatiksaumlweerJehannikmuttfort

HeheeldmideHannunhebemisodullIkschullemdochgutwenunobikniwull

IkweerjeniboumlsawersaumldochkeenWortUnallwatiksaumlweerJehannikmuttfort

NusittikundenkundenkjuumlmmerderanMiduumlchikmussseggthebbnWageernminJehann

UndochkumtdatweddersoseggikkeenWortUnhollthemiseggikJehannikmuttfort

HETOLDMESOMUCH

ThoughhetoldmesomuchIhadnothingtosayAndallthatIsaidwasJohnImustaway

HespokeofhistrueloveandspokeofallthatOfhonorandheavenmdashIhardlyknowwhat

HeheldmeandaskedmeashardashecouldThatItooshouldlovehimandwhetherIwould

IneverwaswrathbuthadnothingtosayAndallthatIsaidwasJohnImustaway

[pg143]VI

IsitnowaloneandIthinkonandonWhydidInotsaythenHowgladlymyJohn

YeteventhenexttimeOwhatshallIsayIfheholdsmeandasksmemdashJohnImustaway

TOumlFMAL

SeisdochdestillstevunalletoKarkSeisdochdeschoumlnstevunalletoMarkSoweeklisobleekliundeOgensogrotSoblauasenHebenundeepasenSot

WerkiktwulintWaterundenktnisinDeelWerkiktwulnanHimmelunwuumlnschtsiknevelWersuumlhterinOgensoblauunsoframUndenktnianEngelnunallerhandKram

InchurchsheissurelythestillestofallShestepsthroughthemarketsofairandsotall

SosoftlysolightlywithwonderingeyesAsdeepastheseaandasblueastheskies

WhothinksnotadealwhenhelooksonthemainWholookstotheskiesandsighsnotagain

WholooksinhereyessoblueandsotrueAndthinksnotofangelsandotherthingstoo

KEENGRAFFISSOBRUT

KeenGraffissobrutunkeenMuumlersohochWennTwesikmangutsuumlndsodraptsesikdoch

KeenWeddersogrulisoduumlsterkeenNachtWennTwesikmansehnwuumllltsosehtsesiksacht

[pg144]III

DatgifwulenMaanschindarschintwulenSteernDatgiftnochenLichtoderLuumlchtunLantern

DarfiuntsikenLedderenStegelschunStegWennTwesikmanleefhebbtmdashkeenSorgvaerdenWeg

NoditchissodeepandnowallissohighIftwoloveeachothertheyllmeetbyandby

Nostormissowildandnonightissoblack

Iftwowishtomeettheywillsoonfindatrack

ThereissurelythemoonorthestarsshiningbrightOratorchoralanternorsomesortoflight

ThereissurelyaladderasteporastileIftwoloveeachothertheyllmeeterelongwhile

JEHANNNUSPANNDESCHIMMELSAN

JehannnuspanndeSchimmelsanNufahrwinadeBrutUnhebbtwinixasbrunePerJehannsoistokgut

UnhebbtwinixasswartePerJehannsoistokrechtUnbuumlniknichunsWeerthsinSœnSobuumlnksinjuumlngsteKnecht

UnhebbtwigarkeenPerunWagSohebbtwijungeBeenUndesogluumlckliisasikJehanndatwuumlllwisehn

[pg145]MAKEHASTEMYJOHNPUTTOTHEGRAYS

MakehastemyJohnputtothegraysWellgoandfetchthebrideAndifwehavebuttwobrownhacksTheylldoaswelltoride

AndifwevebutapairofblacksWestillcanbearourdoomAndifImnotmymasterssonImstillhisyoungestgroom

AndhaveweneitherhorsenorcartStillstrongyounglegshavewemdashAndanyhappiermanthanIJohnIshouldliketosee

DEJUNGEWETFRU

WennAbendsrothdeWulkentrecktSodenkikochandiSotrockverbidatganzeHeerUnduweerstmitderbi

WennutdeBoumlmdeBlaederfalltSodenkikglikandiSofullsomennibraweJungUnduweerstmitderbi

DennsettikmisotrurihinUndenksovelandiIketalleenminAbendbrotmdashUndubuumlstnichderbi

THESOLDIERSWIDOW

WhenruddycloudsaredrivingpastTismorethanIcanbear

ThusdidthesoldiersallmarchbyAndthoutoothouwertthere

WhenleavesarefallingonthegroundTismorethanIcanbear[pg146]ThusfellfullmanyavaliantladAndthoutoothouwertthere

AndnowIsitsostillandsadTismorethanIcanbearMyeveningmealIeataloneForthouthouartnotthere

I wish I could add one ofKlausGroths tales (ldquoVertellenrdquo as he calls them)which give the most truthful description of all the minute details of life inDithmarschen and bring the peculiar character of the country and of itsinhabitantsvividlybeforetheeyesofthereaderButshortastheyareeventheshortestofthemwouldfillmorepagesthancouldherebesparedforSchleswig-HolsteinIshallthereforeconcludethissketchwithatalewhichhasnoauthormdashasimple tale fromoneof the localHolsteinnewspapers Itcame tome inaheap of other papers fly-sheets pamphlets and books but it shone like adiamondinaheapofrubbishandasthetaleofldquoTheOldWomanofSchleswig-HolsteinrdquoitmayhelptogivetomanywhohavebeenunjusttotheinhabitantsoftheDuchiessometruerideaofthestuffthereis inthatstrongandstaunchandsterlingracetowhichEnglandowesitslanguageitsbestbloodanditshonoredname

ldquoWhenthewaragainstDenmarkbeganagaininthewinterof1863officeswereopenedintheprincipaltownsofGermanyforcollectingcharitablecontributionsAtHamburgMessrs L andK had set apart a large room for receiving lintlinenandwarmclothingorsmallsumsofmoneyOnedayaboutChristmasapoorly clad woman from the country stepped in and inquired in the pureHolstein dialect whether contributions were received here for Schleswig-Holstein[pg147]TheclerkshowedhertoatablecoveredwithlinenragsandsuchlikearticlesButsheturnedawayandpulledoutanoldleatherpurseandtakingoutpiecesofmoneybegantocountaloudonthecounterlsquoOnemarktwomarksthreemarksrsquotillshehadfinishedhertenmarkslsquoThatmakestenmarksrsquoshesaidandshovedthe littlepileawayTheclerkwhohadwatchedthepooroldwomanwhileshewasarranginghersmallcopperandsilvercoinsaskedhermdashlsquoFromwhomdoesthemoneycomersquo

ldquothinsplsquoFrommersquoshesaidandbegancountingagainlsquoOnemark twomarks three

marksrsquoThusshewentonemptyingherpursetillshehadcountedouttensmallheapsofcoinoftenmarkseachThencountingeachheaponceoveragainshesaid lsquoThese aremy hundredmarks for Schleswig-Holstein be so good as tosendthemtothesoldiersrsquo

ldquoWhile the old peasant woman was doing her sums several persons hadgatheredroundherandasshewasleavingtheshopshewasaskedagaininatoneofsurprisefromwhomthemoneycame

ldquothinsplsquoFrommersquoshesaidandobservingthatshewascloselyscannedshe turnedbackandlookingthemanfull in thefacesheaddedsmilinglsquoIt isallhonestmoneyitwonthurtthegoodcausersquo

ldquoTheclerkassuredherthatnoonehaddoubtedherhonestybutthatsheherselfhad no doubt often known want and that it was hardly right to let hercontributesolargeasumprobablythewholeofhersavings

ldquoTheoldwomanremainedsilent fora timebutafter shehadquietlyscannedthefacesofallpresentshesaid lsquoSurely itconcernsnoonehowIgot the [pg148]moneyManyathoughtpassedthroughmyheartwhileIwascountingthatmoneyYouwouldnotaskmetotellyouallButyouarekindgentlemenandyou takemuch trouble for us poor people So Ill tell youwhence themoneycameYesIhaveknownwantfoodhasbeenscarcewithmemanyadayanditwillbesoagainasIgrowolderButourgraciousLordwatchesoverusHehashelpedme to bear the troubleswhichHe sentHewill never forsakemeMyhusbandhasbeendeadthismanyandmanyayearIhadoneonlysonandmyJohnwasafinestoutfellowandheworkedhardandhewouldnotleavehisoldmotherHemademyhomesnugandcomfortableThencamethewarwiththeDanesAllhisfriendsjoinedthearmybuttheonlysonofawidowyouknowisfreeSoheremainedathomeandnoonesaidtohimldquoComealongwithusrdquoforthey knew that he was a brave boy and that it broke his very heart to staybehindIknewitallIwatchedhimwhenthepeopletalkedofthewarorwhenthe schoolmasterbrought thenewspaperAhhowhe turnedpale and red andhow he looked away and thought his old mother did not see it But he saidnothingtomeandIsaidnothingtohimGraciousGodwhocouldhavethoughtthatitwassohardtodriveouroppressorsoutofthelandThencamethenewsfromFredericiaThatwasadreadfulnightWesatinsilenceoppositeeachotherWe knewwhatwas in our hearts andwe hardly dared to look at each otherSuddenlyheroseandtookmyhandandsaidldquoMotherrdquomdashGodbepraisedIhad

strengthinthatmomentmdashldquoJohnrdquoIsaidldquoourtimehascomegoinGodsnameIknowhowthoulovestmeandwhatthouhastsufferedGodknowswhatwillbecome[pg149]ofme if IamleftquitealonebutourLordJesusChristwillforsakeneither theenormerdquo John enlisted as a volunteerThe day of partingcameAhIammakingalongstoryofitallJohnstoodbeforemeinhisnewuniformldquoMotherrdquohesaidldquoonerequestbeforewepartmdashifitistoberdquomdashldquoJohnrdquoIsaidtohimldquoIknowwhatthoumeanestmdashOIshallweepIshallweepverymuchwhenIamalonebutmytimewillcomeandweshallmeetagaininthedayofourLordJohnandthelandshallbefreeJohnthelandshallbefreerdquothinsprsquo

ldquoHeavytearsstoodinthepooroldwomanseyesassherepeatedhersadtalebutshe sooncollectedherself andcontinued lsquoI didnot think then itwouldbe sohardTheheartalwayshopesevenagainsthopeButforallthatrsquomdashandheretheold woman drew herself up and looked at us like a queenmdashlsquoI have neverregrettedthatIbadehimgoThencamedreadfuldaysbutthemostdreadfulofallwaswhenwereadthattheGermanshadbetrayedthelandandthattheyhadgivenupourlandwithallourdeadtotheDanesThenIcalledontheLordandsaid ldquoO Lord my God how is that possible Why lettest Thou the wickedtriumphandallowestthejusttoperishrdquoAndIwastoldthattheGermansweresorryforwhattheyhaddonebutthattheycouldnothelpitButthatgentlemenI could never understandWe should never dowrong nor allowwrong to bedone And therefore I thought it cannot always remain so our good LordknowshisowngoodtimeandinhisowngoodtimeHewillcomeanddeliverusAndIprayedeveryeveningthatourgraciousLordwouldpermitmetoseethatdaywhenthelandshouldbefreeandourdeardead[pg150]shouldsleepnomoreinDanishsoilAndasIhadnoothersonagainstthatdayIsavedeveryyearwhatIcouldsaveandoneveryChristmasEveIplaceditbeforemeonatablewhereinformeryearsIhadalwaysplacedasmallpresentformyJohnandIsaidinmyheartThewarwillcomeagainandthelandwillbefreeandthoushaltsleepinafreegravemyonlysonmyJohnAndnowgentlementhepoor oldwomanhas been told that the dayhas come and that her prayer hasbeenheardandthat thewarwillbeginagainandthat iswhyshehasbroughthermoney themoney she saved for her sonGoodmorning gentlemenrsquoshesaidandwasgoingquicklyaway

ldquoButbeforeshehadlefttheroomanoldgentlemansaidloudenoughforhertohearlsquoPoorbodyIhopeshemaynotbedeceivedrsquo

ldquothinsplsquoAhrsquosaidtheoldwomanturningbacklsquoIknowwhatyoumeanIhavebeen

toldall isnotrightyetButhavefaithmenthewickedcannotprevailagainstthejustmancannotprevailagainsttheLordHoldtothatgentlemenholdfasttogethergentlemenThisverydayImdashbegintosaveupagainrsquo

ldquoBlesshergoodoldsoulAndifOdinwerestilllookingoutofhiswindowinthe sky as of yore when he granted victory to the women of the Lombardsmighthenotsayevennowmdash

ldquothinsplsquoWhenwomenareheroesWhatmustthemenbelikeTheirsisthevictoryNoneedofmersquothinsprdquo

[pg151]

VIIJOINVILLE29

Our attention was attracted a few months ago by a review published in theldquoJournaldesDeacutebatsrdquoinwhichanewtranslationofJoinvillesldquoHistoiredeSaintLouisrdquobyMNatalisdeWaillyadistinguishedmemberoftheFrenchInstitutewaswarmlyrecommendedtotheFrenchpublicAfterpointingoutthemeritsofM deWaillys new rendering of Joinvilles text and the usefulness of such abookforenablingboysatschooltogainaninsightintotheheartsandmindsoftheCrusadersandtoformtothemselvesalivingconceptionofthemannersandcustomsofthepeopleofthethirteenthcenturythereviewerwhosenameiswellknowninthiscountryaswellas inFrancebyhisvaluablecontributionstothehistory of medicine dwelt chiefly on the fact that through the whole ofJoinvilles ldquoMeacutemoiresrdquo there is nomention whatever [pg 152] of surgeons orphysicians Nearly the whole French army is annihilated the King and hiscompanions lieprostrate fromwoundsanddisease Joinvillehimself is severaltimesonthepointofdeathyetnowhereaccordingtotheFrenchreviewerdoesthechroniclerrefertoamedicalstaffattachedtothearmyortothepersonoftheKingBeingsomewhatstartledatthisremarkweresolvedtoperuseoncemorethecharmingpagesofJoinvillesHistorynorhadwetoreadfarbeforewefoundthat one passage at least had been overlooked a passage which establishesbeyond thepossibilityofdoubt thepresenceof surgeonsandphysicians in thecampoftheFrenchCrusadersOnpage78ofMdeWaillysspiritedtranslationintheaccountofthedeathofGautierdAutregravechewereadthatwhenthatbraveknightwas carried back to his tent nearly dying ldquoseveral of the surgeons andphysicians of the camp came to see him and not perceiving that he wasdangerouslyinjuredtheybledhimonbothhisarmsrdquoTheresultwaswhatmightbeexpectedGautierdAutregravechesoonbreathedhislast

HavingonceopenedtheldquoMeacutemoiresrdquoofJoinvillewecouldnotbutgoontotheendfortherearefewbooksthatcarryonthereadermorepleasantlywhetherwereadtheminthequaintFrenchofthefourteenthcenturyorinthemoremodern

FrenchinwhichtheyhavejustbeenclothedbyMNatalisdeWaillySovividlydoestheeasygossipoftheoldsoldierbringbeforeoureyesthedaysofStLouisandHenryIIIthatweforgetthatwearereadinganoldchronicleandholdingconversewith theheroesof the thirteenthcenturyThefatesbothofJoinvillesldquoMeacutemoiresrdquoandofJoinvillehimselfsuggestinfactmanyreflectionsapartfrommeremediaeligvalhistory and a fewof [pg153] themmayherebegiven in thehope of reviving the impressions left on the minds of many by their firstacquaintancewiththeoldCrusaderorofinvitingotherstotheperusalofaworkwhichnoonewho takes an interest inmanwhether past or present can readwithoutrealpleasureandrealbenefit

ItisinterestingtowatchthehistoryofbooksandtogainsomekindofinsightintothevariouscircumstanceswhichcontributetoformthereputationofpoetsphilosophersorhistoriansJoinvillewhosenameisnowfamiliartothestudentofFrenchhistoryaswellastotheloverofFrenchliteraturemightfairlyhaveexpected that hismemorywould livebyhis acts of prowess andbyhis loyaldevotion and sufferingswhen following theKing of France St Louis on hisunfortunate crusade When previous to his departure for the Holy Land theyoungSeacuteneacutechaldeChampagnethenabouttwenty-fouryearsofagehadmadehisconfessiontotheAbbotofCheminonwhenbarefootandinawhitesheethewasperforminghispilgrimagestoBlehecourt(Blechicourt)StUrbainandothersacredshrinesinhisneighborhoodandwhenonpassinghisowndomainhewouldnotonceturnhiseyesbackonthecastleofJoinvilleldquopourcequelicuersnemeattendrisistdoubiauchastelquejelessoieetdemesdousenfansrdquo(ldquothat the heartmight notmakemepine after the beautiful castlewhich I leftbehindandaftermytwochildrenrdquo)hemusthavefeltthathappenwhatmighttohimselfthenameofhisfamilywouldliveandhisdescendantswouldresidefromcenturytocenturyinthosestrongtowerswherehelefthisyoungwifeAlixdeGrandpreacuteandhis sonandheir Jean thenbuta fewmonthsoldAfter fiveyearshereturnedfromhiscrusadefullofhonorsand[pg154]fullofwoundsHeheldoneofthehighestpositionsthataFrenchnoblemancouldholdHewasSeacuteneacutechaldeChampagneashisancestorshadbeenbeforehimSeveralmembersofhisfamilyhaddistinguishedthemselvesinformercrusadesandtheservicesofhisuncleGeoffroihadbeensohighlyappreciatedbyRichardCœurdeLionthathewasallowedbythatKingtoquarterthearmsofEnglandwithhisownBothatthecourtoftheComtesdeChampagnewhowereKingsofNavarreandat the court of Louis IXKing of France Joinvillewas awelcome guestHewitnessed the reigns of six kingsmdashof LouisVIII 1223-26 Louis IX or StLouis 1226-70 Philip III leHardi 1270-85 Philip IV le Bel 1285-1314

LouisX leHutin1314-16 andPhilipV leLong1316-22Thoughlater inlifeJoinvilledeclinedtofollowhisbelovedKingonhislastandfatalcrusadein1270 he tells us himself how on the day onwhich he took leave of him hecarriedhis royal friend thenreallyon thebrinkofdeath inhisarmsfromtheresidenceoftheComtedAuxerretothehouseoftheCordeliersIn1282hewasoneoftheprincipalwitnesseswhenprevioustothecanonizationoftheKinganinquestwasheldtoestablishthepurityofhislife thesincerityofhisreligiousprofessionsandthegenuinenessofhisself-sacrificingdevotioninthecauseofChristendom When the daughter of his own liege lord the Comte deChampagne Jeanne de Navarre married Philip le Bel and becameQueen ofFranceshemadeJoinvilleGovernorofChampagnewhichshehadbroughtasherdowrytothegrandsonofStLouisSurelythenwhentheoldCrusaderthefriendandcounselorofmanykingsclosedhisearthlycareeratthegoodageofninety-fivehemighthavelookedforwardtoan[pg155]honoredgrave in theChurch of St Laurent and to an eminent place in the annals of his countrywhichwerethenbeingwritteninmoreorlesselegantLatinbythemonksofStDenis

ButwhathashappenedThemonkishchroniclersnodoubthaveassignedhimhis proper place in their tedious volumes and there his memory would havelived with that kind of life which belongs to the memory of Geoffroi hisillustriousunclethefriendofPhilipAugustusthecompanionofRichardCœurdeLionwhosearmsweretobeseenintheChurchofStLaurentatJoinvillequarteredwith the royalarmsofEnglandSuchparchmentorhatchmentglorymighthavebeenhisandmanyaknightasgoodashehasreceivednobetternomorelastingrewardforhisloyaltyandbraveryHisfamilybecameextinctinhisgrandsonHenrideJoinvillehisgrandsonhadnosonsandhisdaughterbeingawealthyheiresswasmarried tooneof theDukesofLorraineTheDukesofLorraine were buried for centuries in the same Church of St Laurent whereJoinville reposed and where he had founded a chapel dedicated to hiscompanioninarmsLouisIXtheRoyalSaintofFranceandwhenatthetimeof the French Revolution the tombs of St Denis were broken open by aninfuriated people and their ashes scattered abroad the vaults of the church atJoinville too shared the same fate and the remains of the brave Crusadersuffered the same indignity as the remains of his saintedKing It is true thatthere were some sparks of loyalty and self-respect left in the hearts of thecitizensofJoinvilleTheyhadthebonesoftheoldwarriorandoftheDukesofLorrainereinterredinthepubliccemeteryandtheretheynowrestmingledwiththe dust of [pg 156] their faithful lieges and subjects But the Church of St

LaurentwithitstombsandtombstonesisgoneThepropertyoftheJoinvillesdescendedfromtheDukesofLorrainetotheDukesofGuiseandlastlytothefamilyofOrleansThefamousDukeofOrleansEgaliteacutesoldJoinvillein1790andstipulatedthattheoldcastleshouldbedemolishedPoplarsandfir-treesnowcover thegroundof theancientcastleand thenameofJoinville isbornebyaroyal prince the son of a dethroned king the grandson ofLouisEgaliteacutewhodiedontheguillotine

Neither his noble birth nor his noble deeds nor the friendship of kings andprinces would have saved Joinville from that inevitable oblivion which hasblotted from the memory of living men the names of his more eminentcompanionsmdashRobert Count of Artois Alphonse Count of Poitiers CharlesCount ofAnjouHugueDuke ofBurgundyWilliamCount of Flanders andmanymoreAlittlebookwhichtheoldwarriorwroteordictatedmdashforitisverydoubtful whether he could have written it himselfmdasha book which for manyyearsattractednobodysattentionandwhichevennowwedonotpossessintheoriginallanguageofthethirteenthorthebeginningofthefourteenthcenturiesmdashhassecuredtothenameofJeandeJoinvillealivingimmortalityandafamethatwill last long after the bronze statuewhichwas erected in his native place in1853 shall have shared the fate of his castle of his church and of his tombNothingcouldhavebeenfurtherfromthemindoftheoldnoblemanwhenattheageofeighty-fivehebeganthehistoryofhisroyalcomradeStLouisthanthehopeofliteraryfameHewouldhavescouteditThatkindoffamemighthavebeengoodenoughformonks[pg157]andabbotsbutitwouldneveratthattimehaverousedtheambitionofamanofJoinvillesstampHowthebookcametobe written he tells us himself in his dedication dated in the year 1309 andaddressed to Louis le Hutin then only King of Navarre and Count ofChampagnebutafterwardsKingofFranceHismotherJeanneofNavarrethedaughterofJoinvilles former liege lord the lastof theCountsofChampagnewhowasmarriedtoPhilipleBelthegrandsonofStLouishadaskedhimldquotohaveabookmadeforhercontainingthesacredwordsandgoodactionsofourKing St Looysrdquo She died before the book was finished and JoinvillethereforesentittohersonHowitwasreceivedbyhimwedonotknownoristhereanyreason tosuppose that thereweremore thana fewcopiesmadeofaworkwhichwasintendedchieflyformembersoftheroyalfamilyofFranceandofhisownfamily It isneverquotedbyhistoricalwritersof that timeand thefirsthistorianwhoreferstoitissaidtobePierreleBaudwhotowardtheendofthefifteenthcenturywrotehisldquoHistoiredeBretagnerdquo Ithasbeenproved thatforalongtimenomentionofthededicationcopyoccursintheinventoriesofthe

privatelibrariesoftheKingsofFranceAtthedeathofLouisleHutinhislibraryconsistedoftwenty-ninevolumesandamongthemtheHistoryofStLouisdoesnotoccurThere is indeedoneentryldquoQuatrecaiersdeSaintLooysrdquobut thiscouldnotbemeantfor theworkofJoinvillewhichwasinonevolumeThesefourcahiersorquiresofpaperweremore likelymanuscriptnotesofStLouishimselfHis confessorGeoffroydeBeaulieu relates that theKing beforehislastillnesswrotedownwithhisownhandsomesalutarycounselsinFrenchof[pg158]whichhetheconfessorprocuredacopybeforetheKingsdeathandwhichhetranslatedfromFrenchintoLatin

AgainthewidowofLouisXleftatherdeathacollectionofforty-onevolumesandthewidowofCharlesleBelacollectionoftwentyvolumesbutinneitherofthemisthereanymentionofJoinvillesHistory

It isnot tillwecometo thereignofCharlesV(1364-80) thatJoinvillesbookoccursintheinventoryoftheroyallibrarydrawnupin1373bytheKingsvaletdechambreGillesMalletItisenteredasldquoLaviedeSaintLoyset lesfaisdesonvoyagedoutremerrdquoandinthemarginofthecataloguethereisanoteldquoLeRoylapardeverssoyrdquomdashldquoTheKinghasitbyhimrdquoAtthetimeofhisdeaththevolume had not yet been returned to its proper place in the first hall of theLouvre but in the inventory drawn up in 1411 it appears again with thefollowingdescription30mdash

ldquoUnegrantpartiedelavieetdesfaisdeMonseigneurSaintLoysquefistfaireleSeigneur de Joinville tregraves-bien escript et historieacute Convert de cuir rouge agraveempreintesagravedeuxfermoirsdargentEscriptdelettresdeformeenfranccediloisagravedeuxcoulombescommenccedilantaudeuxiegravemefolio lsquoetporcequersquo et au derrenier lsquoen telemanierersquothinsprdquo

This means ldquoA great portion of the life and actions of St Louis which theSeigneurdeJoinvillehadmadeverywellwrittenandilluminatedBoundinredleathertooledwithtwosilverclaspsWritteninformallettersinFrenchintwocolumnsbeginningonthesecondfoliowiththewordslsquoetporcequersquoandonthelastwithlsquoentelemanierersquothinsprdquo

DuringtheMiddleAgesandbeforethediscovery[pg159]ofprintingthetaskofhavingaliteraryworkpublishedorratherofhavingitcopiedrestedchieflywiththeauthorandasJoinvillehimselfathistimeoflifeandinthepositionwhichheoccupiedhadnointerest inwhatweshouldcallldquopushingrdquohisbook

thisaloneisquitesufficienttoexplainitsalmosttotalneglectButothercausestoo havebeen assignedbyMPaulinParis andothers forwhat seems at firstsightsoverystrangemdashtheentireneglectofJoinvillesworkFromthebeginningofthetwelfthcenturythemonksofStDenisweretherecognizedhistoriansofFrance They at first collected the most important historical works of formercenturiessuchasGregoryofToursEginhardtheso-calledArchbishopTurpinNithardandWilliamofJumiegravegesButbeginningwiththefirstyearofPhilipI1060-1108themonksbecamethemselvesthechroniclersofpassingeventsThefamousAbbotSuger the contemporary ofAbelard andStBernardwrote thelifeofLouisleGrosRigordandGuillaumedeNangisfollowedwiththehistoryof his successors Thus the official history of St Louis had been written byGuillaume de Nangis long before Joinville thought of dictating his personalrecollectionsoftheKingBesidestheworkofGuillaumedeNangis therewastheldquoHistoryoftheCrusadesrdquoincludingthatofStLouiswrittenbyGuillaumeArchbishopofTyreand translated intoFrenchso thateven thegroundwhichJoinvillehadmoreespeciallyselectedashisownwaspreoccupiedbyapopularandauthoritativewriterLastlywhenJoinvillesHistoryappearedthechivalrousKingwhosesayingsanddoingshisoldbrotherinarmsundertooktodescribeinhis homely and truthful style had ceased to be an ordinary mortal He hadbecome[pg160] a saint andwhat peoplewere anxious to knowof himwerelegends rather than history With all the sincere admiration which JoinvilleentertainedforhisKinghecouldnotcompetewithsuchwritersasGeoffroydeBeaulieu (Gaufridus de Belloloco) the confessor of St Louis Guillaume deChartres(GuillelmusCarnotensis)hischaplainortheconfessorofhisdaughterBlancheeachofwhomhadwrittena lifeof the royalsaintTheirworkswerecopiedoverandoveragainandnumerousMSShavebeenpreservedoftheminpublicandprivatelibrariesOfJoinvilleoneearlyMSonlywassavedandeventhatnotaltogetherafaithfulcopyoftheoriginal

The first edition of Joinvillewas printed at Poitiers in 1547 and dedicated toFranccediloisITheeditorPierreAntoinedeRieux tellsusthatwhen in1542heexaminedsomeolddocumentsatBeaufortenValeacuteeinAnjouhefoundamongthe MSS the Chronicle of King Louis written by a Seigneur de JoinvilleSeacuteneacutechaldeChampagnewholivedatthattimeandhadaccompaniedthesaidStLouisinallhiswarsButbecauseitwasbadlyarrangedorwritteninaveryrudelanguagehehaditpolishedandputinbetterorderaproceedingofwhichhe is evidently very proud as we may gather from a remark of his friendGuillaumedePerriegravere thatldquoit isnosmallerpraisetopolishadiamondthantofinditquiterawrdquo(toutebrute)

This text which could hardly be called Joinvilles remained for a time thereceivedtextItwasreproducedin1595in1596andin1609

In1617aneweditionwaspublishedbyClaudeMenardHestatesthathefoundat Laval a heap of old papers which had escaped the ravages committed [pg161]bytheProtestantsinsomeofthemonasteriesatAnjouWhenhecomparedtheMSofJoinvillewiththeeditionofPierreAntoinedeRieuxhefoundthattheancientstyleofJoinvillehadbeengreatlychangedHethereforeundertookaneweditionmore faithful to theoriginalUnfortunately however hisoriginalMSwasbutamoderncopyandhiseditionthoughanimprovementonthatof1547 was still very far from the style and language of the beginning of thefourteenthcentury

The learned Du Cange searched in vain for more trustworthy materials forrestoringthetextofJoinvilleInvaluableasarethedissertationswhichhewroteonJoinvillehisowntextoftheHistorypublishedin1668couldonlybebasedonthetwoeditionsthathadprecededhisown

Itwasnottill1761thatrealprogresswasmadeinrestoringthetextofJoinvilleAn ancientMS had been brought fromBrussels by theMareacutechalMaurice deSaxe Itwas carefully editedbyMCapperonnier and it has servedwith fewexceptions as the foundation of all later editions It is now in the ImperialLibrary The editors of the ldquoRecueil des Historiens de Francerdquo express theirbeliefthattheMSmightactuallybetheoriginalAttheendofitarethewordsldquoCe fu escript en lan de gracircce mil CCC et IX on moys doctovrerdquo ThishoweverisnorealproofofthedateoftheMSTranscribersofMSSitiswellknownwere in thehabitofmechanicallycopyingall theysawin theoriginalandhencewefindverycommonlythedateofanoldMSrepeatedoverandoveragaininmoderncopies

Theargumentsbywhichin1839MPaulinParisprovedthatthistheoldestMSof Joinville belongs [pg 162] not to the beginning but to the end of thefourteenth century seem unanswerable though they failed to convince MDaunouwhointhetwentiethvolumeoftheldquoHistoriensdeFrancerdquopublishedin1840stilllooksuponthisMSaswrittenin1309oratleastduringJoinvilleslife-timeM Paulin Paris establishes first of all that thisMS cannot be thesame as that whichwas so carefully described in the catalogue of CharlesVWhatbecameofthatMSoncebelongingtotheprivatelibraryoftheKingsofFrancenooneknowsbutthereisnoreasonevennowwhyitshouldnotstill

berecoveredTheMSofJoinvillewhichnowbelongstotheImperialLibraryiswrittenbythesamescribewhowroteanotherMSofldquoLaVieetlesMiraclesdeSaintLouisrdquoNowthisMSofldquoLaVieetlesMiraclesrdquoisacopyofanolderMS which likewise exists at Paris This more ancient MS probably theoriginal andwritten therefore in thebeginningof the fourteenthcenturyhadbeencarefullyrevisedbeforeitservedasthemodelforthelatercopyexecutedbythesamescribewhoaswesawwrotetheoldMSofJoinvilleAnumberofletterswerescratchedoutwordserasedandsometimeswholesentencesalteredorsuppressedaredlinebeingdrawnacrossthewordswhichhadtobeomittedIt looks in fact like amanuscript prepared for the printer Now if the samecopyistwhocopiedthisMScopiedlikewisetheMSofJoinvilleitfollowsthathe was separated from the original of Joinville by the same interval whichseparatesthecorrectedMSSofldquoLaVieetlesMiraclesrdquofromtheiroriginalorfrom the beginning of the fourteenth century This line of argument seems toestablish satisfactorily the approximate date of the oldestMS of Joinville asbelongingtotheendofthefourteenthcentury

[pg163]Another MS was discovered at Lucca As it had belonged to the Dukes ofGuisegreatexpectationswereatonetimeentertainedofitsvalueItwasboughtbytheRoyalLibraryatParisin1741for360livresbutitwassoonprovednottobeolderthanabout1500representingthelanguageofthetimeofFranccediloisIratherthanofStLouisbutneverthelesspreservingoccasionallyamoreancientspelling than theotherMSwhichwas copied twohundredyears beforeThisMSbearsthearmsofthePrincessAntoinettedeBourbonandofherhusbandClaude de Lorraine who was ldquoDuc de Guise Comte dAumale Marquis deMayence et dElbeuf and Baron de Joinvillerdquo Their marriage took place in1513hediedin1550shein1583

There is a third MS which has lately been discovered It belonged to MBrissart-BinetofRheimsbecameknowntoMPaulinParisandwaslenttoMdeWaillyforhisneweditionofJoinvilleItseemstobeacopyoftheso-calledMSofLuccatheMSbelongingtothePrincessAntoinettedeBourbonanditismost likely theverycopywhich thatPrincessordered tobemade forLouisLasseacutereacutecanonofStMartinofTourswhopublishedanabridgmentofitin1541Byamostfortunateaccidentitsuppliesthepassagesfrompage88to112andfrompage126to139whicharewantingintheMSofLucca

Itmustbeadmittedthereforethatforanaccuratestudyofthehistoricalgrowth

oftheFrenchlanguagetheworkofJoinvilleisoflessimportancethanitwouldhavebeen if ithadbeenpreserved in itsoriginalorthographyandwithall thegrammatical peculiarities which mark the French of the thirteenth and thebeginning of the fourteenth century There may be [pg 164] no more than adistanceofnotquiteahundredyearsbetween theoriginalof Joinvilleand theearliestMSwhichwepossessButinthosehundredyearstheFrenchlanguagedidnotremainstationaryEvenas lateas the timeofMontaignewhenFrenchhasassumedafargreaterliterarysteadinessthatwritercomplainsofitsconstantchangeldquoIwrotemybookrdquohesaysinamemorablepassage(ldquoEssaisrdquoliv3c9)mdash

ldquoForfewpeopleandforafewyears If ithadbeenasubject thatought to last itshouldhavebeencommittedtoamorestablelanguage(Latin)Afterthecontinualvariationwhichhasfollowedourspeechtothepresentdaywhocanhopethat itspresentformwillbeusedfiftyyearshenceItglidesfromourhandseverydayandsinceIhavelivedithasbeenhalfchangedWesaythatatpresentitisperfectbuteverycenturysaysthesameofitsownIdonotwishtoholditbackifitwillflyawayandgoondeterioratingasitdoesItbelongstogoodandusefulwriterstonailthelanguagetothemselvesrdquo(delecloueragraveeux)

OntheotherhandwemustguardagainstforminganexaggeratednotionofthechangesthatcouldhavetakenplaceintheFrenchlanguagewithinthespaceofless than a century They refer chiefly to the spelling ofwords to the use ofsome antiquatedwords and expressions and to the less careful observation ofthe rules bywhich in ancientFrench the nominative is distinguished from theoblique cases both in the singular and the plural That the changes do notamount tomore than this can be proved by a comparison of other documentswhichclearlypreserve theactual languageof JoinvilleThere is a letterofhiswhich is preserved at the Imperial Library at Paris addressed to Louis X in1315 It was first published by Du Cange afterwards by M Daunou in thetwentieth [pg165] volume of the ldquoHistoriens deFrancerdquo and again byM deWailly There are likewise some charters of Joinville written in hischancellerieandinsomecaseswithadditionsfromhisownhandLastlythereisJoinvillesldquoCredordquocontaininghisnotesontheApostolicCreedpreservedinamanuscriptofthethirteenthcenturyThiswaspublishedintheldquoCollectiondesBibliophiles Franccedilaisrdquo unfortunately printed in twenty-five copies only TheMS of the ldquoCredordquo which formerly belonged to the public library of Parisdisappeared from it about twenty years ago and it now forms No 75 of acollectionofMSSbought in1849byLordAshburnhamfromMBarroisBycomparing the languageof these thirteenthcenturydocumentswith thatof the

earliestMS of JoinvillesHistory it is easy to see that althoughwehave lostsomething we have not lost very much and that at all events we need notsuspectintheearliestMSanychangesthatcouldinanywayaffectthehistoricalauthenticityofJoinvilleswork31

[pg166]TothehistorianoftheFrenchlanguagethelanguageofJoinvilleeventhoughitgives us only a picture of the French spoken at the time of Charles V orcontemporaneously with Froissart is still full of interest That language isseparated from theFrenchof thepresent daybynearly five centuries andwemay be allowed to give a few instances to show the curious changes both offormandmeaningwhichmanywordshaveundergoneduringthatinterval

InsteadofsœursisterJoinvillestillusessereurwhichwastherightformoftheobliquecasebutwasafterwardsreplacedbythenominativesuerorsœurThusp 424 E we read quant nous menames la serour le roy ie quand nousmenacircmeslasœurduroibutp466Alabbaiumlequesasuerfondaie labbaiumlequesasœurfondaInsteadofangeangelhehasbothangleandangrewheretherstandsfor thefinal lofangele themoreancientFrenchformofangelusThe same transition of final l into rmaybe observed inapocirctre for apostoluschapitreforcapitulumchartreforcartulaesclandreforscandalum InsteadofvieuxoldJoinvilleusesveilorveel(p132Cleveillefilauveilie levieuxfilsduvieux)butinthenomsingviexwhichistheLatinvetulus(p302AliViexde[pg167] laMontaingne ie leVieuxde laMontagnebutp304A limessaigeleVieilielesmessagersduVieux)InsteadofcoudemelbowwefindcoutewhichisnearertotheLatincubituscubitTheLatintinwordslikecubitus was generally softened in old French and was afterwards droppedaltogether As in coude the d is preserved in aider for adjutare in fade forfatuusInotherwordssuchaschaicircneforcatenaroueforrotaeacutepeacuteeforspathaaimecirce for amata it has disappeared altogether True is voir the regularmodificationofverum like soir of serum instead of themodern French vraiegp524BetsachiezquevoirsestaitieetsachezqueceacutetaitvraiWestillfindestertostand(ldquoEtnepooitestersursespiedsrdquoldquoHecouldnotstandonhislegsrdquo) At present the French have no single word for ldquostandingrdquo which hasoftenbeenpointedout asa realdefectof the language ldquoTostandrdquo isester inJoinvilleldquotoberdquoisestre

In thegrammatical systemof the languageof Joinvillewe find theconnectinglinkbetweenthecaseterminationsoftheclassicalLatinandtheprepositionsand

articlesofmodernFrench It isgenerallysupposed that the terminationsof theLatin declensionwere lost in French and that the relations of the caseswereexpressedbyprepositionswhilethesasthesignofthepluralwasexplainedbythes in the nom plur of nouns of the third declensionBut languages do notthus advance per saltum They change slowly and gradually and we cangenerallydiscoverinwhatissometracesofwhathasbeen

NowthefactisthatinancientFrenchandlikewiseinProvenccedilalthereisstillasystemofdeclensionmoreorlessindependentofprepositionsTherearesoto[pg168]say threedeclensions inoldFrenchofwhich thesecond is themostimportantandthemostinterestingIfwetakeaLatinwordlikeannuswefindinoldFrenchtwoformsinthesingularandtwointhepluralWefindsingan-sanpluranansIfanoccursinthenomsingorasthesubjectitisalwaysansifitoccurasagendatoraccitisalwaysanInthepluralonthecontrarywefindinthenomanandinalltheobliquecasesansTheoriginofthissystemisclearenoughandit isextraordinarythatattemptsshouldhavebeenmadetoderiveitfromGermanorevenfromCelticwhentheexplanationcouldbefoundsomuchnearerhomeThenomsinghasthesbecauseitwasthereinLatinthenomplurhasnosbecausetherewasnosthereinLatinTheobliquecasesinthe singular haveno s because the accusative inLatin and likewise the gendatandablendedeitherinvowelswhichbecamemuteorinmwhichwasdroppedTheobliquecases in thepluralhad thes because itwas there in theaccplurwhichbecame thegeneralobliquecaseand likewise in thedatandabl By means of these fragments of the Latin declension it was possible toexpressmanythingswithoutprepositionswhichinmodernFrenchcannolongerbethusexpressedLefilsRoiwasclearlythesonoftheKingilfilRoithesonsof theKing Againwe find li roys theKing but au roy to the King PierreSarrasin begins his letter on the crusade of St Louis by A seigneur NicolasArodeJehan-sSarrasinchambrelen-sleroydeFrancesalutetbonneamour

Butifweapplythesameprincipletonounsofthefirstdeclensionweshallseeat once that they could not [pg 169] have lent themselves to the samecontrivanceWords likecorona haveno s in the nom sing nor in anyof theobliquecases itwouldthereforebe inFrenchcorone throughout In thepluralindeed theremighthavebeenadistinctionbetween thenomand theaccThenom ought to have been without an s and the acc with an s But with theexceptionofsomedoubtfulpassageswhereanomplurissupposedtooccurinoldFrenchdocumentswithoutanswefindthroughoutbothinthenomandtheothercasesthesoftheaccusativeasthesignoftheplural

Nearly thesameapplies tocertainwordsof the thirddeclensionHerewefindindeedadistinctionbetweenthenomandtheobliquecasesofthesingularsuchasflor-stheflowerwithfloroftheflowerbutthepluralisflor-sthroughoutThisformischieflyconfinedtofemininenounsofthethirddeclension

There is another very curious contrivance by which the ancient Frenchdistinguished thenom fromtheacc singandwhichshowsusagainhowtheconsciousness of the Latin grammar was by no means entirely lost in theformationofmodernFrenchTherearemanywordsinLatinwhichchangetheiraccent in the oblique cases fromwhat itwas in the nominative For instancecantaacutetor a singer becomes cantatoacuterem in the accusative Now in ancientFrenchthenomcorrespondingtocantatorischaacutenterebut thegenchanteoacuterand thusagainadistinction isestablishedofgreat importance forgrammaticalpurposesMostof thesewords followed theanalogyof the seconddeclensionandaddedansinthenomsingdroppeditinthenomplurandaddeditagainintheobliquecasesofthepluralThuswegetmdash

[pg170]SINGULAR PLURALNom ObliqueCases Nom ObliqueCaseschaacutentere chanteoacuter chanteoacuter chanteoacutersFrombarobaronis baron baron barons(OFrber)latrolatronis larron larron larrons(OFrlierre)seniorsenioris seignor seignor seignors(OFrsendre)(sire)

ThuswereadinthebeginningofJoinvillesHistorymdash

AsonbonsignourLooysJehanssiresdeJoinvillesalutetamour

andimmediatelyafterwardsChierssirenotChiersseigneur

IfwecomparethisoldFrenchdeclensionwiththegrammarofmodernFrenchwefindthattheaccusativeortheobliqueformhasbecometheonlyrecognizedformbothinthesingularandpluralHencemdash

[Corone] [Ans] [Flors] [Chaacutentere]lechantreCorone An Flor Chanteoacuterlechanteur

[Corones] [An] [Flors] [Chanteoacuter]Corones Ans Flors Chanteoacuters

AfewtracesonlyoftheoldsystemremaininsuchwordsasfilsbrasCharlesJacquesetc

Not less curious than the changes of form are the changes ofmeaningwhichhave taken place in the French language since the days of Joinville Thus laviandewhichnowonlymeansmeatisusedbyJoinvilleinitsoriginalandmoregeneralsenseofvictuals theLatinvivendaFor instance (p248D) ldquoEtnousrequeismesqueennousdonnastlavianderdquoldquoAndweaskedthatonemightgiveus something to eatrdquoAnd soon after ldquoLes viandes que il nous donnegraverent cefurent begniet de fourmaiges qui estoient roti au soliel pour ce que li ver nivenissentetoefdur[pg171]cuitdequatrejoursoudecincrdquoldquoAndtheviandswhichtheygaveuswerecheese-cakesroastedinthesunthatthewormsmightnotgetatthemandhardeggsboiledfourorfivedaysagordquo

Payer to pay is still used in its original sense of pacifying or satisfying theLatinpacareThusapriestwhohasreceivedfromhisbishopanexplanationofsomedifficultyandotherghostlycomfortldquose tintbinpourpaieacuterdquo(p34C)heldquoconsideredhimselfwellsatisfiedrdquoWhentheKingobjectedtocertainwordsintheoathwhichhehadtotakeJoinvillesaysthathedoesnotknowhowtheoathwas finally arranged but he adds ldquoLi amiral se tindrent lien apaieacuterdquo ldquoTheadmiralsconsideredthemselvessatisfiedrdquo(p242C)Thesamewordhoweverislikewiseusedintheusualsenseofpaying

NoiseawordwhichhasalmostdisappearedfrommodernFrenchoccursseveraltimes in Joinville and we can watch in different passages the growth of itsvarious meanings In one passage Joinville relates (p 198) that one of hisknightshadbeenkilledandwaslyingonabierinhischapelWhilethepriestwas performing his office six other knights were talking very loud andldquoFaisoientnoiseauprestrerdquoldquoTheyannoyedordisturbedthepriesttheycausedhimannoyancerdquoHerenoisehasstill thesamesenseas theLatinnausea fromwhich it is derived In another passage however Joinville uses noise assynonymouswithbruit(p152A)Vintliroysagravetoutesabatailleagravegrantnoyseet agrave grant bruit de trompes et nacaires ievint le roi avec tout son corps debatailleagravegrandcrisetagravegrandbruitdetrompettesetdetimbalesHerenoisemaystillmeananannoyingnoisebutwecanseetheeasytransitionfromthattonoiseingeneral

[pg172]Another English word ldquoto purchaserdquo finds its explanation in JoinvilleOriginally pourchasser meant to hunt after a thing to pursue it Joinvillefrequentlyusestheexpressionldquoparsonpourchasrdquo(p458E)inthesenseofldquobyhisendeavorsrdquoWhentheKinghadreconciledtwoadversariespeaceissaidtohavebeenmadeparsonpourchasldquoPourchasserrdquoafterwards took thesenseofldquoprocuringrdquoldquocateringrdquoandlastlyinEnglishofldquobuyingrdquo

ToreturntoJoinvillesHistorythescarcityofMSSisveryinstructivefromanhistoricalpointofviewAsfarasweknowatpresenthisgreatworkexistedforcenturies in two copies only one preserved in his own castle the other in thelibraryoftheKingsofFranceWecanhardlysaythatitwaspublishedevenintherestrictedsensewhichthatwordhadduringthefourteenthcenturyandtherecertainly isnoevidence that itwasreadbyanyoneexceptbymembersof theroyalfamilyofFranceandpossiblybydescendantsofJoinvilleItexercisednoinfluence and if two or three copies had not luckily escaped (one of them itmustbeconfessedclearlyshowingthe tracesofmices teeth)weshouldhaveknownverylittleindeedeitherofthemilitaryoroftheliteraryachievementsofonewhoisnowrankedamongthechiefhistoriansofFranceorevenofEuropeAfterJoinvillesHistoryhadonceemergedfromitsobscurityitsoonbecamethefashiontopraiseitandtopraiseitsomewhatindiscriminatelyJoinvillebecameageneral favoriteboth inandoutofFranceandafterallhadbeensaid inhispraisethatmightbetrulyandproperlysaideachsuccessiveadmirertriedtoaddalittlemoretillatlastasamatterofcoursehewascomparedtoThucydidesand lauded for thegraces of [pg173] his style the vigor of his language thesubtlety of hismind and hisworship of the harmonious and the beautiful insuchamannerthattheoldbluffsoldierwouldhavebeenhighlyperplexedanddisgustedcouldhehavelistenedto thepraisesofhisadmirersWellmightMPaulinParissayldquoI shallnot stop topraisewhat everybodyhaspraisedbeforemetorecall thegracefulnaiumlveteacuteof thegoodSeacuteneacutechalwoulditnotbeas theEnglishpoetsaidlsquotogildthegoldandpaintthelilywhitersquothinsprdquo

It is surprising to find in the large crowdof indiscriminate admirers aman soaccurate in his thoughts and in his words as the late Sir James StephenConsidering how little Joinvilles History was noticed by his contemporarieshow little it was read by the people before it was printed during the reign ofFranccediloisIitmustseemmorethandoubtfulwhetherJoinvillereallydeservedaplaceinaseriesoflecturesldquoOnthePowerofthePeninFrancerdquoButwaivingthatpointisitquiteexacttosayasSirJamesStephendoesldquothatthreewriters

only retain andprobably theyalonedeserve at thisday theadmirationwhichgreeted them in their ownmdashI refer to Joinville Froissart and to Philippe deCominesrdquoAnd is the following a sober and correct description of Joinvillesstylemdash

ldquoOver the whole picture the genial spirit of France glows with all the naturalwarmthwhichweseekinvainamongthedrybonesofearlierchroniclersWithouttheuseofanydidacticformsofspeechJoinvilleteachesthehighestofallwisdommdashthewisdomofloveWithoutthepedantryoftheschoolsheoccasionallyexhibitsaneagerthirstofknowledgeandagracefulfacilityofimpartingitwhichattestthathe is of the lineage of the great father of history andof thosemodern historianswhohavetakenHerodotusfortheirmodelrdquo(Voliipp209219)

[pg174]NowallthissoundstoourearsjustanoctavetoohighThereissometruthinitbut thetruthisspoiltbybeingexaggeratedJoinvillesbookisverypleasant toread becausehegives himself no airs and tells us aswell as he canwhat herecollectsofhisexcellentKingandofthefearfultimewhichtheyspenttogetherduring the crusade He writes very much as an old soldier would speak Heseems to know that people will listen to himwith respect and that theywillbelievewhathetells themHedoesnotwearythemwithargumentsHeratherlikesnowandthentoevokeasmileandhemaintainstheglowofattentionbythinkingmoreofhishearers thanofhimselfHehadevidently toldhis storiesmanytimesbeforehefinallydictatedthemintheforminwhichwereadthemandthisiswhatgivestosomeofthemacertainfinishandtheappearanceofartYet ifwespeakofstyleatallmdashnotofthestyleofthoughtbutof thestyleoflanguagemdashthe blemishes in Joinvilles History are so apparent that one feelsreluctant to point them out He repeats his words he repeats his remarks hedropsthethreadofhisstorybeginsanewsubjectleavesitbecauseashesayshimselfitwouldcarryhimtoofarandthenafteratimereturnstoitagainHisdescriptionsofthescenerywherethecampwaspitchedandthebattlesfoughtareneithersufficientlybroadnorsufficientlydistincttogivethereaderthatviewofthewholewhichhereceivesfromsuchwritersasCaeligsarThiersCarlyleorRussellNoristhereanyattemptatdescribingoranalyzingthecharacteroftheprincipal actors in the crusade of St Louis beyond relating some of theirremarks or occasional conversations It is an ungrateful task to draw up theseindictments against a man whom one [pg 175] probably admires much moresincerelythanthosewhobespatterhimwithundeservedpraiseJoinvillesbookis readable and it is readable even in spite of the antiquated and sometimes

difficultlanguageinwhichitiswrittenTherearefewbooksofwhichwecouldsaythesameWhatmakeshisbookreadableispartlytheinterestattachingtothesubjectofwhichittreatsbutfarmorethesimplenaturalstraightforwardwayinwhich Joinville tellswhathehas to tellFromonepoint of view itmaybetrulysaidthatnohigherpraisecouldbebestowedonanystylethantosaythatitis simple natural straightforward and charming But if his indiscriminateadmirers had appreciated this artless art they would not have applied to thepleasant gossip of an old general epithets that are appropriate only to themasterpiecesofclassicalliterature

It is important to bear in mind what suggested to Joinville the first idea ofwritinghisbookHewasaskedtodosobytheQueenofPhilipleBelAfterthedeathoftheQueenhoweverJoinvilledidnotdedicatehisworktotheKingbuttohis sonwhowas then theheirapparentThismaybeexplainedby the factthathehimselfwasSeacuteneacutechaldeChampagneandLouisthesonofPhilipleBelComtedeChampagneButitadmitsofanotherandmoreprobableexplanationJoinville was dissatisfied with the proceedings of Philip le Bel and from theverybeginningofhis reignheopposedhisencroachmentson theprivilegesofthenobilityandthelibertiesofthepeopleHewaspunishedforhisoppositionandexcludedfromtheassembliesinChampagnein1287andthoughhisnameappearedagainontherollin1291JoinvillethenoccupiedonlythesixthinsteadofthefirstplaceIn[pg176]1314matterscametoacrisisinChampagneandJoinvillecalledtogetherthenobilityinordertodeclareopenlyagainsttheKingTheopportunedeathofPhilipalonepreventedthebreakingoutofarebellionItistruethattherearenodirectallusionstothesemattersinthebodyofJoinvillesbookyetan impression is lefton thereader thathewrotesomeportionof theLifeofStLouisasalessontotheyoungprincetowhomitisdedicatedOnceortwiceindeedheuseslanguagewhichsoundsominousandwhichwouldhardlybetoleratedinFranceevenafterthelapseoffivecenturiesWhenspeakingofthe great honorwhichSt Louis conferred on his family he says ldquothat itwasindeedagreathonortothoseofhisdescendantswhowouldfollowhisexampleby goodworks but a great dishonor to thosewhowould do evil For peoplewouldpointatthemwiththeirfingersandwouldsaythatthesaintedKingfromwhomtheydescendedwouldhavedespisedsuchwickednessrdquoThereisanotherpassageevenstrongerthanthisAfterrelatinghowStLouisescapedfrommanydangers by the grace of God he suddenly exclaims ldquoLet the King who nowreigns(PhilipleBel)takecareforhehasescapedfromasgreatdangersmdashnayfromgreateronesmdashthanwelethimseewhetherhecannotamendhisevilwayssothatGodmaynotstrikehimandhisaffairscruellyrdquo

Thissurelyisstronglanguageconsideringthatitwasusedinabookdedicatedto the son of the then reigningKing To the father of Philip le Bel Joinvilleseems to have spoken with the same frankness as to his son and he tells ushimselfhowhereprovedtheKingPhilipleHardiforhisextravagantdressandadmonishedhimtofollowtheexampleofhis [pg177] fatherSimilar remarksoccuragainandagainandthoughtheLifeofStLouiswascertainlynotwrittenmerelyfordidacticpurposesyetonecannothelpseeingthatitwaswrittenwithapracticalobjectIntheintroductionJoinvillesaysldquoIsendthebooktoyouthatyouandyourbrotherandotherswhohearitmaytakeanexampleandthattheymaycarryitoutintheirlifeforwhichGodwillblessthemrdquoAndagain(p268)ldquoThese things shall I cause to bewritten that thosewhohear themmayhavefaithinGodintheirpersecutionsandtribulationsandGodwillhelpthemasHedidmerdquo Again (p 380) ldquoThese things I have told you that you may guardagainst taking an oath without reason for as the wise say lsquoHe who swearsreadilyforswearshimselfreadilyrsquothinsprdquo

ItseemsthereforethatwhenJoinvilletooktodictatinghisrecollectionsofStLouishedidsopartly toredeemapromisegivento theQueenwhohesayslovedhimmuchandwhomhecouldnotrefusepartlytoplaceinthehandsoftheyoungprincesabookfullofhistoricallessonswhichtheymightreadmarkandinwardlydigest

Andwellmighthedosoandwellmighthisbookbereadbyallyoungprincesandbyallwhoareabletolearnalessonfromthepagesofhistoryforfewkingsifanydideverwear theircrownssoworthilyasLouisIXofFranceandfewsaintsifanydiddeservetheirhalobetterthanStLouisHereliesthedeepandlasting interestof Joinvilleswork Itallowsusan insight intoa lifewhichwecouldhardlyrealizenaywhichweshouldhardlybelieveinunlesswehadthetestimonyof that trustywitness Joinville theKings friend and comradeThelegendary lives of St Louis would have destroyed in the eyes of [pg 178]posterity the real greatness and the real sanctity of the Kings character WeshouldneverhaveknownthemanbutonlyhissaintlycaricatureAfterreadingJoinvillewemustmakeupourmindthatsuchalifeashetheredescribeswasreally lived andwas lived in those very palaceswhichwe are accustomed toconsiderasthesinksofwickednessandviceFromotherdescriptionswemighthave imagined Louis IX as a bigoted priest-ridden credulous King FromJoinvillewe learn that though unwavering in his faith andmost strict in theobservance of his religious duties the King was by no means narrow in hissympathies or partial to the encroachments of priestcraft We find Joinville

speakingtotheKingonsubjectsofreligionwiththegreatestfreedomandasnocourtierwouldhavedaredtospeakduringthelateryearsofLouisXIVsreignWhentheKingaskedhimwhetherintheholyweekheeverwashedthefeetofthepoorJoinvillerepliedthathewouldneverwashthefeetofsuchvillainsForthis remark he was no doubt reproved by the King who as we are told byBeaulieuwith themost unpleasant detailswashed the feet of the poor everySaturday But the reply though somewhat irreverent is nevertheless highlycreditable to thecourtiers franknessAnother timeheshockedhis royal friendstillmorebytellinghiminthepresenceofseveralprieststhathewouldratherhavecommittedthirtymortalsinsthanbealeperTheKingsaidnothingatthetime but he sent for him the next day and reproved him in the most gentlemannerforhisthoughtlessspeech

JoinvilletoowithalltherespectwhichheentertainedforhisKingwouldneverhesitate to speakhismindwhenhe thought that theKingwas in the [pg 179]wrongOnoneoccasiontheAbbotofClunypresentedtheKingwithtwohorsesworth five hundred livres The next day theAbbot came again to theKing todiscuss somematters of business Joinville observed that theKing listened tohimwithmarkedattentionAftertheAbbotwasgonehewenttotheKingandsaidldquothinsplsquoSiremayIaskyouwhetheryoulistened to theAbbotmorecheerfullybecausehepresentedyouyesterdaywithtwohorsesrsquoTheKingmeditatedforatimeandthensaidtomelsquoTrulyyesrsquolsquoSirersquosaidIlsquodoyouknowwhyIaskedyouthisquestionrsquolsquoWhyrsquosaidhelsquoBecauseSirersquoIsaidlsquoIadviseyouwhenyoureturn toFrance toprohibitall sworncounselors fromacceptinganythingfromthosewhohavetobringtheiraffairsbeforethemForyoumaybecertainiftheyacceptanythingtheywilllistenmorecheerfullyandattentivelytothosewhogiveasyoudidyourselfwiththeAbbotofClunyrsquothinsprdquo

Surely a kingwho could listen to such language is not likely to have had hiscourt filledwith hypocriteswhether lay or clerical The bishops though theymightcounton theKingforanyhelphecouldgive themin thegreatworkofteachingraisingandcomfortingthepeopletriedinvaintomakehimcommitan injustice in defense ofwhat they considered religionOne day a numerousdeputationofprelatesaskedforaninterviewItwasreadilygrantedWhentheyappearedbeforetheKingtheirspokesmansaidldquoSiretheselordswhoareherearchbishopsandbishopshaveaskedmetotellyouthatChristianityisperishingatyourhandsrdquoTheKingsignedhimselfwiththecrossandsaidldquoTellmehowcan that berdquo ldquoSirerdquo he said ldquoit is because people care so little [pg 180]nowadaysforexcommunicationthattheywouldratherdieexcommunicatedthan

have themselves absolved and give satisfaction to the Church Now we prayyouSire for thesakeofGodandbecause it isyourduty thatyoucommandyour provosts and bailiffs that by seizing the goods of those who allowthemselves to be excommunicated for the space of one year they may forcethem to come and be absolvedrdquoThen theKing replied that hewould do thiswillinglywithallthoseofwhomitcouldbeprovedthattheywereinthewrong(whichwouldinfacthavegiventheKingjurisdictioninecclesiasticalmatters)ThebishopssaidthattheycouldnotdothisatanypricetheywouldneverbringtheircausesbeforehiscourtThentheKingsaidhecouldnotdoitotherwiseforitwouldbeagainstGodandagainstreasonHeremindedthemofthecaseoftheComtedeBretagnewhohadbeenexcommunicatedbytheprelatesofBrittanyforthespaceofsevenyearsandwhowhenheappealedtothePopegainedhiscausewhiletheprelateswerecondemnedldquoNowthenrdquotheKingsaidldquoifIhadforcedtheComtedeBretagnetogetabsolutionfromtheprelatesafter thefirstyearshouldInothavesinnedagainstGodandagainsthimrdquo

ThisisnotthelanguageofabigotedmanandifwefindinthelifeofStLouistracesofwhatinouragewemightfeelinclinedtocallbigotryorcredulitywemust consider that the religiousand intellectual atmosphereof the reignofStLouiswasverydifferentfromourownTherearenodoubtsomeofthesayingsanddoingsrecordedbyJoinvilleofhisbelovedKingwhichatpresentwouldbeunanimouslycondemnedevenbythemostorthodoxandnarrow-mindedThinkof an assembly of theologians in the monastery [pg 181] of Cluny who hadinvitedadistinguishedrabbitodiscusscertainpointsofChristiandoctrinewiththemAknightwhohappenedtobestayingwith theabbotaskedfor leavetoopenthediscussionandheaddressedtheJewinthefollowingwordsldquoDoyoubelieve that theVirginMarywasavirginandMotherofGodrdquoWhentheJewrepliedldquoNordquotheknighttookhiscrutchandfelledthepoorJewtothegroundTheKingwho relates this to Joinvilledrawsoneverywise lesson from itmdashnamely that no one who is not a very good theologian should enter upon acontroversy with Jews on such subjects But when he goes on to say that alaymanwhohearstheChristianreligionevilspokenofshouldtaketotheswordastherightweaponofdefenseandrunit intothemiscreantsbodyasfarasitwould go we perceive at once that we are in the thirteenth and not in thenineteenthcenturyThepunishmentswhichtheKinginflictedforswearingweremostcruelAtCesareaJoinville tellsus thathesawagoldsmithfastened toaladder with the entrails of a pig twisted round his neck right up to his nosebecause he had used irreverent language Nay after his return from the HolyLandheheardthattheKingorderedamansnoseandlowerliptobeburntfor

the sameoffenseThePopehimselfhad to interfere topreventStLouis frominflictingonblasphemersmutilationanddeathldquoIwouldmyselfbebrandedwitha hot ironrdquo theKing said ldquoif thus I could drive away all swearing frommykingdomrdquoHe himself as Joinville assures us never used an oath nor did hepronouncethenameoftheDevilexceptwhenreadingthelivesofthesaintsHissoulwecannotdoubtwasgrievedwhenheheardthenameswhichtohimwerethemost sacred [pg 182] employed for profane purposes and this feeling ofindignationwassharedbyhishonestchroniclerldquoInmycastlerdquosaysJoinvilleldquowhosoeverusesbadlanguagereceivesagoodpommelingandthishasnearlyputdownthatbadhabitrdquoHereagainwesee theuprightcharacterofJoinvilleHedoesnotlikemostcourtierstrytooutbidhissovereigninpiousindignationon thecontrarywhilesharinghis feelingshegently reproves theKingforhisexcessivezealandcrueltyandthisaftertheKinghadbeenraisedtotheexaltedpositionofasaint

To doubt of any points of the Christian doctrinewas considered at JoinvillestimeasitisevennowasatemptationoftheDevilButhereagainweseeatthecourt of St Louis awonderfulmixture of tolerance and intolerance Joinvillewho evidently spoke hismind freely on all things received frequent reproofsand lessons fromtheKingandwehardlyknowwhich towonderatmost theweaknessoftheargumentsorthegentleandtrulyChristianspiritinwhichtheKingused themTheKingonce asked Joinville howheknew that his fathersnamewasSymonJoinvillerepliedheknewitbecausehismotherhadtoldhimsoldquoThenrdquotheKingsaidldquoyououghtlikewisefirmlytobelieveallthearticlesof faithwhich theApostles attest asyouhear themsungeverySunday in theCreedrdquoTheuseofsuchanargumentbysuchamanleavesanimpressiononthemind that theKinghimselfwasnot free fromreligiousdoubtsanddifficultiesand that his faith was built upon ground which was apt to shake And thisimpressionisconfirmedbyaconversationwhichimmediatelyfollowsafterthisargumentItislongbutitisfartooimportanttobehereomittedTheBishopofParis had [pg 183] told the King probably in order to comfort him afterreceivingfromhimtheconfessionofsomeofhisownreligiousdifficultiesthatone day he received a visit from a greatmaster in divinity Themaster threwhimselfattheBishopsfeetandcriedbitterlyTheBishopsaidtohimmdash

ldquothinsplsquoMaster do not despair no one can sin somuch thatGod could not forgivehimrsquo

ldquoThemaster said lsquoI cannot help crying for I believe I am amiscreant for I

cannotbringmyhearttobelievethesacramentofthealtarastheholyChurchteachesitandIknowfullwellthatitisthetemptationoftheenemyrsquo

ldquothinsplsquoMasterrsquo replied the Bishop lsquotell me when the enemy sends you thistemptationdoesitpleaseyoursquo

ldquoAndthemastersaidlsquoSiritpainsmeasmuchasanythingcanpainrsquo

ldquothinsplsquoThenIaskyoursquotheBishopcontinuedlsquowouldyoutakegoldorsilverinordertoavowwithyourmouthanythingthat isagainst thesacramentof thealtaroragainsttheothersacredsacramentsoftheChurchrsquo

ldquoAndthemastersaidlsquoKnowsirthatthereisnothingintheworldthatIshouldtakeIwouldratherthatallmylimbsweretornfrommybodythanopenlyavowthisrsquo

ldquothinsplsquoThenrsquo said theBishop lsquoI shall tell you something elseYou know that theKingofFrancemadewaragainst theKingofEnglandandyouknowthat thecastlewhichisnearesttothefrontierisLaRochelleinPoitouNowIshallaskyouiftheKinghadtrustedyoutodefendLaRochelleandhehadtrustedmetodefendtheCastleofLaonwhichisintheheartofFrancewherethecountryisatpeaceto[pg184]whomoughttheKingtobemorebeholdenattheendofthewarmdashtoyouwhohaddefendedLaRochellewithoutlosingitortomewhokepttheCastleofLaonrsquo

ldquothinsplsquoInthenameofGodrsquosaidthemasterlsquotomewhohadkeptLaRochellewithlosingitrsquo

ldquothinsplsquoMasterrsquosaid theBishop lsquoI tellyou thatmyheart is like theCastleofLaon(Montleheri) for I feel no temptation andnodoubt as to the sacramentof thealtarthereforeItellyouifGodgivesmeonerewardbecauseIbelievefirmlyandinpeaceHewillgiveyoufourbecauseyoukeepyourheartforHiminthisfightoftribulationandhavesuchgoodwilltowardHimthatfornoearthlygoodnorforanypaininflictedonyourbodyyouwouldforsakeHimThereforeIsaytoyoubeateaseyourstateismorepleasingtoourLordthanmyownrsquothinsprdquo

WhenthemasterhadheardthishefellonhiskneesbeforetheBishopandfeltagainatpeace

Surely if thecruelpunishment inflictedbyStLouisonblasphemers isbehind

ourageisnotthelovethehumilitythetruthfulnessofthisBishopmdashisnotthespiritinwhichheactedtowardthepriestandthespiritinwhichherelatedthisconversationtotheKingsomewhatinadvanceofthecenturyinwhichwelive

IfweonlydwelloncertainpassagesofJoinvillesmemoirsitiseasytosaythathe and his King and the whole age in which they moved were credulousengrossedbythemereformalitiesofreligionandfanaticalintheirenterprisetorecoverJerusalemandtheHolyLandButletuscandidlyenterintotheirviewoflife and many things which at first seem strange and startling will becomeintelligible Joinvilledoesnot relatemanymiraclesandsuch ishisgood faith[pg 185] that we may implicitly believe the facts such as he states themhowever wemay differ as to the interpretation by which to Joinvilles mindthese facts assumed amiraculous characterOn theirway to theHolyLand itseems that their ship was windbound for several days and that they were indangerofbeing takenprisonersby thepiratesofBarbary Joinville recollectedthe saying of a priest who had told him that whatever had happened in hisparishwhethertoomuchrainortoolittlerainoranythingelseifhemadethreeprocessions for three successive Saturdays his prayer was always heardJoinvillethereforerecommendedthesameremedySeasickashewashewascarriedondeckandtheprocessionwasformedroundthetwomastsoftheshipAssoonasthiswasdonethewindroseandtheshiparrivedatCyprusthethirdSaturdayThesameremedywasresortedtoasecondtimeandwithequaleffectTheKingwaswaitingatDamiettaforhisbrothertheComtedePoitiersandhisarmyandwasveryuneasyaboutthedelayinhisarrivalJoinvilletoldthelegateof the miracle that had happened on their voyage to Cyprus The legateconsented tohave threeprocessionson three successiveSaturdays andon thethirdSaturdaytheComtedePoitiersandhisfleetarrivedbeforeDamiettaOnemoreinstancemaysufficeOntheirreturntoFranceasailorfelloverboardandwasleft inthewaterJoinvillewhoseshipwasclosebysawsomethinginthewater but as he observed no struggle he imagined it was a cask Themanhowever was picked up and when asked why he did not exert himself hereplied that he saw no necessity for it As soon as he fell into the water hecommended himself toNostreDame and she supported him by his shoulders[pg 186] till he was picked up by the Kings galley Joinville had a windowpainted in his chapel to commemorate this miracle and there no doubt theVirginwouldberepresentedassupportingthesailorexactlyashedescribedit

Nowitmustbeadmittedthatbeforethetribunaloftheordinaryphilosophyofthenineteenthcenturythesemiracleswouldbeputdowneitherasinventionsor

asexaggerationsButletusexaminethethoughtsandthelanguageofthatageandweshalltakeamorecharitableandwebelieveamorecorrectviewMenlikeJoinvilledidnotdistinguishbetweenageneralandaspecialprovidenceandfewwhohavecarefullyexaminedthetrueimportofwordswouldblamehimforthat Whatever happened to him and his friends the smallest as well as thegreatesteventsweretakenalikeassomanycommunicationsfromGodtomanNothingcouldhappentoanyoneofthemunlessGodwilleditldquoGodwillsitrdquotheyexclaimedandputthecrossontheirbreastsandlefthouseandhomeandwifeandchildrentofighttheinfidelsintheHolyLandTheKingwasillandonthepointofdeathwhenhemadeavowthatifherecoveredhewouldundertakeacrusadeInspiteof thedangerswhichthreatenedhimandhiscountrywhereeveryvassalwasarivalinspiteofthedespairofhisexcellentmothertheKingfulfilledhisvowandriskednotonlyhiscrownbuthislifewithoutacomplaintandwithoutaregretItmaybethattheprospectofEasternbootyorevenofanEasternthronehadsomepartinexcitingthepiouszealoftheFrenchchivalryYetifwereadofJoinvillewhowasthenayoungandgaynoblemanoftwenty-four with a young wife and a beautiful castle in Champagne giving upeverything [pg 187] confessing his sins making reparation performingpilgrimagesandthenstartingfortheEasttheretoendureforfiveyearsthemosthorriblehardshipswhenwereadofhissailorssingingaVeniCreatorSpiritusbefore they hoisted their sails when we see how every day in the midst ofpestilenceandbattletheKingandhisSeacuteneacutechalandhisknightssaytheirprayersand perform their religious duties how in every danger they commendthemselves toGodor to their saints how for everyblessing for every escapefromdangertheyreturnthankstoHeavenmdashweeasilylearntounderstandhownaturalitwasthatsuchmenshouldseemiraclesineveryblessingvouchsafedtothemwhethergreatorsmalljustastheJewsofoldinthatsensethetruepeopleofGod sawmiracles saw the fingerofGod ineveryplague thatvisited theircampandineveryspringofwaterthatsavedthemfromdestructionWhentheEgyptianswerethrowingtheGreekfireintothecampoftheCrusadersStLouisraised himself in his bed at the report of every discharge of thosemurderousmissilesandstretchingforthhishandstowardsheavenhesaidcryingldquoGoodLord God protect my peoplerdquo Joinville after relating this remarks ldquoAnd IbelievetrulythathisprayersserveduswellinourneedrdquoAndwashenotrightinthis belief as right as the Israeliteswerewhen they sawMoses lifting up hisheavyarmsandtheyprevailedagainstAmalekSurelythisbeliefwasputtoahard testwhena fearfulplaguebrokeout in thecampwhennearly thewholeFrench army was massacred when the King was taken prisoner when theQueen inchildbedhad tomakeheroldchamberlainswear thathewouldkill

heratthefirstapproachoftheenemywhenthesmallremnantofthat[pg188]mightyFrencharmyhadtopurchaseitsreturntoFrancebyaheavyransomYetnothingcould shake Joinvilles faith in theever-readyhelpofourLordof theVirginandofthesaintsldquoBecertainrdquohewritesldquothattheVirginhelpedusandshewouldhavehelpedusmoreifwehadnotoffendedherherandherSonasIsaid beforerdquo Surely with such faith credulity ceases to be credulity Wherethere is credulity without that living faith which sees the hand of God ineverything mans indignation is rightly roused That credulity leads to self-conceithypocrisyandunbeliefButsuchwasnotthecredulityofJoinvilleorofhis King or of the Bishop who comforted the great master in theology Amodern historian would not call the rescue of the drowning sailor nor thefavorablewindwhichbroughttheCrusaderstoCyprusnortheopportunearrivalof theComte dePoitiersmiracles because theword ldquomiraclerdquo has a differentsensewithusfromwhatithadduringtheMiddleAgesfromwhatithadatthetime of the Apostles and from what it had at the time ofMoses Yet to thedrowningsailorhisrescuewasmiraculoustothedespairingKingthearrivalofhisbrotherwasagodsendandtoJoinvilleandhiscrewwhowereinimminentdangerofbeingcarriedoffasslavesbyMoorishpirates thewindthatbroughtthem safe toCypruswasmore than a fortunate accidentOur languagediffersfrom the language of Joinville yet in our heart of hearts we mean the samething

And nothing shows better the reality and healthiness of the religion of thosebrave knights than their cheerful and open countenance their thoroughenjoymentofallthegoodthingsofthislifetheirfreedominthoughtandspeechYou never catch Joinville [pg 189] canting or with an expression of blanksolemnityWhenhisshipwassurroundedbythegalleysoftheSultanandwhenthey held a council as to whether they should surrender themselves to theSultans fleet or to his army on shore one of his servants objected to allsurrenderldquoLetusallbekilledrdquohesaid toJoinvilleldquoand thenweshallallgostraight to Paradiserdquo His advice however was not followed because asJoinvillesaysldquowedidnotbelieveitrdquo

IfwebearinmindthatJoinvillesHistorywaswrittenafterLouishasbeenraisedtotherankofasainthiswayofspeakingoftheKingthoughalwaysrespectfulstrikesusneverthelessasitmusthavestruckhiscontemporariesassometimesveryplainandfamiliar It iswellknownthatanattemptwasactuallymadebythenotoriousJesuitlePegravereHardouintoproveJoinvillesworkasspuriousoratalleventsasfullofinterpolationsinsertedbytheenemiesoftheChurchIt

was an attempt which thoroughly failed and which was too dangerous to berepeated but on reading Joinville after reading the life and miracles of StLouisonecaneasilyunderstandthatthesoldiersaccountofthebraveKingwasnotquitepalatableorwelcometotheauthorsofthelegendsoftheroyalsaintAtthe time when the Kings bones had begun to work wretched miracles thefollowing storycouldhardlyhave sounded respectful ldquoWhen theKingwas atAcrerdquoJoinvillewritesldquosomepilgrimsontheirwaytoJerusalemwishedtoseehimJoinvillewenttotheKingandsaidlsquoSirethereisacrowdofpeoplewhohaveaskedmetoshowthemtheroyalsaintthoughIhavenowishasyettokissyourbonesrsquoTheKinglaughedloudandaskedmetobringthepeoplerdquo

[pg190]InthethickofthebattleinwhichJoinvillereceivedfivewoundsandhishorsefifteen andwhendeath seemed almost certain Joinville tells us that thegoodCount of Soissons rode up to him and chaffed him saying ldquoLet those dogslooseforparlaquoifeDieurdquomdashashealwaysusedtoswearmdashldquoweshallstilltalkofthisdayintheroomsofourladiesrdquo

The Crusades and the Crusaders though they are only five or six centuriesremoved fromus have assumed a kind of romantic characterwhichmakes itverydifficultevenforthehistoriantofeeltowardsthemthesamehumaninterestwhichwefeelforCaeligsarorPericlesWorkslikethatofJoinvillearemostusefulindispellingthatmistwhichthechroniclersofoldandtheromancesofWalterScottandothershaveraisedroundtheheroesoftheseholywarsStLouisandhiscompanionsasdescribedbyJoinvillenotonlyintheirglisteningarmorbutintheireverydayattirearebroughtnearertousbecomeintelligibletousandteachuslessonsofhumanitywhichwecanlearnfrommenonlyandnotfromsaints andheroesHere lies the realvalueof realhistory Itmakesus familiarwith the thoughts of men who differ from us in manners and language inthoughtand religionandyetwithwhomweareable to sympathizeand fromwhomweareabletolearnItwidensourmindsandourheartsandgivesusthattrueknowledgeoftheworldandofhumannatureinallitsphaseswhichbutfewcangain in the short spanof their own life and in thenarrow sphereof theirfriendsandenemiesWecanhardlyimagineabetterbookforboystoreadorformen toponderover andwehope thatMdeWaillys laudable effortsmaybecrownedwithcompletesuccessandthatwhetherinFranceorinEngland[pg191]nostudentofhistorywillinfutureimaginethatheknowsthetruespiritoftheCrusadesandtheCrusaderswhohasnotreadonceandmorethanoncetheoriginalMemoirsofJoinvilleaseditedtranslatedandexplainedbytheeminent

KeeperoftheImperialLibraryatParisMNatalisdeWailly

[pg192]

VIIITHEJOURNALDESSAVANTSANDTHEJOURNALDETREacuteVOUX32

ForahundredpersonswhointhiscountryreadtheldquoRevuedesDeuxMondesrdquohowmanyaretherewhoreadtheldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquoInFrancetheauthorityofthatjournalisindeedsupremebutitsverytitlefrightensthegeneralpublicanditsbluecoverisbutseldomseenonthetablesofthesallesdelectureAndyetthereisnoFrenchperiodicalsowellsuitedtothetastesofthebetterclassofreaders in England Its contributors are allmembers of the Institut de Franceandifwemaymeasurethevalueofaperiodicalbythehonorwhichitreflectsonthosewhoformitsstaffnojournal inFrancecanviewiththeldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquo At the present moment we find on its roll such names as CousinFlourensVillemainMignetBartheacutelemySaint-HilaireNaudetProsperMeacuterimeacuteLittreacuteVitetmdashnameswhich ifnowand thenseenon thecoversof theldquoRevuedes Deux Mondesrdquo the ldquoRevue Contemporainerdquo or the ldquoRevue ModernerdquoconferanexceptionallustreonthesefortnightlyormonthlyissuesThearticleswhichare[pg193]admittedintothisselectperiodicalmaybedeficientnowandthen in those outward charms of diction by which French readers like to bedazzled butwhat in France is called trop savant trop lourd is frequently farmorepalatable than thehighlyspicedarticleswhicharenodoubtdelightful toreadbutwhichlikeanexcellentFrenchdinnermakeyoualmostdoubtwhetheryouhavedinedornotIfEnglishjournalistsarebentontakingfortheirmodelsthefortnightlyormonthlycontemporariesofFrance theldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquomightofferamuchbetterchanceofsuccess than themorepopularrevuesWeshouldbesorryindeedtoseeanyperiodicalpublishedunderthesuperintendenceof the ldquoMinistre de lInstruction Publiquerdquo or of any other member of theCabinetbutapartfromthataliterarytribunallikethatformedbythemembersof the ldquoBureau du Journal des Savantsrdquo would certainly be a great benefit toliterary criticismThe general tone that runs through their articles is impartialanddignifiedEachwriterseemstofeeltheresponsibilitywhichattachestothe

benchfromwhichheaddressesthepublicandwecanoflateyearsrecallhardlyanycasewherethedictumofldquonoblesseobligerdquohasbeendisregardedinthisthemostancientamongthepurelyliteraryjournalsofEurope

The first number of the ldquoJournal des Savantsrdquo was published more than twohundredyearsagoonthe5thofJanuary1655ItwasthefirstsmallbeginninginabranchofliteraturewhichhassinceassumedimmenseproportionsVoltairespeaks of it as ldquole pegravere de tous les ouvrages de ce genre dont lEurope estaujourdhuiremplierdquoItwaspublishedatfirstonceaweekeveryMondayandthe responsible editor was M de Sallo who in order to avoid the [pg 194]retaliationsofsensitiveauthorsadoptedthenameofLeSieurdeHedouvillethename it issaidofhisvaletdechambreThearticleswereshortand inmanycases they only gave a description of the bookswithout any critical remarksTheJournallikewisegaveanaccountofimportantdiscoveriesinscienceandartandofothereventsthatmightseemofinteresttomenoflettersItssuccessmusthave been considerable if wemay judge by the number of rival publicationswhichsoonsprangupinFranceandinothercountriesofEuropeInEnglandaphilosophicaljournalonthesameplanwasstartedbeforetheyearwasoverInGermanytheldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquowastranslatedintoLatinbyFNitzschiusin1668andbeforetheendoftheseventeenthcenturytheldquoGiornaledeLetteratirdquo(1668) the ldquoBibliotheca Volanterdquo (1677) the ldquoActa Eruditorumrdquo (1682) theldquoNouvellesdelaReacutepubliquedesLettresrdquo(1684)theldquoBibliothegravequeUniverselleetHistoriquerdquo(1686)theldquoHistoiredesOuvragesdesSavantsrdquo(1687)andtheldquoMonatliche Unterredungenrdquo (1689) had been launched in the principalcountries of Europe In the next century it was remarked of the journalspublished in Germany ldquoPlura dixeris pullulasse brevi tempore quam funginascunturunacircnocterdquo

Most of these journalswere published by laymen and represented the purelyintellectualinterestsofsocietyItwasbutnaturalthereforethattheclergyalsoshouldsoonhaveendeavoredtopossessajournaloftheirownTheJesuitswhoat that time were the most active and influential order were not slow toappreciatethisnewopportunityfordirectingpublicopinionandtheyfoundedin1701 their famous journal the ldquoMeacutemoires deTreacutevouxrdquo Famous indeed it [pg195] might once be called and yet at present how little is known of thatcollectionhowseldomareitsvolumescalledforinourpubliclibrariesItwasforalongtimetherivaloftheldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquoUndertheeditorshipofLePegravereBerthieritfoughtbravelyagainstDiderotVoltaireandotherheraldsoftheFrenchRevolutionItweatheredeventhefatalyearof1762butafterchanging

itsnameandmoderatingitspretensionsitceasedtoappearin1782Thelongrowsofitsvolumesarenowpiledupinourlibrarieslikesrowsoftombstoneswhichwepassbywithoutevenstoppingtoexaminethenamesandtitlesofthosewhoareburiedinthesevastcatacombsofthought

ItwasahappyideathatledthePegraverePCSommervogelhimselfamemberofthe order of the Jesuits to examine the dusty volumes of the ldquoJournal deTreacutevouxrdquo and todo for it theonly thing that couldbedone tomake it usefuloncemoreatleasttoacertaindegreenamelytoprepareageneralindexofthenumerous subjects treated in its volumes on the model of the great indexpublishedin1753oftheldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquoHisworkpublishedatParisin1865 consists of three volumes The first gives an index of the originaldissertations the second and third of the works criticised in the ldquoJournal deTreacutevouxrdquoItisaworkofmuchsmallerpretensionsthantheindextotheldquoJournaldes Savantsrdquo yet such as it is it is useful and will amply suffice for thepurposesofthosefewreaderswhohavefromtimetotimetoconsulttheliteraryannalsoftheJesuitsinFrance

ThetitleoftheldquoMeacutemoiresdeTreacutevouxrdquowastakenfromthetownofTreacutevouxthecapital of the principality ofDombeswhichLouisXIV had conferred on theDucdeMainewithalltheprivilegesofasovereign[pg196]LikeLouisXIVtheyoungprincegloried in the title of apatronof art and science but as thepupilofMadamedeMaintenonhedevotedhimselfevenmorezealouslytothedefense of religionAprinting-officewas founded atTreacutevoux and the Jesuitswere invited to publish a new journal ldquoougrave lon eucirct principalement en vucirceuml ladeacutefense de la religionrdquo Thiswas the ldquoJournal de Treacutevouxrdquo published for thefirst time in February 1701 under the title of ldquoMeacutemoires pour lHistoire desSciences et desBeauxArts recueillis par lordre de SonAltesse SeacutereacutenissimeMonseigneurPrinceSouveraindeDombesrdquo Itwasentirelyandprofessedly inthehandsoftheJesuitsandwefindamongitsearliestcontributorssuchnamesasCatrouTournemine andHardouinTheopportunities for collecting literaryandotherintelligenceenjoyedbythemembersofthatorderwereextraordinaryWe doubt whether any paper even in our days has so many intelligentcorrespondents ineverypartof theworldIfanyastronomicalobservationwastobemadeinChinaorAmericaaJesuitmissionarywasgenerallyonthespottomakeitIfgeographicalinformationwaswantedeye-witnessescouldwritefromIndia or Africa to state what was the exact height of mountains or the realdirectionofriversThearchitecturalmonumentsofthegreatnationsofantiquitycould easily be explored and described and the literary treasures of India or

China or Persia could be ransacked bymen ready for anywork that requireddevotion and perseverance and that promised to throw additional splendor ontheorderofLoyolaNomissionarysocietyhaseverunderstoodhowtoutilizeitsresourcesintheinterestofscienceliketheJesuitsandifourownmissionariesmayonmanypoints take [pg197]warning from thehistoryof the Jesuitsonthatonepointatleasttheymightdowelltoimitatetheirexample

ScientificinterestshoweverwerebynomeansthechiefmotiveoftheJesuitsinfounding their journal and the controversial character began soon topreponderate in theirarticlesProtestantwritersreceivedbut littlemercyinthepages of the ldquoJournal de Treacutevouxrdquo and the battle was soon raging in everycountryofEuropebetweentheflyingbatteriesoftheJesuitsandthestrongholdsof Jansenism of Protestantism or of liberal thought in general LeClercwasattacked for his ldquoHarmonia Evangelicardquo Boileau even was censured for hisldquoEpicirctre sur lAmourdeDieurdquoBut theold lionwas toomuch forhis reverendsatiristsThefollowingisaspecimenofhisreplymdash

ldquoMesReacuteveacuterendsPegraveresenDieuEtmesconfregraveresenSatireDansvosEscritsdansplusdunlieuJevoyquagravemesdeacutepensvousaffecteacutesderireMaisnecraigneacutes-vouspointquepourriredeVousRelisantJuveacutenalrefeuilletantHoraceJeneranimeencormasatiriqueaudaceGrandsAristarquesdeTreacutevouxNalleacutespointdenouveaufairecourirauxarmesUnathlegravetetoutprestagraveprendresoncongeacuteQuiparvostraitsmalinsaucombatrengageacutePeutencoreauxRieursfaireverserdeslarmesAppreneacutesunmotdeReacutegnierNotreceacutelegravebreDevancierCorsairesattaquantCorsairesNofontpasdit-illeursaffairesrdquo

Even stronger language than this became soon the fashion in journalisticwarfare In reply to an attack on theMarquisOrsi the ldquoGiornale de LetteratidItaliardquoaccused theldquoJournaldeTreacutevouxrdquoofmenzogna and impostura and inGermanytheldquoActaEruditorumLipsiensiumrdquopouredoutevenmoreviolent[pg198] invectives against the Jesuitical critics It is wonderful how well Latin

seemstolenditselftotheexpressionofangryabuseFewmodernwritershaveexcelledthefollowingtiradeeitherinLatinorinGermanmdash

ldquoQuaelig mentis stupiditas At si qua est Jesuitarum est Res est intolerandaTrevoltianosJesuitastotiescontusosiniquissimuminsuisdiariistribunalerexissein eoque non ratione duce sed animi impotentia non aeligquitatis legibus sedpraeligjudiciis non veritatis lance sed affectus aut odi pondere optimisexquisitissimisque operibus detrahere pessima ad cœlum usque laudibus efferreignaris auctoribus modo secum sentiant aut sibi faveant ubique blandiridoctissimossibinonplaneplenequededitosplusquamcaninodentemordererdquo

WhathasbeensaidofotherjournalswassaidoftheldquoJournaldeTreacutevouxrdquomdash

ldquoLesauteursdecejournalquiasonmeacuteritesontconstantsagravelouertouslesouvragesde ceux quils affectionnent et pour eacuteviter une froide monotonie ils exercentquelquefoislacritiquesurleseacutecrivansagravequiriennelesobligedefairegracirccerdquo

IttooksometimebeforeauthorsbecameatallreconciledtothesenewtribunalsofliteraryjusticeEvenawriter likeVoltairewhobravedpublicopinionmorethananybodylookeduponjournalsandtheinfluencewhichtheysoongainedinFranceandabroadasagreatevilldquoRiennaplusnuiagravelalitteacuteraturerdquohewritesldquoplusreacutepandulemauvaisgoucirctetplusconfondulevraiaveclefauxrdquoBeforetheestablishmentofliteraryjournalsalearnedwriterhadindeedlittletofearForafew years at all events he was allowed to enjoy the reputation of havingpublished a book and this by itselfwas considered a great distinction by theworldatlargePerhapshisbookwasnevernoticedatallorifitwasitwasonlycriticisedinoneofthoseelaborateletterswhichthelearnedmenofthe[pg199]sixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesusedtowritetoeachotherwhichmightbeforwarded indeed to one or two other professors but which never influencedpublic opinion Only in extreme cases a bookwould be answered by anotherbookbut thiswouldnecessarilyrequirea longtimenorwoulditatallfollowthat those who had read and admired the original work would have anopportunity of consulting the volume that contained its refutation This happystate of things came to an end after the year 1655 Since the invention ofprintingnomore important eventhadhappened in the republicof letters thantheintroductionofaperiodicalliteratureItwasacompleterevolutiondifferingfrom other revolutions only by the quickness with which the new powerwasrecognizedevenbyitsfiercestopponents

ThepowerofjournalismhoweversoonfounditsproperlevelandthehistoryofitsriseandprogresswhichhasstilltobewrittenteachesthesamelessonasthehistoryofpoliticalpowersJournalswhichdefendedprivateinterestsortheinterests of parties whether religious political or literary never gained thatinfluence which was freely conceded to those who were willing to serve thepublic at large in pointing out real merit wherever it could be found and inunmasking pretenders to whatever rank they might belong The once all-powerfulorganoftheJesuitstheldquoJournaldeTregravevouxrdquohaslongceasedtoexistand even to be remembered the ldquoJournal des Savantsrdquo still holds after morethan twohundredyears that eminent positionwhichwas claimed for it by itsfounderastheindependentadvocateofjusticeandtruth

[pg200]

IXCHASOT33

Historyisgenerallywrittenenface It remindsusoccasionallyofcertain royalfamilypictureswherethecentreisoccupiedbythekingandqueenwhiletheirchildrenarerangedoneachsidelikeorgan-pipesandthecourtiersandministersaregroupedbehindaccordingtotheirrespectiveranksAllthefiguresseemtostareatsomeimaginaryspectatorwhowouldrequireatleastahundredeyestotakeinthewholeoftheassemblageThisplaceoftheimaginaryspectatorfallsgenerallytothelotofthehistorianandofthosewhoreadgreathistoricalworksand perhaps this is inevitable But it is refreshing for once to change thisunsatisfactory position and instead of always looking straight in the faces ofkingsandqueensandgeneralsandministerstocatchbyaside-glanceaviewofthetimesastheyappearedtomenoccupyingalesscentralandlessabstractpositionthanthatofthegeneralhistorianIfwelookatthePalaceofVersaillesfrom the terrace in front of the edifice we are impressed with its broadmagnificencebutwearesoontiredandallthatisleftinourmemoryisavastexpanseofwindowscolumnsstatuesandwallButletusretiretosomeofthebosquetsoneachsideofthemain[pg201]avenueandtakeadiagonalviewofthe great mansion of Louis XIV and though we lose part of the palace thewholepicturegainsincolorandlifeanditbringsbeforeourmindthefigureofthegreatmonarchhimselfsofondofconcealingpartofhismajesticstatelinessundertheshadowofthoseverygroveswherewearesitting

ItwasahappythoughtofMKurdvonSchloumlzertotryasimilarexperimentwithFrederictheGreatandtoshowhimtousnotasthegreatkinglookinghistoryinthefacebutasseennearandbehindanotherpersonforwhomtheauthorhasfelt so much sympathy as to make him the central figure of a very prettyhistorical pictureThis person isChasot Frederic used to say of himCest lematadordemajeunessemdashasayingwhichisnotfoundinFredericsworksbutwhich is nevertheless authentic One of the chief magistrates of the oldHanseatictownofLuumlbeckSyndicusCurtiusmdashthefatherwebelieveofthetwo

distinguished scholars Ernst andGeorgCurtiusmdashwas at schoolwith the twosonsofChasotandherememberstheseroyalwordswhentheywererepeatedinallthedrawing-roomsofthecitywhereChasotspentmanyyearsofhislifeFrederics friendship forChasot iswellknown for thereare twopoemsof thekingaddressedtothisyoungfavoriteTheydonotgiveaveryhighideaeitherofthepoeticalpowerof themonarchorof themoralcharacterofhis friendbutthey contain some manly and straightforward remarks which make up for agreatdealofshallowdeclamationThisyoungChasotwasaFrenchnoblemanafresh chivalrous buoyant naturemdashadventurous careless extravagant bravefullofromancehappywiththehappyandgalloping[pg202]throughlifelikeatruecavalryofficerHemetFredericin1734LouisXVhadtakenupthecauseofStanislasLesczynskiKingofPolandhisfather-in-lawandChasotservedintheFrencharmywhichunder theDukeofBerwick attackedGermanyon theRhineinordertorelievePolandfromthesimultaneouspressureofAustriaandRussiaHehadthemisfortunetokillaFrenchofficerinaduelandwasobligedtotakerefugein thecampof theoldPrinceEugegraveneHere theyoungPrinceofPrussiasoondiscoveredthebrilliantpartsoftheFrenchnoblemanandwhenhisfather FredericWilliam I no longer allowed him to serve under Eugegravene heaskedChasottofollowhimtoPrussiaTheyearsfrom1735to1740werehappyyearsfortheprincethoughhenodoubtwouldhavepreferredtakinganactivepartinthecampaignHewritestohissistermdash

ldquoJauraisreacuteponduplustocirctsi jenavaiseacuteteacutetregraves-affligeacutedecequeleroineveutpasmepermettredallerencampagneJeleluiaidemandeacutequatrefoisetluiairappeleacutelapromessequilmenavaitfaitemaispointdenouvelleilmaditquilavaitdesraisons tregraves-cacheacuteesqui lenempecircchaientJe lecroiscar jesuispersuadeacutequilnelessaitpaslui-mecircmerdquo

Butashewished tobeongood termswithhis fatherhestayedathomeandtravelledabouttoinspecthisfuturekingdomldquoCestunpeuplushonnecirctequenSibeacuterierdquohewritesldquomaispasdebeaucouprdquoFredericafterhismarriagetookuphisabodeintheCastleofRheinsbergnearNeu-RuppinanditwasherethathespentthehappiestpartofhisexistenceMdeSchloumlzerhasdescribedthisperiodinthelifeofthekingwithgreatartandhehaspointedouthowFredericwhileheseemedtolivefornothingbut[pg203]pleasuremdashshootingdancingmusicandpoetrymdashwasgivenat thesame time tomuchmoreseriousoccupationsmdashreadingandcomposingworksonhistorystrategyandphilosophyandmaturingplanswhichwhenthetimeoftheirexecutioncameseemedtospringfromhishead full-grown and full-armed He writes to his sister the Markgravine of

Baireuthin1737mdash

ldquoNousnousdivertissonsderienetnavonsaucunsoindeschosesdelaviequilarendentdeacutesagreacuteableetquijettentdudeacutegoucirctsurlesplaisirsNousfaisonslatrageacutedieetlacomeacutedienousavonsbalmascaradeetmusiqueagravetoutesauceVoilagraveunabreacutegeacutedenosamusementsrdquo

AndagainhewritestohisfriendSuhmatPetersburgmdash

ldquoNous allons repreacutesenter lŒdipe de Voltaire dans lequel je ferai le heacuteros detheacuteacirctrejaichoisilerocircledePhilocteacuteterdquo

AsimilaraccountoftheroyalhouseholdatRheinsbergisgivenbyBielfeldmdash

ldquoCestainsiquelesjoursseacutecoulenticidansunetranquilliteacuteassaisonneeacutedetouslesplaisirs qui peuvent flatter une acircme raisonnable Chegravere de roi vin des dieuxmusiquedesangespromenadesdeacutelicieusesdanslesjardinsetdanslesboispartiessurleauculturedeslettresetdesbeaux-artsconversationspirituelletoutconcourtagraverepandredanscepalaisenchanteacutedescharmessurlavierdquo

FrederichoweverwasnotamantowastehistimeinmerepleasureHesharedintherevelriesofhisfriendsbuthewasperhapstheonlypersonatRheinsbergwho spent his evenings in reading Wolffs ldquoMetaphysicsrdquo And here let usremarkthatthisGermanprinceinordertoreadthatworkwasobligedtohavethe German translated into French by his friend Suhm the Saxonminister atPetersburg Chasot who had no very definite duties to perform at [pg 204]RheinsbergwascommissionedtocopySuhmsmanuscriptmdashnayhewasnearlydriven to despair when he had to copy it a second time because Fredericsmonkey Mimi had set fire to the first copy We have Frederics opinion onWolffsldquoMetaphysicsrdquoinhisldquoWorksrdquovolip263mdash

ldquoLesuniversiteacutesprosperaientenmecircmetempsHalleetFrancforteacutetaientfourniesdesavants professeurs Thomasius Gundling LudewigWolff et Stryke tenaient lepremier rang pour la ceacuteleacutebriteacute et faisaient nombre de disciplesWolff commentalingeacutenieuxsystegravemedeLeibnitzsurlesmonadesetnoyadansundeacutelugedeparolesdargumentsdecorollairesetdecitationsquelquesproblegravemesqueLeibnitzavaitjeteacutees peut-ecirctre comme une amorce aux meacutetaphysiciens Le professeur de Halleeacutecrivait laborieusement nombre de volumes qui au lieu de pouvoir instruire deshommesfaitsservirenttoutauplusdecateacutechismededidactiquepourdesenfantsLesmonadesontmisauxpriseslesmeacutetaphysiciensetlesgeacuteomecirctresdAllemagneet

ilsdisputentencoresurladivisibiliteacutedelamatiegravererdquo

In another place however he speaks of Wolff with greater respect andacknowledgeshisinfluenceintheGermanuniversitiesSpeakingofthereignofhisfatherhewritesmdash

ldquoMais la faveur et les brigues remplissaient les chaires de professeurs dans lesuniversiteacutes lesdeacutevotsquisemecirclentdetoutacquirentunepartagrave ladirectiondesuniversiteacutes ils y perseacutecutaient le bon sens et surtout la classe des philosophesWolfffutexileacutepouravoirdegraveduitavecunordreadmirablelespreuvessurlexistencedeDieu La jeune noblesse qui se vouait aux armes crucirct deacuteroger en eacutetudiant etcomme lesprit humain donne toujours dans les excegraves ils regardegraverent lignorancecommeuntitredemeacuteriteetlesavoircommeunepeacutedanterieabsurderdquo

During the same time Frederic composed his ldquoRefutation of Macchiavellirdquowhich was published in 1740 and read all over Europe and besides the gaypartiesofthecourtheorganizedthesomewhat[pg205]mysterioussocietyoftheOrdredeBayardofwhichhisbrotherstheDukeFerdinandofBrunswicktheDukeWilhelmofBrunswick-BevernKeyserlingFouqueacuteandChasotweremembers Their meetings had reference to serious political matters thoughFrederic himself was never initiated by his father into the secrets of Prussianpolicy till almost on his death-bed The king died in 1740 and Frederic wassuddenlycalledawayfromhisstudiesandpleasuresatRheinsbergtogovernarising kingdom which was watched with jealousy by all its neighbors Hedescribeshisstateofmindshortlybeforethedeathofhisfatherinthefollowingwordsmdash

ldquoVouspouvezbienjugerquejesuisasseztracasseacutedanslasituationougravejemetrouveOnmelaissepeudereposmaislinteacuterieuresttranquilleetjepuisvousassurerquejenaijamaiseacuteteacuteplusphilosophequencetteoccasion-ciJeregardsavecdesyeuxdindiffeacuterence tout cequimattend sansdeacutesirer la fortuneni la craindre pleindecompassion pour ceux qui souffrent destime pour les honnecirctes gens et detendressepourmesamisrdquo

As soon however as he had mastered his new position the young king wasagain thepatronofartofscienceof literatureandofsocial improvementsofevery kind Voltaire had been invited to Berlin to organize a French theatrewhensuddenlythenewsofthedeathofCharlesVItheEmperorofGermanyarrived atBerlinHowwellFrederic understoodwhatwas to followwe learn

fromalettertoVoltairemdash

ldquoMoncherVoltairemdashLeacuteveacutenementlemoinspreacutevudumondemempecircchepourcettefois douvrirmonacircmeagrave lavocirctre commedordinaire et debavarder comme je levoudraisLempereurestmortCettemortdeacuterangetoutesmesideacuteespacifiquesetjecrois quil sagira au mois de juin plutocirct de poudre agrave canon de soldats detrancheacuteesquedactricesdeballetsetdetheacuteacirctrerdquo

[pg206]Hewassufferingfromfeverandheaddsmdash

ldquoJevais fairepassermafiegravevrecar jaibesoindemamachineet ilen faut tireragravepreacutesenttoutlepartipossiblerdquo

AgainhewritestoAlgarottimdash

ldquoUne bagatelle comme est la mort de lempereur ne demande pas de grandsmouvementsTout eacutetait preacutevu tout eacutetait arrangeacuteAinsi il ne sagit quedexeacutecuterdesdesseinsquejairouleacutesdepuislongtempsdansmatecircterdquo

Weneednotenter into thehistoryof the firstSilesianwarbutweseeclearlyfrom these expressions that the occupation of Silesia which the house ofBrandenburg claimed by right had formed part of the policy of Prussia longbefore thedeathof the emperor and thepeaceofBreslau in1742 realizedaplanwhichhadprobablybeenthesubjectofmanydebatesatRheinsbergDuringthisfirstwarChasotobtainedthemostbrilliantsuccessAtMollwitzhesavedthelifeofthekingandthefollowingaccountofthisexploitwasgiventoMdeSchloumlzerbymembersofChasotsfamilyAnAustriancavalryofficerwithsomeofhismenrodeupclosetothekingChasotwasnearldquoWhereisthekingrdquotheofficer shouted and Chasot perceiving the imminent danger sprang forwarddeclaredhimself tobethekingandsustainedforsometimesingle-handedthemost violent combatwith theAustrian soldiersAt last hewas rescuedbyhismenbutnotwithouthavingreceivedaseverewoundacrosshisforeheadTheking thanked him and Voltaire afterwards celebrated his bravery in thefollowinglinesmdash

ldquoIlmesouvientencoredecejourmeacutemorableOugravelillustreChasotceguerrierformidable

SauvaparsavaleurleplusgranddenosroisOPrusseeacutelegraveveuntempleagravesesfameuxexploitsrdquo

Chasot soon rose to the rank ofmajor and received [pg 207] large pecuniaryrewards from the king The brightest event however of his life was still tocomeandthiswasthebattleofHohenfriedbergin1745InspiteofFredericssuccesses his position before that engagementwas extremely critical Austriahad concluded a treaty with England Holland and Saxony against PrussiaFrancedeclinedtoassistFredericRussiathreatenedtotakepartagainsthimOnthe19thofAprilthekingwrotetohisministermdash

ldquoLasituationpreacutesenteestaussiviolentequedeacutesagreacuteableMonpartiesttoutprisSilsagit de se battre nous le ferons en deacutesespeacutereacutes Enfin jamais crise na eacuteteacute plusgrande que la mienne Il faut laisser au temps de deacutebrouiller cette fuseacutee et audestinsilyenaunagravedeacuteciderdeleacuteveacutenementrdquo

Andagainmdash

ldquoJaijeteacutelebonnetpardessuslesmoulinsjemepreacutepareagravetousleseacuteveacutenementsquipeuventmarriverQuelafortunemesoitcontraireoufavorablecelanemabaisseranimenorgueilliraetsilfautpeacuterirceseraavecgloireetleacutepeacuteeagravelamainrdquo

The decisive day arrivedmdashldquole jour le plus deacutecisif de ma fortunerdquo The nightbeforethebattlethekingsaidtotheFrenchambassadormdashldquoLesennemissontougraveje lesvoulaiset je lesattaquedemainrdquoandonthefollowingdaythebattleofHohenfriedbergwaswonHowChasotdistinguishedhimselfwemaylearnfromFredericsowndescriptionmdash

ldquoMusedis-moicommentencesmomentsChasotbrillafaisantvolerdestecirctesDemaintsuhlansfaisantdevraissquelettesEtdeshussardsdevantluisechappantFandantlesunslesautrestransperccedilantEtmaniantsaflambergetranchanteMettaitenfuiteetdonnaitleacutepouvanteAuxennemiseffareacutesettremblantsTelJupiterestpeintarmeacutedufoudreEttelChasotreacuteduitluhlanenpoudrerdquo

Inhisaccountofthebattlethekingwrotemdash

[pg208]

ldquoAction inouie dans lhistoire et dont le succegraves est ducirc aux Geacuteneacuteraux Gessler etSchmettau auColonel Schwerin et au braveMajorChasot dont la valeur et laconduitesesontfaitconnaicirctredanstroisbatailleseacutegalementrdquo

AndinhisldquoHistoiredemonTempsrdquohewrotemdash

ldquoUnfaitaussirareaussiglorieuxmeacuteritedecirctreeacutecritenlettresdordanslesfastesprussiensLeGeacuteneacuteralSchwerinleMajorChasotetbeaucoupdofficierssyfirentunnomimmortelrdquo

HowthenisitthatinthelatereditionofFredericsldquoHistoiredemonTempsrdquothe name of Chasot is erasedHow is it that during the whole of the SevenYears War Chasot is never mentionedM de Schloumlzer gives us a completeanswertothisquestionandwemustsaythatFredericdidnotbehavewelltothematadordesajeunesseChasothadaduelwithaMajorBronickowskyinwhichhisopponentwaskilledSofaraswecanjudgefromthedocumentswhichMdeSchloumlzerhasobtainedfromChasotsfamilyChasothadbeenforcedtofightbut thekingbelieved thathehadsoughtaquarrelwith thePolishofficerandthoughacourt-martialfoundhimnotguiltyFredericsenthimtothefortressofSpandau This was the first estrangement between Chasot and the king andthoughafter a timehewas receivedagainat court the friendshipbetween thekingandtheyoungnoblemanwhohadsavedhislifehadreceivedarudeshock

Chasot spent the next few years in garrison at Treptow and though he wasregularly invitedbyFrederic to be present at the great festivities atBerlin heseemstohavebeenamoreconstantvisitoratthesmallcourtoftheDuchessofStrelitznotfarfromhisgarrisonthanatPotsdamThekingemployedhimonadiplomatic mission and in this also Chasot was [pg 209] successful Butnotwithstanding the continuance of this friendly intercourse both parties feltchilledandtheleastmisunderstandingwassuretoleadtoaruptureThekingjealousperhapsofChasotsfrequentvisitsatStrelitzandnotsatisfiedwiththedrillofhisregimentexpressedhimselfinstrongtermsaboutChasotatareviewin1751The latteraskedfor leaveofabsence inorder to return tohiscountryandrecruithishealthHehadreceivedfourteenwoundsinthePrussianservice

andhisapplicationcouldnotberefusedTherewasanothercauseofcomplainton which Chasot seems to have expressed himself freely He imagined thatFrederic had not rewarded his serviceswith sufficient liberalityHe expressedhimselfinthefollowingwordsmdash

ldquoJenesaisquelmalheureuxguignonpoursuitleroimaisceguignonsereproduitdanstoutcequesamajesteacuteentrependouordonneToujourssesvuessontbonnesses plans sont sages reacutefleacutechis et justes et toujours le succegraves est nul ou tregraves-imparfaitetpourquoiToujourspourlamecircmecauseparcequilmanqueunlouisagravelexeacutecutionunlouisdeplusettoutiraitagravemerveilleSonguignonveutquepartoutilretiennecemauditlouisettoutsefaitmalrdquo

HowfarthisisjustweareunabletosayChasotwasrecklessaboutmoneyandwhatever thekingmighthaveallowedhimhewouldalwayshavewantedonelouis more But on the other hand Chasot was not the only person whocomplainedofFrederics parsimony and theFrenchproverb ldquoOnnepeutpastravaillerpour le roi dePrusserdquoprobablyowes itsorigin to the complaintsofFrenchmenwho flocked toBerlin at that time in great numbers and returnedhomedisappointedChasotwenttoFrancewherehewaswellreceivedandhesoonsentanintimationtothekingthathedidnotmeantoreturntoBerlinIn[pg 210] 1752 his name was struck off the Prussian army-list Frederic wasoffendedandthesimultaneouslossofmanyfriendswhoeitherdiedorlefthiscourtmadehimdemauvaisehumeurItisaboutthistimethathewritestohissistermdash

ldquoJeacutetudiebeaucoupetcelamesoulagereacuteellementmaislorsquemonespritfaitdesretours sur les temps passeacutes alors les plaies du cœur se rouvrent et je regretteinutilementlespertesquejaifaitesrdquo

ChasothoweversoonreturnedtoGermanyandprobablyinordertobenearthecourtofStrelitztookuphisabodeintheoldfreetownofLuumlbeckHebecameacitizenofLuumlbeckin1754andin1759wasmadecommanderofitsmilitiaHerehis life seems to have been very agreeable and he was treated with greatconsiderationandliberalityChasotwasstillyoungashewasbornin1716andhe now thought of marriage This he accomplished in the following mannerTherewasat that timeanartistof somecelebrityatLuumlbeckmdashStefanoTorelliHe had a daughter whom he had left at Dresden to be educated and whoseportrait he carried about on his snuff-box Chasotmet him at dinner saw thesnuff-boxfell inlovewiththepictureandproposedtothefathertomarryhis

daughterCamillaCamillawassentforSheleftDresdentravelledthroughthecountrywhichwasthenoccupiedbyPrussiantroopsmetthekinginhiscampreceived his protection arrived safely at Luumlbeck and in the same year wasmarried toChasotFredericwas then in the thickof theSevenYearsWarbutChasotthoughhewasagainonfriendlytermswiththekingdidnotofferhimhisswordHewastoohappyatLuumlbeckwithhisCamillaandhemadehimselfuseful to the king by sending him recruits [pg 211] One of the recruits heofferedwashissonandinaletterApril81760weseethekingacceptingthisyoungrecruitinthemostgracioustermsmdash

ldquoJaccepte volontiers cher deChasot la recrue qui vous doit son ecirctre et je seraiparrain de lenfant qui vous naicirctra au cas que ce soit un fils Nous tuons leshommestandisquevousenfaitesrdquo

ItwasasonandChasotwritesmdash

ldquoSicegarccedilonmeressembleSireilnaurapasunegouttedesangdanssesveinesquinesoitagravevousrdquo

MdeSchloumlzerwhoishimselfanativeofLuumlbeckhasdescribedthelateryearsofChasots life in thatcitywithgreatwarmthandtruthfulnessThediplomaticrelationsofthetownwithRussiaandDenmarkwerenotwithoutinterestatthattime because Peter III formerlyDuke ofHolstein had declaredwar againstDenmark in order to substantiate his claims to theDanish crown Chasot hadactuallythepleasureoffortifyingLuumlbeckandcarryingonpreparationsforwaronasmallscaletillPeterwasdethronedbyhiswifeCatherineAllthisistoldinaverycomprehensiveandluminousstyleanditisnotwithoutregretthatwefind ourselves in the last chapter where M de Schloumlzer describes the lastmeetings of Chasot and Frederic in 1779 1784 and 1785 Frederic had lostnearly all his friends andhewasdelighted to see thematador de sa jeunesseoncemoreHewritesmdash

ldquoUnechosequinestpresquearriveacuteequagravemoiestquejaiperdutousmesamisdecœuretmesanciennesconnaissancescesontdesplaiesdontlecœursaignelong-tempsquelaphilosophieapaisemaisquesamainnesauraitgueacuterirrdquo

Howpleasantforthekingtofindatleastonemanwithwhomhecouldtalkof

the old days of Rheinsbergmdashof Fraumlulein von Schack and Fraumlulein vonWalmoden [pg 212] of Caeligsarion and Jordan of Mimi and le TourbillonChasotstwosonsenteredthePrussianservicethoughinthemannerinwhichthey are received we find Frederic again actingmore as king than as friendChasotin1784wasstillaslivelyaseverwhereasthekingwasinbadhealthThe latterwrites tohisold friendldquoSinousnenous revoyonsbientocirctnousnenousreverronsjamaisrdquoandwhenChasothadarrivedFredericwritestoPrinceHeinrichldquoChasotestvenuicideLuumlbeckilneparlequedemangeailledevinsdeChampagne duRhin deMadegravere deHongrie et du faste demessieurs lesmarchandsdelaboursedeLuumlbeckrdquo

SuchwasthelastmeetingofthesetwoknightsoftheOrdredeBayardThekingdiedin1786withoutseeingtheapproachoftherevolutionarystormwhichwassoontoupsetthethroneoftheBourbonsChasotdiedin1797Hebegantowritehis memoirs in 1789 and it is to some of their fragments which had beenpreservedbyhisfamilyandwerehandedovertoMKurddeSchloumlzerthatweowethisdelightfullittlebookFrederictheGreatusedtocomplainthatGermanscouldnotwritehistorymdash

ldquoCesiegravecleneproduisitaucunbonhistorienOnchargeaTeissierdeacutecrirelhistoiredeBrandebourg il en fit le paneacutegyrique Pufendorf eacutecrivit la vie de Freacutedeacuteric-Guillaumeetpournerienomettreilnoublianisesclercsdechancellerienisesvaletsdechambredont ilput recueillir lesnomsNosauteursont cemesembletoujourspeacutecheacutefautedediscernerleschosesessentiellesdesaccessoiresdeacuteclaircirlesfaitsdereserrerleurprosetraicircnanteetexcessivementsujetteauxinversionsauxnombreuseseacutepithegravetesetdeacutecrireenpeacutedantsplutocirctquenhommesdegeacutenierdquo

WebelievethatFredericwouldnothavesaidthis[pg213]ofaworklikethatofMdeSchloumlzerandastoChasotitisnottoomuchtosaythatafterthedaysofMollwitz andHohenfriedberg the day onwhichM de Schloumlzer undertook towritehisbiographywasperhapsthemostfortunateforhisfame

[pg214]

XSHAKESPEARE34

ThecityofFrankfortthebirthplaceofGoethesendshergreetingtothecityofStratford-on-Avon the birthplace of Shakespeare The old free town ofFrankfortwhichsincethedaysofFrederickBarbarossahasseentheEmperorsofGermanycrownedwithinherwallsmightwellatalltimesspeakinthenameof Germany But to-day she sends her greeting not as the proud mother ofGermanEmperorsbutastheproudermotherofthegreatestamongthepoetsofGermanyand it is fromtheveryhouse inwhichGoethe livedandwhichhassincebecometheseatofldquotheFreeGermanInstitute forScienceandArtrdquo thatthismessageof theGermanadmirersandloversofShakespearehasbeensentwhich I am asked to present to you theMayor and Council of Stratford-on-Avon

WhenhonorwastobedonetothememoryofShakespeareGermanycouldnotbeabsentfornexttoGoetheandSchillerthereisnopoetsotrulylovedbyussothoroughlyourownasyourShakespeareHeisnostrangerwithusnomereclassiclikeHomerorVirgilorDanteorCorneillewhomweadmireaswe[pg215]admireamarblestatueHehasbecomeoneofourselvesholdinghisownplace in the history of our literature applauded in our theatres read in ourcottagesstudiedknownlovedldquoasfarassoundstheGermantonguerdquoThereismany a student in Germany who has learned English solely in order to readShakespeareintheoriginalandyetwepossessatranslationofShakespearewithwhich few translations of any work can vie in any language What we inGermany owe to Shakespeare must be read in the history of our literatureGoethewasproudtocallhimselfapupilofShakespeareIshallatthismomentallude to one debt of gratitude only which Germany owes to the poet ofStratford-on-Avon I do not speak of the poet only and of his art so perfectbecause so artless I think of the man with his large warm heart with hissympathy for all that is genuine unselfish beautiful and good with hiscontemptforallthatispettymeanvulgarandfalseItisfromhisplaysthatour

youngmeninGermanyformtheirfirstideasofEnglandandtheEnglishnationandinadmiringandlovinghimwehavelearnedtoadmireandtoloveyouwhomayproudly call himyour ownAnd it is right that this shouldbe soAs theheightof theAlpsismeasuredbyMontBlanc let thegreatnessofEnglandbemeasuredbythegreatnessofShakespeareGreatnationsmakegreatpoetsgreatpoets make great nations Happy the nation that possesses a poet likeShakespeare Happy the youth of England whose first ideas of this world inwhich they are to live are taken from his pages The silent influence ofShakespearespoetryonmillionsofyoungheartsinEnglandinGermanyinalltheworldshowsthealmostsuperhumanpowerofhumangeniusIfwe[pg216]lookatthatsmallhouseinasmallstreetofasmalltownofasmallislandandthen think of the world-embracing world-quickening world-ennobling spiritthatburstforthfromthatsmallgarretwehavelearnedalessonandcarriedoffablessing forwhichnopilgrimagewouldhavebeen too longThough thegreatfestivalswhichinformerdaysbroughttogetherpeoplefromallpartsofEuropetoworshipattheshrineofCanterburyexistnomoreletushopeforthesakeofEnglandmoreeven than for the sakeofShakespeare that thiswillnotbe thelast Shakespeare festival in the annals of Stratford-on-Avon In this cold andcriticalageofoursthepowerofworshippingtheartofadmiringthepassionoflovingwhatisgreatandgoodarefastdyingoutMayEnglandneverbeashamedtoshowtotheworldthatshecanlovethatshecanadmirethatshecanworshipthegreatestofherpoetsMayShakespeareliveonintheloveofeachgenerationthatgrowsupinEnglandMaytheyouthofEnglandlongcontinuetobenursedtobefed tobereprovedand judgedbyhisspiritWith thatnationmdashthat trulyEnglishbecausetrulyShakespeariannationmdashtheGermannationwillalwaysbeunitedbythestrongestsympathiesforsuperaddedtotheircommonbloodtheircommonreligion theircommonbattlesandvictories theywillalwayshave inShakespeareacommonteacheracommonbenefactorandacommonfriend

April1864

[pg217]

XIBACONINGERMANY35

ldquoIfourGermanphilosophy isconsidered inEnglandand inFranceasGermandreaming we ought not to render evil for evil but rather to prove thegroundlessness of such accusations by endeavoring ourselves to appreciatewithoutanyprejudicethephilosophersofFranceandEnglandsuchastheyareand doing them that justice which they deserve especially as in scientificsubjects injustice means ignorancerdquo With these words M Kuno Fischerintroduces his work on Bacon to the German public and what he says isevidently intended not as an attack upon the conceit of French and theexclusivenessofEnglishphilosophersbutratherasanapologywhichtheauthorfeelsthatheowestohisowncountrymenItwouldseemindeedasifaGermanwasboundtoapologizefortreatingBaconasanequalofLeibnitzKantHegeland Schelling Bacons name is never mentioned by German writers withoutsomeprovisothatitisonlybyagreatstretchofthemeaningofthewordorbycourtesy that he canbe called aphilosopherHisphilosophy it ismaintainedendswhere all true philosophybegins and his style ormethodhas frequentlybeendescribed[pg218]asunworthyofasystematicthinkerSpinozawhohasexercisedsogreataninfluenceonthehistoryofthoughtinGermanywasamongthefirstwhospokeslightinglyoftheinductivephilosopherWhentreatingofthecausesoferrorhewritesldquoWhathe(Bacon)adducesbesidesinordertoexplainerrorcaneasilybetracedbacktotheCartesiantheoryitisthisthatthehumanwill is free and more comprehensive than the understanding or as Baconexpresseshimselfinamoreconfusedmannerintheforty-ninthaphorismlsquoThehumanunderstandingisnotapurelightbutobscuredbythewillrsquothinsprdquoInworksonthegeneralhistoryofphilosophyGermanauthorsfinditdifficulttoassignanyplace to Bacon Sometimes he is classed with the Italian school of naturalphilosophysometimesheiscontrastedwithJacobBoehmeHeisnamedasoneofthemanywhohelpedtodelivermankindfromthethralldomofscholasticismButanyaccountofwhathereallywaswhathedidtoimmortalizehisnameandto gain that prominent position among his own countrymen which he has

occupied to the present day we should look for in vain even in the mostcomplete and systematic treatises on the history of philosophy published inGermanyNordoesthisarisefromanywishtodepreciatetheresultsofEnglishspeculation ingeneralOn thecontrarywe find thatHobbesLockeBerkeleyandHumearetreatedwithgreatrespectTheyoccupywell-markedpositionsintheprogressofphilosophicthoughtTheirnamesarewrittenin largelettersonthechief stations throughwhich the trainofhuman reasoningpassedbefore itarrived at Kant and Hegel Lockes philosophy took for a time completepossessionoftheGermanmindandcalledforthsomeofthemostimportant[pg219]anddecisivewritingsofLeibnitzandKanthimselfowedhiscommandingpositiontothebattlewhichhefoughtandwonagainstHumeBaconalonehasneverbeeneitherattackedorpraisednorhavehisworksasitseemseverbeenstudiedverycloselybyGermansAsfaraswecangathertheirviewofBaconandofEnglishphilosophyissomethingasfollowsPhilosophytheysayshouldaccountforexperiencebutBacontookexperienceforgrantedHeconstructedacyclopaeligdia of knowledge but he never explainedwhat knowledge itselfwasHencephilosophyfarfrombeingbroughttoaclosebyhisldquoNovumOrganonrdquohadtolearnagaintomakeherfirststepsimmediatelyafterhistimeBaconhadbuiltamagnificentpalacebutitwassoonfoundthattherewasnostaircaseinitTheveryfirstquestionofallphilosophyldquoHowdoweknowrdquoorldquoHowcanweknowrdquohadneverbeenaskedbyhimLockewhocameafterhimwasthefirstto ask it and he endeavored to answer it in his ldquoEssay concerning HumanUnderstandingrdquo The result of his speculations was that themind is a tabularasa that this tabularasabecomesgradually filledwithsensuousperceptionsand that these sensuous perceptions arrange themselves into classes and thusgiverisetomoregeneralideasorconceptionsThiswasastepinadvancebuttherewasagainonethingtakenforgrantedbyLockemdashtheperceptionsThisledtothenextstepinEnglishphilosophywhichwasmadebyBerkeleyHeaskedthequestionldquoWhatareperceptionsrdquo andhe answered it boldly ldquoPerceptionsarethethingsthemselvesandtheonlycauseoftheseperceptionsisGodrdquoButthisboldstepwasinrealitybutaboldretreatHumeacceptedtheresultsbothofLockeandBerkeleyHe[pg220]admittedwithLocke that the impressionsofthesensesare thesourceofallknowledgeheadmittedwithBerkeley thatweknownothingbeyondtheimpressionsofoursensesButwhenBerkeleyspeaksof the cause of these impressions Hume points out that we have no right tospeak of anything like cause and effect and that the idea of causality ofnecessary sequence on which the whole fabric of our reasoning rests is anassumptioninevitable itmaybeyetanassumptionThusEnglishphilosophywhichseemedtobesosettledandpositiveinBaconendedinthemostunsettled

andnegativeskepticisminHumeanditwasonlythroughKantthataccordingtotheGermansthegreatproblemwassolvedatlastandmenagainknewhowtheyknew

FromthispointofviewwhichwebelievetobethatgenerallytakenbyGermanwritersofthehistoricalprogressofmodernphilosophywemaywellunderstandwhythestarofBaconshoulddisappearalmostbelowtheirhorizonAndifthoseonlyaretobecalledphilosopherswhoinquireintothecausesofourknowledgeorintothepossibilityofknowingandbeinganewnamemustbeinventedformenlikehimwhoareconcernedalonewiththerealitiesofknowledgeThetwoare antipodesmdashthey inhabit two distinct hemispheres of thoughtButGermanIdealismasMKunoFischersayswouldhavedonewellifithadbecomemorethoroughlyacquaintedwithitsopponentmdash

ldquoAnd if it beobjectedrdquohe says ldquothat thepointsof contactbetweenGermanandEnglishphilosophybetweenIdealismandRealismare less tobefound inBaconthan in other philosophers of his kind that it was not Bacon but Hume whoinfluencedKant that itwas notBacon butLockewho influencedLeibnitz thatSpinozaifhereceivedanyimpulseatallfrom[pg221]thosequartersreceivedit fromHobbes and not fromBacon ofwhom he speaks in several places verycontemptuouslymdashIanswerthatitwasBaconwhomDesCartestheacknowledgedfounder of dogmatic Idealism chose for his antagonist And as to those realisticphilosophers who have influenced the opposite side of philosophy in SpinozaLeibnitz and Kant I shall be able to prove that Hobbes Locke Hume are alldescendantsofBaconthattheyhavetheirrootsinBaconthatwithoutBacontheycannot be truly explained andunderstood but only be takenup in a fragmentaryformandasitwerepluckedoffBaconisthecreatorofrealisticphilosophyTheirage is but a development of theBaconiangerms everyoneof their systems is ametamorphosisofBaconianphilosophyTothepresentdayrealisticphilosophyhasneverhadagreatergenius thanBacon its foundernonewhohasmanifested thetruly realistic spirit that feels itself at home in the midst of life in socomprehensivesooriginalandcharacteristicsosoberandyetatthesametimesoidealandaspiringamannernoneagaininwhomthelimitsofthisspiritstandoutinsuchdistinctandnaturalreliefBaconsphilosophyisthemosthealthyandquiteinartificial expressionofRealismAfter the systemsofSpinoza andLeibnitz hadmovedme for a long time had filled and as itwere absorbedme the studyofBaconwastomelikeanewlifethefruitsofwhicharegatheredinthisbookrdquo

After a careful perusal ofM Fischers work we believe that it will not onlyserveinGermanyasausefulintroductiontothestudyofBaconbutthatitwillbereadwithinterestandadvantagebymanypersonsinEnglandwhoarealreadyacquaintedwiththechiefworksofthephilosopherTheanalysiswhichhegivesofBaconsphilosophy isaccurateandcompleteandwithout indulging inany

lengthycriticismshehasthrownmuchlightonseveralimportantpointsHefirstdiscussestheaimofhisphilosophyandcharacterizesitasDiscoveryingeneralas the conquest of nature byman (Regnumhominis interpretatio naturaelig) Hethenentersintothemeanswhichitsuppliesforaccomplishingthisconquestandwhichconsistchieflyinexperiencemdash

[pg222]

ldquoThechiefobjectofBaconsphilosophyis theestablishmentandextensionof thedominion of man Themeans of accomplishing this wemay call culture or theapplicationofphysicalpowerstowardhumanpurposesButthereisnosuchculturewithout discovery which produces the means of culture no discovery withoutsciencewhichunderstandsthelawsofnaturenosciencewithoutnaturalscienceno natural science without an interpretation of nature and this can only beaccomplishedaccordingtothemeasureofourexperiencerdquo

MFischerthenproceedstodiscusswhathecallsthenegativeordestructivepartofBaconsphilosophy(parsdestruens)mdashthatistosaythemeansbywhichthehumanmindshouldbepurifiedandfreedfromallpreconceivednotionsbeforeitapproachestheinterpretationofnatureHecarriesusthroughthelongwarwhichBaconcommencedagainsttheidolsoftraditionalorscholasticscienceWeseehowthe idola tribus the idolaspecus the idola foriand the idola theatriaredestroyed by his iconoclastic philosophy After all these are destroyed thereremains nothing but uncertainty and doubt and it is in this state of nudityapproaching very nearly to the tabula rasa of Locke that the human mindshould approach the new temple of nature Here lies the radical differencebetweenBaconandDesCartesbetweenRealismandIdealismDesCartesalsolikeBacondestroysallformerknowledgeHeprovesthatweknownothingforcertainButafterhehasdeprivedthehumanmindofallitsimaginaryricheshedoesnotleaditonlikeBacontoastudyofnaturebuttoastudyofitselfastheonlysubjectwhichcanbeknownforcertainCogitoergosumHisphilosophyleads toa studyof the fundamental lawsofknowingandbeing thatofBaconentersatonceintothegatesofnaturewiththeinnocenceofachild(tousehis[pg 223] own expression) who enters the kingdom of God Bacon speaksindeedofaPhilosophiaprimaasakindofintroductiontoDivineNaturalandHuman Philosophy but he does not discuss in this preliminary chapter theproblemofthepossibilityofknowledgenorwasitwithhimtherightplacetodosoItwasdestinedbyhimasaldquoreceptacleforallsuchprofitableobservationsandaxiomsasfallnotwithinthecompassofthespecialpartsofphilosophyor

sciences but aremore common and of a higher stagerdquoHementions himselfsome of these axioms such asmdashldquoSi inaeligqualibus aeligqualia addas omnia eruntinaeligqualiardquoldquoQuaeligineodemtertioconveniuntet interseconveniuntrdquoldquoOmniamutantur nil interitrdquo The problem of the possibility of knowledge wouldgenerallybeclassedundermetaphysicsbutwhatBaconcallsMetaphysique iswithhimabranchofphilosophytreatingonlyonFormalandFinalCauses inopposition toPhysique which treats onMaterial and Efficient Causes If weadopt Bacons division of philosophy we might still expect to find thefundamentalproblemdiscussedinhischapteronHumanPhilosophybuthereagain he treats man only as a part of the continent of Nature and when hecomes toconsider thesubstanceandnatureof thesoulormindhedeclines toenter into this subject because ldquothe true knowledge of the nature and state ofsoulmustcomebythesameinspirationthatgavethesubstancerdquoThereremainstherefore but one place in Bacons cyclopaeligdia where wemight hope to findsomeinformationonthissubjectmdashnamelywherehetreatsonthefacultiesandfunctionsofthemindandinparticularofunderstandingandreasonAndherehedwellsindeedonthedoubtfulevidenceof[pg224] thesensesasoneof thecausesoferrorsofrequentlypointedoutbyotherphilosophersButheremarksthatthoughtheychargedthedeceituponthesensestheirchieferrorsarosefromadifferentcause from theweaknessof their intellectualpowersand from themannerofcollectingandconcludinguponthereportsofthesensesAndhethenpointstowhatistobetheworkofhislifemdashanimprovedsystemofinventionconsistingoftheExperientiaLiterataandtheInterpretatioNaturaelig

Itmustbeadmittedthereforethatoneoftheproblemswhichhasoccupiedmostphilosophersmdashnaywhichinacertainsensemaybecalledthefirstimpulsetoallphilosophymdashthequestionwhetherwecanknowanythingisentirelypassedover by Bacon and we may well understand why the name and title ofphilosopherhasbeenwithheldfromonewholookeduponhumanknowledgeasanartbutneverinquiredintoitscausesandcredentialsThisisapointwhichMFischerhasnotoverlookedbuthehasnotalwayskeptitinviewandinwishingtosecuretoBaconhisplaceinthehistoryofphilosophyhehasdeprivedhimofthatmoreexaltedplacewhichBaconhimselfwishedtooccupyinthehistoryofthe world Among men like Locke Hume Kant and Hegel Bacon is andalwayswillbeastrangerBaconhimselfwouldhavedrawnaverystronglinebetweentheirprovinceandhisownHeknowswheretheirprovinceliesandifhe sometimes speaks contemptuously of formal philosophy it is only whenformalphilosophyhasencroachedonhisowngroundorwhenitbreaksintotheenclosure of revealed religion which he wished to be kept sacred There he

holdsthehumanmindshouldnotenterexceptintheattitudeoftheSemnoneswithchainedhands

[pg225]Baconsphilosophycouldneversupplant theworksofPlatoandAristotleandthoughhismethodmightproveusefulineverybranchofknowledgemdasheveninthemostabstrusepointsoflogicandmetaphysicsmdashyettherehasneverbeenaBaconianschoolofphilosophyinthesenseinwhichwespeakoftheschoolofLockeorKantBaconwasaboveorbelowphilosophyPhilosophyintheusualsenseofthewordformedbutapartofhisgreatschemeofknowledgeIthaditsplace therein side by side with history poetry and religion After he hadsurveyed thewholeuniverseofknowledgehewas struckby the small resultsthat had been obtained by somuch labor and he discovered the cause of thisfailure in thewant of a propermethod of investigation and combination Thesubstitution of a new method of invention was the great object of hisphilosophicalactivityandthoughithasbeenfrequentlysaidthattheBaconianmethod had been known long before Bacon and had been practiced by hispredecessors with much greater success than by himself or his immediatefollowersitwashischiefmerittohaveproclaimeditandtohaveestablisheditslegitimacy against all gainsayersM Fischer has some very good remarks onBaconsmethodof inductionparticularlyon the instantiaeligpraeligrogativaelig whichas he points out though they show theweakness of his system exhibit at thesame time the strength of his mind which rises above all the smallerconsiderationsofsystematicconsistencywherehigherobjectsareatstake

MFischerdevotesonechapter toBaconsrelationto theancientphilosophersandanother tohisviewsonpoetry In the latter henaturally comparesBaconwithhis contemporaryShakespeareWe recommend this chapter aswell as asimilaroneinaworkon[pg226]ShakespearebyGervinustotheauthoroftheingenious discovery that Bacon was the real author of Shakespeares playsBesides an analysis of the constructive part of Bacons philosophy or theInstauratioMagnaMFischergivesusseveralinterestingchaptersinwhichhetreatsofBaconasanhistoricalcharacterofhisviewsonreligionandtheologyandofhis reviewersHisdefenseofBacons political character is theweakestpart of hisworkHedraws an elaborate parallel between the spirit ofBaconsphilosophyandthespiritofhispublicactsDiscoveryhesayswastheobjectofthephilosophersuccess thatof thepoliticianButwhatcanbegainedbysuchparallelsWeadmireBaconsardentexertionsforthesuccessfuladvancementoflearningbut if his acts forhisownadvancementwereblamablenomoralist

whatevernotionshemayholdontherelationbetweentheunderstandingandthewill would be swayed in his judgment of Lord Bacons character by suchconsiderationsWemakenoallowancefortheimitativetalentsofatragedianifhestandsconvictedofforgerynorforthecourageofasoldierifheisaccusedof murder Bacons character can only be judged by the historian and by acarefulstudyofthestandardofpublicmoralityinBaconstimesAndthesamemaybesaidofthepositionwhichhetookwithregardtoreligionandtheologyWe may explain his inclination to keep religion distinct from philosophy bytakingintoaccountthepracticaltendenciesofallhislaborsButthereissuchawant of straightforwardness and we might almost say of real faith in histheologicalstatementsthatnoonecanbesurprisedtofindthatwhileheistakenastherepresentativeoforthodoxybysomehehasbeenattackedbyothersasthemost dangerous and [pg 227] insidious enemy of Christianity Writers of theschoolofDeMaistreseeinhimadecidedatheistandhypocrite

InaworkonBaconitseemstohavebecomeanecessitytodiscussBaconslastreviewerandMFischer thereforebreaksa lancewithMrMacaulayWegivesomeextracts from thischapter (page358seq)whichwill serve at the sametimeasaspecimenofourauthorsstylemdash

ldquoMrMacaulay pleads unconditionally in favor of practical philosophywhich hedesignatesby thenameofBaconagainstall theoreticalphilosophyWehavetwoquestionstoask1WhatdoesMrMacaulaymeanbythecontrastofpracticalandtheoreticalphilosophyonwhichhedwellssoconstantlyand2WhathashisownpracticalphilosophyincommonwiththatofBacon

ldquoMrMacaulaydecidesonthefateofphilosophywithareadyformulawhichlikemany of the same kind dazzles by means of words which have nothing behindthemmdashwords which become more obscure and empty the nearer we approachthem He says Philosophy was made for Man not Man for Philosophy In theformercaseitispracticalinthelattertheoreticalMrMacaulayembracesthefirstandrejectsthesecondHecannotspeakwithsufficientpraiseoftheonenorwithsufficient contempt of the other According to him the Baconian philosophy ispracticalthepre-BaconianandparticularlytheancientphilosophytheoreticalHecarriesthecontrastbetweenthetwotothelastextremeandheplacesitbeforeoureyesnotinitsnakedformbutveiledinmetaphorsandinwell-chosenfiguresofspeechwheretheimposingandcharmingimagealwaysrepresentsthepracticaltherepulsivethetheoreticalformofphilosophyBythisplayhecarriesawaythegreatmassofpeoplewholikechildrenalwaysrunafterimagesPracticalphilosophyisnot somuch a conviction with him but it serves him tomake a point whereastheoretical philosophy serves as an easy butt Thus the contrast between the twoacquires a certain dramatic charm The reader feels moved and excited by thesubjectbeforehimandforgetsthescientificquestionHisfancyiscaughtbyakind

ofmetaphorical[pg228]imageryandhisunderstandingsurrenderswhatisduetoitWhatisMrMacaulaysmeaninginrejectingtheoreticalphilosophybecausephilosophy is here the object and man the means whereas he adopts practicalphilosophybecausemanisheretheobjectandphilosophythemeansWhatdowegainbysuchcomparisonsaswhenhesaysthatpracticalandtheoreticalphilosophyare like works and words fruits and thorns a high-road and a treadmill SuchphrasesalwaysremindusoftheremarkofSocratesTheyaresaidindeedbutaretheywellandtrulysaidAccordingtothestrictmeaningofMrMacaulayswordsthere never was a practical philosophy for there never was a philosophy whichoweditsorigin topracticalconsiderationsonlyAndthereneverwasa theoreticalphilosophyforthereneverwasaphilosophywhichdidnotreceiveitsimpulsefromahumanwant that is to say froma practicalmotiveThis showswhere playingwithwordsmust always lead He defines theoretical and practical philosophy insuch a manner that his definition is inapplicable to any kind of philosophy HisantithesisisentirelyemptyButifwedroptheantithesisandonlykeeptowhatitmeansinsoberandintelligiblelanguageitwouldcometothismdashthatthevalueofatheory depends on its usefulness on its practical influence onhuman life on theadvantage which we derive from it Utility alone is to decide on the value of atheoryBeitsoButwhoistodecideonutilityIfallthingsareusefulwhichserveto satisfyhumanwantswho is to decideonourwantsWe takeMrMacaulaysownpointofviewPhilosophyshouldbepracticalitshouldservemansatisfyhiswants or help to satisfy them and if it fails in this let it be called useless andhollowButiftherearewantsinhumannaturewhichdemandtobesatisfiedwhichmakelifeaburdenunlesstheyaresatisfiedisthatnottobecalledpracticalwhichanswers to thesewantsAndifsomeof themareof thatpeculiarnature that theycan only be satisfied by knowledge or by theoretical contemplation is thisknowledgeisthistheoreticalcontemplationnotusefulmdashusefulevenintheeyesofthe most decided Utilitarian Might it not happen that what he calls theoreticalphilosophyseemsuselessandbarrentotheUtilitarianbecausehisideasofmenaretoonarrowItisdangerousandnotquitebecomingtolaydownthelawandsayfromtheveryfirstlsquoYoumustnothavemorethancertainwantsandthereforeyoudonotwantmorethanacertainphilosophyrsquoIfwemayjudgefromMr[pg229]MacaulaysillustrationshisideasofhumannaturearenotveryliberallsquoIfwewereforcedrsquohesayslsquotomakeourchoicebetweenthefirstshoemakerandSenecatheauthorof thebooksonAngerweshouldpronouncefor theshoemakerItmaybeworsetobeangrythantobewetButshoeshavekeptmillionsfrombeingwetandwedoubtwhetherSenecaeverkeptanybodyfrombeingangryrsquoIshouldnotselectSenecaas the representativeof theoreticalphilosophy still less take those formyallies whom Mr Macaulay prefers to Seneca in order to defeat theoreticalphilosophers Brennus threw his sword into the scale in order to make it moreweightyMrMacaulayprefers theawlButwhateverhemaythinkaboutSenecathereisanotherphilosophermoreprofoundthanSenecabutinMrMacaulayseyeslikewiseanunpracticalthinkerAndyetinhimthepoweroftheorywasgreaterthanthepowersofnature and themost commonwantsofmanHismeditations alonegaveSocrateshisserenitywhenhedrankthefatalpoisonIsthereamongallevilsonegreater thanthedreadofdeathAndtheremedyagainst this theworstofallphysicalevils is itnotpractical inthebestsenseofthewordTruesomepeoplemightheresaythatitwouldhavebeenmorepracticalifSocrateshadfledfromhisprisonasCritonsuggestedandhaddiedanoldanddecrepitmaninBœotiaButtoSocratesitseemedmorepracticaltoremaininprisonandtodieasthefirstwitnessandmartyrofthelibertyofconscienceandtorisefromthesublimeheightofhistheory to the seats of the immortals Thus it is thewant of the individualwhich

decidesonthepracticalvalueofanactorofathoughtandthiswantdependsonthenatureofthehumansoulThereisadifferencebetweenindividualsindifferentages and there is a difference in their wants As long as the desire afterknowledgelivesinourheartswemustwiththepurelypracticalviewofsatisfyingthiswantstriveafterknowledgeinallthingseveninthosewhichdonotcontributetowardsexternalcomfortandhavenouseexceptthattheypurifyandinvigoratethemind What is theory in the eyes of Bacon lsquoA temple in the human mindaccording to themodelof theworldrsquoWhat is it in theeyesofMrMacaulayAsnug dwelling according to the wants of practical life The latter is satisfied ifknowledge is carried far enough to enable us to keep ourselves dry Themagnificenceof thestructureand itscompletenessaccording to themodelof theworld is to him useless by-work superfluous [pg 230] and even dangerousluxuryThisistheviewofarespectablerate-payernotofaBaconMrMacaulayreducesBacontohisowndimensionswhileheendeavorsatthesametimetoexalthimaboveallotherpeopleBaconsownphilosophywas likeallphilosophy atheory it was the theory of the inventive mind Bacon has not made any greatdiscoveries himself He was less inventive than Leibnitz the Germanmetaphysician If tomakediscoveriesbepracticalphilosophyBaconwasameretheoristandhisphilosophynothingbutthetheoryofpracticalphilosophyHowfarthespiritoftheoryreachedinBaconmaybeseeninhisownworksHedidnotwanttofettertheorybuttorenewandtoextendittotheveryendsoftheuniverseHispracticalstandardwasnotthecomfortoftheindividualbuthumanhappinesswhich involves theoretical knowledge That Bacon is not the Bacon of MrMacaulayWhatBaconwantedwasnewanditwillbeeternalWhatMrMacaulayandmanypeople at the present daywant in the nameofBacon is not new butnovelNewiswhatopposestheoldandservesasamodelforthefutureNoveliswhat flatters our times gains sympathies and dies away And history haspronouncedherfinalverdictItisthelastnegativeinstancewhichweopposetoMrMacaulaysassertionBaconsphilosophyhasnotbeentheendofall theoriesbutthe beginning of new theoriesmdashtheories which flowed necessarily fromBaconsphilosophy andnot oneofwhichwaspractical inMrMacaulays senseHobbeswasthepupilofBaconHisidealofaStateisopposedtothatofPlatoonallpointsButonepoint itshares incommonmdashit isasunpracticala theoryas thatofPlatoMrMacaulayhowevercallsHobbes themostacuteandvigorousspirit If thenHobbeswasapracticalphilosopherwhatbecomesofMacaulayspoliticsAndifHobbes was not a practical philosopher what becomes of Mr MacaulaysphilosophywhichdoeshomagetothetheoriesofHobbesrdquo

WehavesomewhatabridgedMFischersargument for thoughhewriteswelland intelligiblyhewantscondensationandwedonot think thathisargumenthasbeenweakenedbybeingshortenedWhathehasextendedintoavolumeofnearlyfivehundredpagesmighthavebeenreducedtoapithyessayof[pg231]one or two hundred without sacrificing one essential fact or injuring thestrengthofanyoneofhisargumentsTheartofwritinginourtimesistheartofcondensing and thosewho cannot condensewrite only for readers who havemoretimeattheirdisposalthantheyknowwhattodowith

Letus askonequestion inconclusionWhydoallGermanwriters change the

thoroughlyTeutonicnameofBaconintoBacoItisbadenoughthatweshouldspeakofPlato but this cannot behelpedButunlessweprotest againstBacogen Baconiswe shall soon be treated toNewtoNewtonis or even toKansKantis

[pg232]

XIIAGERMANTRAVELLERINENGLAND36

AD1598

Lessing when he was Librarian at Wolfenbuumlttel proposed to start a reviewwhichshouldonlynoticeforgottenbooksmdashbookswrittenbeforereviewingwasinventedpublishedinthesmalltownsofGermanyneverreadperhapsexceptby theauthorandhis friends thenburiedon the shelvesof a libraryproperlylabeledandcataloguedandneveropenedagainexceptbyaninquisitiveinmateoftheseliterarymausoleumsThenumberofthoseforgottenbooksisgreatandas in former times few authorswrotemore than one or twoworks during thewholeoftheirlivestheinformationwhichtheycontainisgenerallyofamuchmoresubstantialandsolidkindthanourliterarypalatesarenowaccustomedtoIf aman now travels to the unexplored regions ofCentralAfrica his book iswrittenandout inayear It remainson thedrawing-room[pg233] table for aseason it is pleasant to read easy to digest and still easier to review and toforgetTwoorthreehundredyearsagothiswasverydifferentTravellingwasafarmoreseriousbusinessandamanwhohadspentsomeyearsinseeingforeigncountries coulddonothingbetter than employ the rest of his life inwriting abook of travels either in his own language or still better in LatinAfter hisdeath his book continued to be quoted for a time in works on history andgeographytillanewtravellerwentoverthesamegroundpublishedanequallylearnedbookandthusconsignedhispredecessortooblivionHereisacaseinpoint Paul Hentzner a German who of course calls himself PaulusHentznerus travelled in Germany France England and Italy and after hisreturn to his native place in Silesia he duly published his travels in a portlyvolume written in Latin There is a long title-page with dedicationsintroductions a preface for the Lector benevolus Latin verses and a tableshowingwhatpeopleoughttoobserveintravellingTravellingaccordingtoour

friend is the source of allwisdom and he quotesMoses and the Prophets insupportofhistheoryWeoughtalltotravelhesaysmdashldquovitanostraperegrinatioestrdquo and those who stay at home like snails (cochlearum instar) will remainldquoinhumaniinsolentessuperbirdquoetc

It would take a long time to follow Paulus Hentznerus through all hisperegrinationsbutletusseewhathesawinEnglandHearrivedhereintheyear1598HetookshipwithhisfriendsatDepavulgoDieppeandafteraboisterousvoyagetheylandedatRyeOntheirarrivaltheywereconductedtoaNotariuswho asked their names and inquired for what object they came to EnglandAftertheyhadsatisfied[pg234]hisofficialinquiriestheywereconductedtoaDiversoriumand treated toagooddinnerproregionismoreaccording to thecustom of the country From Rye they rode to London passing FlimwoltTumbridge and Chepsted on their way Then follows a long description ofLondon its origin and history its bridges churchesmonuments and palaceswith extracts from earlier writers such as Paulus Jovius PolydorusVergiliusetcAllinscriptionsarecopiedfaithfullynotonlyfromtombsandpicturesbutalsofrombookswhichthetravellerssawinthepubliclibrariesWhitehallseemsto have contained a royal library at that time and in itHentzner saw besidesGreekandLatinMSSabookwritten inFrenchbyQueenElizabethwith thefollowingdedicationtoHenryVIIImdash

ldquoA Tres haut et Tres puissant et Redoubte Prince Henry VIII de ce nom RoydAngleterredeFranceetdIrlandedefenseurdelafoyElizabethsaTreshumblefillerendsalutetobediencerdquo

After the travellers had seenSt PaulsWestminster theHouse ofParliamentWhitehall Guildhall the Tower and the Royal Exchange commonly calledBursamdashallofwhichareminutelydescribedmdashtheywenttothetheatresandtoplacesUrsorumetTaurorumvenationibusdestinatawherebearsandbullstiedfastbehindwerebaitedbybull-dogsIntheseplacesandeverywhereinfactasourtravellersayswhereyoumeetwithEnglishmen theyuseherbanicotianawhich they call by an American name Tobaca or Paetum The descriptiondeservestobequotedintheoriginalmdash

ldquoFistulaelig in hunc finem ex argillacirc factaelig orificio posteriori dictam herbam probeexiccatam ita ut in pulverem facile redigi possit immittunt et igne admotoaccenduntunde fumusab[pg235] anteriori parte ore attrahitur qui per naresrursum tamquamper infurnibulumexit etphlegmaaccapitisdefluxionesmagnacirc

copiacircsecumeducitrdquo

After they had seen everything in Londonmdashnot omitting the ship in whichFrancisDrakenobilissimuspyratawassaidtohavecircumnavigatedtheworldmdashthey went to Greenwich Here they were introduced into the presence-chamberandsawtheQueenThewallsoftheroomwerecoveredwithprecioustapestrythefloorstrewedwithhayTheQueenhadtopassthroughongoingtochapel Itwas aSundaywhenall thenobility came topay their respectsTheArchbishopofCanterburyandtheBishopofLondonwerepresentWhendivineservicebegantheQueenappearedprecededandfollowedbythecourtBeforeherwalked twobarons carrying the sceptre and the sword andbetween themthe Great Chancellor of England with the seal The Queen is thus minutelydescribedmdash

ldquoShewas said (rumor erat) to be fifty-five years old Her face was rather longwhiteandalittlewrinkledHereyessmallblackandgracioushernosesomewhatbenther lipscompressedher teethblack (fromeating toomuchsugar)Shehadear-ringsofpearlsredhairbutartificialandworeasmallcrownHerbreastwasuncovered(asisthecasewithallunmarriedladiesinEngland)androundherneckwasachainwithpreciousgemsHerhandsweregracefulherfingerslongShewasofmiddle stature but stepped onmajestically Shewas gracious and kind in heraddressThedress sheworewasofwhite silkwithpearlsas largeasbeansHercloak was of black silk with silver lace and a long train was carried by amarchionessAsshewalkedalongshespokemostkindlywithmanypeoplesomeof themambassadorsShespokeEnglishFrenchand Italianbut sheknowsalsoGreek and Latin and understands Spanish Scotch andDutch Thosewhom sheaddressedbent theirkneesandsomeshe liftedupwithherhandToaBohemiannoblemanofthenameofSlawatawhohadbroughtsomeletterstotheQueenshegave her right hand after [pg 236] taking off her glove and he kissed itWhereversheturnedhereyespeoplefellontheirkneesrdquo

TherewasprobablynobodypresentwhoventuredtoscrutinizethepoorQueenso impertinently asPaulusHentznerusHegoeson to describe the ladieswhofollowed the Queen and how they were escorted by fifty knightsWhen shecametothedoorofthechapelbookswerehandedtoherandthepeoplecalledoutldquoGodsavetheQueenElizabethrdquowhereupontheQueenansweredldquoIthankeyoumyn good peuplerdquo Prayers did not last more than half an hour and themusicwasexcellentDuringthetimethattheQueenwasinchapeldinnerwaslaidandthisagainisdescribedinfulldetail

ButwecannotaffordtotarrywithourGermanobservernorcanwefollowhim

toGrantbridge (Cambridge) orOxenfordwhere he describes the colleges andhalls(eachofthemhavingalibrary)andthelifeofthestudentsFromOxfordhe went toWoodstock then back to Oxford and from thence to Henley andMadenhoodtoWindsorEtonalsowasvisitedandherehesayssixtyboyswereeducatedgratuitouslyandafterwardssenttoCambridgeAftervisitingHamptonCourtandtheroyalpalaceofNonesuchourtravellersreturnedtoLondon

WeshallfinishourextractswithsomeremarksofHentzneronthemannersandcustomsoftheEnglishmdash

ldquoTheEnglisharegrave like theGermansmagnificentathomeandabroadTheycarrywiththemalargetrainoffollowersandservantsThesehavesilvershieldsontheir left arm and a pig-tail The English excel in dancing andmusic They areswiftandlivelythoughstouterthantheFrenchTheyshavethemiddleportionofthe face but leave the hair untouched on each side They are good sailors andfamous [pg237] pirates clever perfidious and thievishAbout three hundredarehangedinLondoneveryyearAttabletheyaremorecivilthantheFrenchTheyeatlessbreadbutmoremeatandtheydressitwellTheythrowmuchsugarintotheirwineTheysufferfrequentlyfromleprosycommonlycalledthewhiteleprosywhichissaidtohavecometoEnglandinthetimeoftheNormansTheyarebravein battle and always conquer their enemies At home they brook no manner ofservitudeTheyareveryfondofnoisesthatfilltheearssuchasexplosionsofgunstrumpetsandbells InLondonpersonswhohavegotdrunkarewont tomountachurchtowerforthesakeofexerciseandtoringthebellsforseveralhoursIftheysee a foreigner who is handsome and strong they are sorry that he is not anAnglicusmdashvulgoEnglishmanrdquo

Onhis return toFranceHentzner paid a visit toCanterbury and after seeingsomeghostsonhisjourneyarrivedsafelyatDoverBeforehewasallowedtogoonboardhehadagaintoundergoanexaminationtogivehisnametoexplainwhathehaddoneinEnglandandwherehewasgoingandlastlyhisluggagewas searchedmost carefully in order to seewhether he carriedwith him anyEnglishmoneyfornobodywasallowedtocarryawaymorethantenpoundsofEnglishmoney all the restwas taken away and handed to the royal treasuryAndthusfarewellCarissimeHentzneriandslumberonyourshelfuntiltheeyeof some other benevolent reader glancing at the rows of forgotten books iscaughtbythequaintletteringonyourbackldquoHentzneriItinrdquo

[pg238]

XIIICORNISHANTIQUITIES37

ItisimpossibletospendevenafewweeksinCornwallwithoutbeingimpressedwiththeairofantiquitywhichpervadesthatcountyandseemslikeamorningmisthalftoconcealandhalftolightupeveryoneofitshillsandvalleysItisimpossible to look at any pile of stones at any wall or pillar or gate-postwithoutaskingonesselfthequestionIsthisoldoristhisnewIsittheworkofSaxonorofRomanorofCeltNayonefeelssometimestemptedtoaskIsthistheworkofNatureorofman

ldquoAmongtheserocksandstonesmethinksIseeMorethantheheedlessimpressthatbelongsTolonelyNaturescasualworktheybearAsemblancestrangeofpowerintelligentAndofdesignnotwhollywornawayrdquomdashExcursion

ThelateKingofPrussiasremarkaboutOxfordthatiniteverythingoldseemednew and everything new seemed old applies with even greater truth toCornwallThereisacontinuitybetweenthepresentandthepastofthatcuriouspeninsulasuchasweseldomfindinanyotherplaceAspringbubblingupinanaturalgranitebasinnowameeting-placeforBaptists[pg239]orMethodistswasbutafewcenturiesagoaholywellattendedbybusyfriarsandvisitedbypilgrims who came there ldquonearly lamerdquo and left the shrine ldquoalmost able towalkrdquoStillfurtherbackthesamespringwasacentreofattractionfortheCelticinhabitants and the rocks piled up around it stand there as witnesses of acivilization and architecture certainlymore primitive than the civilization andarchitecture of Roman Saxon orNorman settlersWe need not look beyondHow long thatgranitebuttressofEnglandhas stood theredefying the furyoftheAtlanticthegeologistalonewhoisnotawedbyageswoulddaretotellusBut the historian is satisfied with antiquities of a more humble and homelycharacter and inbespeaking the interest and itmaybe the active supportof

ourreadersinfavorofthefewrelicsofthemostancientcivilizationofBritainwe promise to keep within strictly historical limits if by historical weunderstandwiththelateSirGCLewisthatonlywhichcanbeauthenticatedbycontemporaneousmonuments

ButeventhushowwideagulfseemstoseparateusfromthefirstcivilizersoftheWestofEnglandfromthepeoplewhogavenamestoeveryheadlandbayandhillofCornwallandwhofirstplannedthoselanesthatnowlikethrobbingveinsrunineverydirectionacrossthatheath-coveredpeninsulaNodoubtitiswell known that the original inhabitants of Cornwall were Celts and thatCornishisaCelticlanguageandthatifwedividetheCelticlanguagesintotwoclassesWelshwithCornishandBretonformsoneclass theCymricwhiletheIrish with its varieties as developed in Scotland and the Isle of Man formsanotherclasswhich iscalled theGaelicorGadhelic [pg240] Itmay also bemore or less generally known that Celticwith all its dialects is anAryan orIndo-Europeanlanguagecloselyallied toLatinGreekGermanSlavonicandSanskritandthattheCeltsthereforewerenotmerebarbariansorpeopletobeclassedtogetherwithFinnsandLappsbutheraldsoftruecivilizationwherevertheysettledintheirworldwidemigrationstheequalsofSaxonsandRomansandGreekswhether in physical beauty or in intellectual vigorAnd yet there is astrange want of historical reality in the current conceptions about the CelticinhabitantsoftheBritishIslesandwhiletheheroesandstatesmenandpoetsofGreeceandRomethoughbelongingtoamuchearlieragestandoutinboldandsharp relief on the tableof aboysmemory his notionsof the ancientBritonsmaygenerallybesummedupldquoinhousesmadeofwicker-workDruidswithlongwhitebeardswhitelinenrobesandgoldensicklesandwarriorspaintedbluerdquoNaystrangetosaywecanhardlyblameaboyforbanishingtheancientbardsandDruids fromthesceneof realhistoryandassigning to themthatdarkandshadowycornerwhere the gods andheroes ofGreece live peacefully togetherwiththeghostsandfairiesfromthedreamlandofourownSaxonforefathersForeven the little that is told in ldquoLittle Arthurs History of Englandrdquo about theancient Britons and the Druids is extremely doubtful Druids are nevermentionedbeforeCaeligsarFewwritersifanybeforehimwereabletodistinguishbetweenCeltsandGermansbutspokeofthebarbariansofGaulandGermanyas theGreeks spoke of Scythians or aswe ourselves speak of the negroes ofAfrica without distinguishing between races so different from each other asHottentotsandKaffirsCaeligsarwas[pg241]oneofthefirstwriterswhoknewofanethnologicaldistinctionbetweenCelticandTeutonicbarbariansandwemaythereforetrusthimwhenhesaysthattheCeltshadDruidsandtheGermanshad

noneButhisfurtherstatementsabout theseCelticpriestsandsagesarehardlymore trustworthy than the account which an ordinary Indian officer at thepresentdaymightgiveusof theBuddhistpriestsand theBuddhist religionofCeylonCaeligsars statement that theDruidsworshippedMercuryApolloMarsJupiterandMinervaisofthesamebasemetalasthestatementsofmoremodernwritersthattheBuddhistsworshiptheTrinityandthattheytakeBuddhafortheSonofGodCaeligsarmostlikelyneverconversedwithaDruidnorwasheabletocontrol if he was able to understand the statements made to him about theancient priesthood the religion and literature ofGaulBesidesCaeligsar himselftellsusverylittleaboutthepriestsofGaulandBritainandthethrillingaccountsofthewhiterobesandthegoldensicklesbelongtoPlinysldquoNaturalHistoryrdquobynomeansasafeauthorityinsuchmatters38

Wemustbesatisfiedindeedtoknowverylittle[pg242]aboutthemodeoflifethe formsofworship the religiousdoctrinesor themysteriouswisdomof theDruids and their flocks But for this very reason it is most essential that ourmindsshouldbeimpressedstronglywiththehistoricalrealitythatbelongstotheCeltic inhabitants and to the work which they performed in rendering theseislandsforthefirsttimefitforthehabitationofmanThathistoricallessonanda very important lesson it is is certainly learnedmore quickly and yetmoreeffectuallybyavisittoCornwallorWalesthanbyanyamountofreadingWemaydoubtmany things thatCeltic enthusiasts tell us butwhere everyvillageand field every cottage and hill bear names that are neither English norNorman nor Latin it is difficult not to feel that the Celtic element has beensomething real and permanent in the history of theBritish Isles TheCornishlanguageisnodoubtextinctifbyextinctwemeanthatitisnolongerspokenbythepeopleButinthenamesoftownscastlesriversmountainsfieldsmanorsand families and in a few of the technical terms of mining husbandry andfishing Cornish lives on and probably will live on for many ages to comeThereisawell-knownversemdash

ldquoByTreRosPolLanCaerandPenYoumayknowmostCornishmenrdquo39

But itwillhardlybebelieved thataCornishantiquarianDrBannisterwhoiscollectingmaterialsforaglossaryofCornishpropernameshasamassednolessthan2400nameswithTre500withFen400withRos300withLan200withPoland200withCaer

[pg243]AlanguagedoesnotdieallatoncenorisitalwayspossibletofixtheexactdatewhenitbreatheditslastThusinthecaseofCornishitisbynomeanseasytoreconciletheconflictingstatementsofvariouswritersastotheexacttimewhenitceasedtobethelanguageofthepeopleunlesswebearinmindthatwhatwastruewith regard to thehigherclasseswasnotsowith regard to the lowerandlikewise that in some parts of Cornwall the vitality of the language mightcontinue while in others its heart had ceased to beat As late as the time ofHenryVIII thefamousphysicianAndrewBorde tellsus thatEnglishwasnotunderstood by many men and women in Cornwall ldquoIn Cornwal is twospeechesrdquohewritesldquotheoneisnaughtyEnglysheandtheothertheCornyshespecheAndtherebemanymenandwomenthewhichcannotspeakeonewordeofEnglyshebutallCornysherdquoDuringthesameKingsreignwhenanattemptwasmadetointroduceanewchurchservicecomposedinEnglishaprotestwassignedbytheDevonshireandCornishmenutterlyrefusingthisnewEnglishmdash

ldquoWewillnotreceivethenewServicebecauseitisbutlikeaChristmasgamebutwewillhaveouroldServiceofMatinsMassEvensongandProcessioninLatinasitwasbeforeAndsowetheCornishmen(whereofcertainofusunderstandnoEnglish)utterlyrefusethisnewEnglishrdquo40

YetinthereignofElizabethwhentheliturgywasappointedbyauthoritytotaketheplaceof themass theCornish it is said41 desired that it should be in theEnglish language About the same time we are told [pg 244] that Dr JohnMoreman42 taught his parishioners the Lords Prayer the Creed and the TenCommandments in the English tongue From the time of the Reformationonward Cornish seems constantly to have lost ground against Englishparticularly in places near Devonshire Thus Norden whose description ofCornwallwasprobablywrittenabout1584thoughnotpublishedtill1728givesaveryfullandinterestingaccountofthestrugglebetweenthetwolanguagesmdash

ldquoOflaterdquohesays(p26)ldquotheCornishemenhavemucheconformedthemselvestotheuseoftheEnglishetoungeandtheirEnglisheisequalltothebesteespetiallyintheeasternepartesevenfromTruroeastwardeitisinmannerwhollyEnglisheInthe weste parte of the countrye as in the hundreds of Penwith and Kerrier theCornishetoungeismosteinuseamongstetheinhabitantesandyet(whicheistobemarveyled) though the husband and wife parentes and children master andservantesdoemutuallycommunicate in theirnative languageyet ther isnoneofthem in manner but is able to convers with a straunger in the Englishe toungeunlessitbesomeobscurepeoplethatseldomeconferrwiththebettersorteButit

seemeth that in few yeares the Cornishe language will be by litle and litleabandonedrdquo

Carewwhowrote about the same timegoes so far as to say thatmostof theinhabitantsldquocannowordofCornishbutveryfeware ignorantof theEnglishthoughtheysometimesaffecttoberdquoThismayhavebeentruewithregardtotheupperclassesparticularly in thewestofCornwallbut it isneverthelessa factthataslateas1640MrWilliamJackmanthevicarofFeock43wasforced toadministerthesacramentinCornishbecausetheagedpeopledidnotunderstandEnglish nay the rector of Landewednak [pg 245] preached his sermons inCornishaslateas1678MrScawentoowhowroteaboutthattimespeaksofsomeold folkswho spokeCornish only andwould not understand aword ofEnglishbuthetellsusatthesametimethatSirFrancisNorththeLordChiefJusticeafterwardsLordKeeperwhenholdingtheassizesatLancestonin1678expressedhisconcernat the lossanddecayof theCornishlanguageThepoorpeopleinfactcouldspeakoratleastunderstandCornishbuthesaysldquoTheywerelaughedatbytherichwhounderstooditnotwhichis theirownfault innotendeavoringafteritrdquoAboutthebeginningofthelastcenturyMrEdLhuyd(died1709)thekeeperoftheAshmoleanMuseumwasstillabletocollectfromthe mouths of the people a grammar of the Cornish language which waspublishedin1707HesaysthatatthistimeCornishwasonlyretainedinfiveorsix villages towards the Lands End and in his ldquoArchaeligologia Britannicardquo headdsthatalthoughitwasspokeninmostofthewesterndistrictsfromtheLandsEndtotheLizardldquoagreatmanyoftheinhabitantsespeciallythegentrydonotunderstandittherebeingnonecessitythereofinregardtheresnoCornishmanbutspeaksgoodEnglishrdquoItisgenerallysupposedthatthelastpersonwhospokeCornishwasDollyPentreathwhodied in1778and towhosememoryPrinceLouis Lucien Bonaparte has lately erected a monument in the churchyard atPaulTheinscriptionismdash

ldquoHereliethinterredDorothyPentreathwhodiedin1778saidtohavebeenthelastpersonwhoconversedintheancientCornishthepeculiarlanguageofthiscountryfromtheearliestrecordstillitexpiredinthisparishofStPaulThisstoneiserectedbythePrinceLouisLucienBonaparteinunionwiththeRevJohnGarretvicarofStPaulJune1860rdquo

[pg246]ItseemshardlyrighttodeprivetheoldladyofherfairnamebuttherearemanypeopleinCornwallwhomaintainthatwhentravellersandgrandeescametosee

hershewouldtalkanythingthatcameintoherheadwhilethosewholistenedtoherwere pleased to think that they had heard the dying echoes of a primevaltongue44ThereisaletterextantwritteninCornishbyapoorfishermanofthenameofWilliamBodenerItisdatedJuly31776thatistwoyearsbeforethedeathofDollyPentreathandthewritersaysofhimselfinCornishmdash

ldquoMyageisthreescoreandfiveIamapoorfishermanIlearntCornishwhenIwasaboyIhavebeentoseawithmyfatherandfiveothermenintheboatandhavenotheardonewordofEnglishspokeintheboatforaweektogetherIneversawaCornishbookIlearnedCornishgoingtoseawitholdmenThereisnotmorethanfour or five in our town can talk Cornish nowmdashold people fourscore years oldCornishisallforgotwithyoungpeoplerdquo45

ItwouldseemthereforethatCornishdiedwiththe[pg247]lastcenturyandnoonenowlivingcanboasttohavehearditssoundwhenactuallyspokenforthesakeofconversationItseemstohavebeenamelodiousandyetbynomeansaneffeminatelanguageandScawenplacesitinthisrespectabovemostoftheotherCelticdialectsmdash

ldquoCornishrdquohesaysldquoisnot tobegutturallypronouncedas theWelshfor themostpart is normutteringly as theArmorick nor whiningly as the Irish (which twolatter qualities seem to have been contracted from their servitude) but must belivelyandmanlyspokenlikeotherprimitivetonguesrdquo

Although Cornish must now be classed with the extinct languages it hascertainly shownamarvelousvitalityMore than fourhundredyearsofRomanoccupationmorethansixhundredyearsofSaxonandDanishswayaNormanconquest aSaxonReformation and civilwars have all passedover the landbut like a tree that may bend before a storm but is not to be rooted up thelanguageoftheCeltsofCornwallhaslivedoninanunbrokencontinuityforatleasttwothousandyearsWhatdoesthismeanItmeansthatthroughthewholeofEnglishhistoryto theaccessionof theHouseofHanover the inhabitantsofCornwallandthewesternportionofDevonshireinspiteofintermarriageswithRomansSaxons andNormanswereCelts and remainedCelts People speakindeedofbloodandinterminglingofbloodasdeterminingthenationalityofapeople but what is meant by blood It is one of those scientific idols thatcrumbletodustassoonaswetrytodefineorgraspthemitisavaguehollowtreacheroustermwhichforthepresentatleastoughttobebanishedfromthedictionaryofeverytruemanofscienceWecangiveascientificdefinitionofa

Celticlanguagebutnoonehas[pg248]yetgivenadefinitionofCelticbloodoraCelticskullItisquitepossiblethathereafterchemicaldifferencesmaybediscoveredinthebloodofthosewhospeakaCelticandofthosewhospeakaTeutonic language It is possible also that patient measurements like thoselately published by Professor Huxley in the ldquoJournal of Anatomy andPhysiologyrdquomayleadin timetoareallyscientificclassificationofskullsandthatphysiologistsmaysucceedintheendincarryingoutaclassificationofthehumanraceaccordingtotangibleandunvaryingphysiologicalcriteriaButtheirdefinitionsand theirclassificationswillhardlyeversquarewith thedefinitionsorclassificationsofthestudentof languageandtheuseofcommontermscanonlybeasourceofconstantmisunderstandingsWeknowwhatwemeanbyaCelticlanguageandinthegrammarofeachlanguageweareabletoproduceamost perfect scientific definitionof its real character If thereforewe transferthetermCeltictopeoplewecanifweuseourwordsaccuratelymeannothingbutpeoplewhospeakaCelticlanguagethetrueexponentayetheverylifeofCeltic nationalityWhateverpeoplewhetherRomans orSaxons orNormansorassomethinkevenPhœniciansandJewssettledinCornwalliftheyceasedtospeaktheirownlanguageandexchangedit forCornish theyarebefore thetribunal of the science of language Celts and nothing but Celts whilewheneverCornishmenlikeSirHumphreyDavyorBishopColensohaveceasedtospeakCornishandspeaknothingbutEnglish theyareno longerCeltsbuttrueTeutonsorSaxons intheonlyscientificallylegitimatesenseofthatwordStrangestoriesindeedwouldberevealedifbloodcouldcryoutandtellofitsrepeatedmixturessince[pg249]thebeginningoftheworldIfwethinkoftheearly migrations of mankind of the battles fought before there werehieroglyphics to record them of conquests leadings into captivity piracyslavery and colonization all without a sacred poet to hand them down toposteritymdashweshallhesitate indeedtospeakofpureracesorunmixedbloodevenattheverydawnofrealhistoryLittleasweknowoftheearlyhistoryofGreeceweknowenoughtowarnusagainstlookingupontheGreeksofAsiaorEuropeasanunmixed raceAEliggyptuswithhisArabianEthiopian andTyrianwivesCadmusthesonofLibyaPhœnixthefatherofEuropamdashallpointtoanintercourse ofGreecewith foreign countrieswhatever else theirmythologicalmeaningmaybeAssoonasweknowanythingofthehistoryoftheworldweknow of wars and alliances between Greeks and Lydians and Persians ofPhœniciansettlementsallovertheworldofCarthaginianstradinginSpainandencamped in ItalyofRomansconqueringandcolonizingGaulSpainBritaintheDanubianPrincipalitiesandGreeceWesternAsiaandNorthernAfricaThenagainatalatertimefollowthegreatethnicconvulsionsofEasternEuropeand

thedevastationand re-populationof theancient seatsof civilizationbyGothsandLombardsandVandalsandSaxonswhileatthesametimeandformanycenturiestocomethefewstrongholdsofcivilizationintheEastwereagainandagainoverwhelmedbytheirresistiblewavesofHunnishMongolicandTartaricinvadersAndwith all this people at the latter end of the nineteenth centuryventure to speak for instance ofpureNormanbloodas somethingdefiniteordefinable forgetting how the ancient Norsemen carried their [pg 250] wivesaway from the coasts of Germany or Russia from Sicily or from the veryPiraeligus while others married whatever wives they could find in the North ofFrance whether of Gallic Roman or German extraction and then settled inEnglandwheretheyagaincontractedmarriageswithTeutonicCelticorRomandamsels Inourowndays ifwesee thedaughterofanEnglishofficerandanIndianRaneemarriedtothesonofaRussiannoblemanhowarewetoclasstheoffspringof thatmarriageThe IndianRaneemayhavehadMongolblood somay the Russian nobleman but there are other possible ingredients of pureHinduandpureSlavonicofNormanGermanandRomanbloodmdashandwhoisthe chemist bold enough to disengage them all There is perhaps no nationwhichhasbeenexposedtomorefrequentadmixtureofforeignbloodduringtheMiddle Ages than the Greeks Professor Fallmerayer maintained that theHellenic populationwas entirely exterminated and that the peoplewho at thepresentdaycallthemselvesGreeksarereallySlavoniansItwouldbedifficulttorefute him by arguments drawn either from the physical or the moralcharacteristicsofthemodernGreeksascomparedwiththemanyvarietiesoftheSlavonic stock But the following extract from ldquoFeltons Lectures on GreeceAncient and Modernrdquo contains the only answer that can be given to suchchargeswithoutpointorpurposeldquoInoneof thecoursesof lecturesrdquohesaysldquowhichIattendedin theUniversityofAthens theProfessorofHistoryaveryeloquent man as well as a somewhat fiery Greek took this subject up HisaudienceconsistedofabouttwohundredyoungmenfromeverypartofGreeceHis indignant comments on the learned [pg 251] German that notoriousΜισέλληνorGreek-hater ashe stigmatizedhimwere receivedbyhishearerswithaprofoundsensationTheysatwithexpandednostrilsandflashingeyesmdashasplendid illustration of the oldHellenic spirit roused to fury by the charge ofbarbarian descent lsquoIt is truersquo said the eloquent professor lsquothat the tide ofbarbaricinvaderspoureddownlikeadelugeuponHellasfillingwithitssurgingfloodsourbeautiful plains our fertilevalleysTheGreeks fled to theirwalledtowns andmountain fastnesses By and by thewater subsided and the soil ofHellasreappearedTheformerinhabitantsdescendedfromthemountainsasthetide receded resumed their ancient lands and rebuilt their ruined habitations

and the reignof thebarbariansoverHellaswasherself againrsquoThree or fourroundsofapplausefollowedthecloseofthelecturesofProfessorManousesinwhich I heartily joined I could not help thinking afterwards what a singularcomment on theGerman anti-Hellenic theorywas presented by this scenemdashaGreekprofessor in aGreekuniversity lecturing to twohundredGreeks in theGreeklanguagetoprovethattheGreekswereGreeksandnotSlavoniansrdquo46

Andyetwehear the sameargumentsusedover andover againnotonlywithregard to theGreeksbutwith regard tomanyothermodernnationsandevenmenwhosemindshavebeentrainedintheschoolofexactscienceusethetermldquobloodsrdquo in this vague and thoughtless manner The adjective Greek mayconnotemanythingsbutwhatitdenotesislanguagePeoplewhospeakGreekastheirmother[pg252]tongueareGreeksandifaTurkish-speakinginhabitantofConstantinoplecouldtracehispedigreestraighttoPericleshewouldstillbeaTurkwhateverhisnamehisfaithhishairfeaturesandstaturemdashwhateverhisbloodmightbeWecanclassifylanguagesandaslanguagespresupposepeoplethat speak themwe can so far classifymankind according to their grammarsanddictionarieswhileallwhopossessscientifichonestymustconfessandwillconfess that as yet it has been impossible to devise any truly scientificclassificationofskulls tosaynothingofbloodorbonesorhairThelabelononeoftheskullsintheMunichCollectionldquoEtruscan-TyrolorInca-Peruvianrdquocharacterizes not too unfairly the present state of ethnological craniology Letthosewho imagine that thegreatoutlines at leastof a classificationof skullshavebeenfirmlyestablishedconsultMrBracesusefulmanualofldquoTheRacesoftheWorldrdquowherehehascollectedtheopinionsofsomeofthebestjudgesonthesubjectWequoteafewpassages47mdash

ldquoDr Bachmann concludes from the measurements of Dr Tiedemann and DrMorton that thenegroskull thoughless thantheEuropean iswithinoneinchaslarge as the Persian and the Armenian and three square inches larger than theHindu and Egyptian The scale is thus given byDrMorton European skull 87cubicinchesMalay85Negro83Mongol82AncientEgyptian80American79 The ancient Peruvians and Mexicans who constructed so elaborate acivilizationshowacapacityonlyoffrom75to79inchesOtherobservationsbyHuschke make the average capacity of the skull of Europeans 4088 oz ofAmericans3913ofMongols3839ofNegroes3757ofMalays3641rdquo

ldquoOf theshapeof theskullasdistinctiveofdifferentorigin[pg253] ProfessorMJWeberhassaidthereisnopropermarkofadefiniteracefromthecraniumsofirmly attached that itmay not be found in some other race Tiedemann hasmetwith Germans whose skulls bore all the characters of the negro race and an

inhabitantofNukahiwa according toSilesiusandBlumenbach agreedexactly inhisproportionswiththeApolloBelvedererdquo

Professor Huxley in his ldquoObservations on the Human Skulls of Engis andNeanderthalrdquoprintedinSirCharlesLyellsldquoAntiquityofManrdquop81remarksthat ldquothe most capacious European skull yet measured had a capacity of 114cubic inches the smallest (as estimated by weight of brain) about 55 cubicincheswhileaccordingtoProfessorSchaaffhausensomeHinduskullshaveassmallacapacityas46cubicinches(27ozofwater)rdquoandhesumsupbystatingthatldquocranialmeasurementsaloneaffordnosafeindicationofracerdquo

Andevenifascientificclassificationofskullsweretobecarriedoutifinsteadofmerelybeingable toguess that thismaybeanAustralianand thisaMalayskull we were able positively to place each individual skull under its owndefinitecategorywhatshouldwegainintheclassificationofmankindWhereis the bridge from skull to man in the full sense of that wordWhere is theconnecting link between the cranial proportions and only one other of manscharacteristicpropertiessuchaslanguageAndwhatappliestoskullsappliestocolor and all the rest Even a black skin and curly hair are mere outwardaccidentsascomparedwithlanguageWedonotclassifyparrotsandmagpiesbythecoloroftheirplumagestilllessbythecagesinwhichtheyliveandwhatistheblackskinor thewhite skinbut themereoutwardcoveringnot to say themerecagein[pg254]whichthatbeingwhichwecallmanlivesmovesandhashisbeingAmanlikeBishopCrowtherthoughanegroinbloodisinthoughtand speech anAryanHe speaksEnglish he thinksEnglish he acts EnglishandunlesswetakeEnglishinapurelyhistoricalandnotinitstrulyscientificielinguisticsenseheisEnglishNodoubttherearemanyinfluencesatworkmdasholdproverbsoldsongsandtraditionsreligiousconvictionssocial institutionspoliticalprejudicesbesidesthesoilthefoodandtheairofacountrymdashthatmaykeepupevenamongpeoplewhohavelosttheirnationallanguagethatkindofvaguesimilaritywhichisspokenofasnationalcharacter48Thisisasubjectonwhich many volumes have been written and yet the result has only been tosupply newspapers with materials for international insults or internationalcourtesies as the casemay beNothing sound or definite has been gained bysuchspeculationsand inanage thatprides itselfon thecarefulobservanceofthe rules of inductive reasoning nothing ismore surprising than the sweepingassertionswithregardtonationalcharacterandtherecklesswayinwhichcasualobservations that may be true of one two three or it may be ten or even ahundred individuals are extended to millions However if there is one safe

exponent of national character it is language Take away the language of apeople and you destroy at once that powerful chain [pg 255] of tradition inthoughtandsentimentwhichholdsallthegenerationsofthesameracetogetherifwemay use an unpleasant simile like the chain of a gang of galley-slavesTheseslaveswearetoldverysoonfallintothesamepacewithoutbeingawarethat theirmovements depend altogether on themovements of thosewhowalkbeforethemItisnearlythesamewithusWeimaginewearealtogetherfreeinourthoughtsoriginalandindependentandwearenotawarethatourthoughtsaremanacledandfetteredby languageand thatwithoutknowingandwithoutperceivingitwehavetokeeppacewiththosewhowalkedbeforeusthousandsand thousands of years agoLanguage alone binds people together and keepsthem distinct from others who speak different tongues In ancient timesparticularlyldquolanguagesandnationsrdquomeantthesamethingandevenwithusourrealancestorsare thosewhose languagewespeak the fathersofour thoughtsthe mothers of our hopes and fears Blood bones hair and color are mereaccidentsutterlyunfit toserveasprinciplesofscientificclassification for thatgreat familyof livingbeings theessentialcharacteristicsofwhichare thoughtandspeechnotfibrineserumcoloringmatterorwhateverelseentersintothecompositionofblood

If this be true the inhabitants of Cornwall whatever the number of RomanSaxon Danish or Norman settlers within the boundaries of that county mayhavebeencontinuedtobeCeltsaslongastheyspokeCornishTheyceasedtobeCeltswhentheyceasedtospeakthelanguageoftheirforefathersThosewhocanappreciatethecharmsofgenuineantiquitywillnotthereforefindfaultwiththeenthusiasmofDaines[pg256]BarringtonorSirJosephBanksinlisteningtothe strangeutterancesofDollyPentreath forher language if genuine carriedthem back and brought them as it were into immediate contact with peoplewho long before the Christian era acted an important part on the stage ofhistorysupplyingtheworldwithtwoofthemostpreciousmetalsmorepreciousthenthangoldorsilverwithcopperandtintheverymaterialsitmaybeofthefinestworksof art inGreece aye of the armorwrought for theheroesof theTrojanWar as described so minutely by the poets of the ldquoIliadrdquo There is acontinuity in language which nothing equals and there is an historicalgenuinenessinancientwordsifbutrightlyinterpretedwhichcannotberivaledbymanuscriptsorcoinsormonumentalinscriptions

ButthoughitisrighttobeenthusiasticaboutwhatisreallyancientinCornwallmdashand there is nothing so ancient as languagemdashit is equally right to be

discriminating The fresh breezes of antiquity have intoxicated many anantiquarian Words purely Latin or English though somewhat changed afterbeing admitted into the Cornish dictionary have been quoted as the originalsfromwhichtheRomanorEnglishwerein turnderivedTheLatin liberbookwas supposed to be derived from theWelsh llyvyr litera letter fromWelshllythyrpersonapersonfromWelshpersonandmanymoreofthesamekindWalls builtwithin thememoryofmenhavebeen admitted as relics ofBritisharchitecturenayLatininscriptionsofthesimplestcharacterhavebutlatelybeeninterpretedbymeansofCornishascontainingstrainsofamysteriouswisdomHere too a study of the language gives some useful hints as to the propermethod of disentangling the truly ancient from the more modern [pg 257]elementsWhateverintheCornishdictionarycannotbetracedbacktoanyothersourcewhetherLatinSaxonNormanorGermanmaysafelybeconsideredasCornishandthereforeasancientCelticWhateverintheantiquitiesofCornwallcannot be claimed by Romans Saxons Danes or Normans may fairly beconsidered as genuine remains of the earliest civilization of this island as theworkoftheCelticdiscoverersofBritain

TheCornishlanguageisbynomeansapureorunmixedlanguagemdashatleastwedonotknow it in itspure state It is in fact amereaccident that any literaryremainshavebeenpreservedandthreeorfoursmallvolumeswouldcontainallthat is left tousofCornish literature ldquoThere isapoemrdquo to quoteMrNorrisldquowhichwemaybycourtesycallepicentitledlsquoMountCalvaryrsquothinsprdquoItcontains259stanzas of eight lines each in heptasyllabicmetre with alternate rhyme It isascribed to the fifteenth century and was published for the first time byMrDaviesGilbertin182649Thereisbesidesaseriesofdramasormystery-playsfirstpublishedbyMrNorris for theUniversityPressofOxford in1858Thefirst is called ldquoTheBeginning of theWorldrdquo the second ldquoThe Passion of ourLordrdquothethirdldquoTheResurrectionrdquoThelastisinterruptedbyanotherplayldquoTheDeathofPilaterdquoTheoldestMSintheBodleianLibrarybelongstothefifteenthcenturyandMrNorrisisnotinclinedtoreferthecompositionoftheseplaystoa much earlier date AnotherMS likewise in the Bodleian Library containsboth the text and a [pg 258] translation by Keigwyn (1695) Lastly there isanothersacreddramacalledldquoTheCreationoftheWorldwithNoahsFloodrdquoItis inmany places copied from the dramas and according to theMS it waswrittenbyWilliamJordanin1611TheoldestMSbelongsagaintotheBodleianLibrarywhichlikewisepossessesaMSofthetranslationbyKeigwynin169150

Thesemystery-plays as wemay learn from a passage in Carews ldquoSurvey of

Cornwallrdquo (p 71) were still performed in Cornish in his time ie at thebeginningoftheseventeenthcenturyHesaysmdash

ldquoPastimes to delight theminde the Cornishmen haveGuarymiracles and threemens songs and for the exercise of the body hunting hawking shootingwrastlinghurlingandsuchothergames

ldquoTheGuarymiraclemdashinEnglishamiracle-playmdashisakindofenterludecompiledinCornishoutof someScripturehistorywith thatgrosseneswhichaccompaniedtheRomanesvetusComediaForrepresentingittheyraiseanearthenamphitheatreinsomeopenfieldhavingthediameterofhisenclosedplaynesomefortyorfiftyfootThecountrypeopleflockfromallsidesmanymilesoff toheareandseeitfortheyhavethereindevilsanddevicestodelightaswelltheeyeastheearetheplayers conne not their parts without booke but are prompted by one called theOrdinarywhofollowethattheirbackwiththebookeinhishandandtelleththemsoftly what theymust pronounce aloudWhichmanner once gave occasion to apleasant conceyted gentleman of practising a mery pranke for he undertaking(perhapsof setpurpose)anactors roomewasaccordingly lessoned (beforehand)bytheOrdinarythathe[pg259]mustsayafterhimHisturncameQuoththeOrdinary Goe forth man and shew thy selfe The gentleman steps out upon thestageandlikeabadClarkeinScripturematterscleavingmoretotheletterthanthesensepronouncedthosewordsaloudOh(sayesthefellowesoftlyinhiseare)youmarreall theplayAndwith thishispassion theactormakes theaudience in likesortacquaintedHereontheprompterfallstoflatraylingandcursinginthebitteresttermeshecoulddevisewhichthegentlemanwithasetgestureandcountenancestillsoberlyrelateduntilltheOrdinarydrivenatlastintoamadderagewasfainetogivealloverWhichtroussethoughitbrakeofftheenterludeyetdefraudednotthebeholdersbutdismissedthemwithagreatdealemoresportandlaughterthansuchGuariescouldhaveaffordedrdquo51

Scawenattheendoftheseventeenthcenturyspeaksofthesemiracle-playsandconsidersthesuppressionoftheGuirrimears52orGreatPlaysorSpeeches53asoneofthechiefcausesofthedecayoftheCornishlanguage

ldquoTheseGuirrimearsrdquo he says ldquowhichwere used at the great conventions of thepeopleatwhichtheyhadfamousinterludescelebratedwithgreatpreparationsandnotwithoutshowsofdevotioninthemsolemnizedingreatandspaciousdownsofgreat capacity encompassed about with earthen banks and some in part stone-workoflargenesstocontainthousandstheshapesofwhichremaininmanyplacesat thisday though theuseof them long sincegoneThiswasagreatmeans tokeepinusethetonguewithdelightandadmirationTheyhadrecitations[pg260]in them poetical and divine one of which I may suppose this small relique ofantiquity to be in which the passion of our Saviour and his resurrection isdescribedrdquo

Iftothesemystery-playsandpoemsweaddsomeversionsoftheLordsPrayertheCommandments and theCreed a protestation of the bishops inBritain toAugustinethemonkthePopeslegateintheyear600afterChrist(MSGough4) thefirstchapterofGenesisandsomesongsproverbsriddlesa taleandaglossarywehaveanalmostcompletecatalogueofwhataCornishlibrarywouldbeatthepresentday

NowifweexaminethelanguageaspreservedtousinthesefragmentswefindthatitisfullofNormanSaxonandLatinwordsNoonecandoubtforinstancethatthefollowingCornishwordsarealltakenfromLatinthatisfromtheLatinoftheChurchmdash

AbatanabbotLatabbasAlteraltarLataltareApostolapostleLatapostolusClaustercloisterLatclaustrumColomdoveLatcolumbaGwesparvespersLatvesperCantuilcandleLatcandelaCantuilbrencandlestickLatcandelabrumAilangelLatangelusArchailarchangelLatarchangelus

Other words though not immediately connected with the service and thedoctrineoftheChurchmayneverthelesshavepassedfromLatinintoCornisheitherdirectlyfromthedailyconversationofmonkspriestsandschoolmastersor indirectly fromEnglishorNorman inbothofwhich the sameLatinwordshadnaturallybeenadopted thoughslightlymodifiedaccordingtothephoneticpeculiaritiesofeachThusmdash

[pg261]

AncaranchortheLatinancoraThismighthavecomeindirectlythroughEnglishorNorman-French

Aradarplough theLatinaratrumThismusthavecomedirect fromLatin as itdoesnotexistinNormanorEnglish

Arghanssilverargentum

KeghinkitchencoquinaThisistakenfromthesameLatinwordfromwhichtheRomancelanguagesformedcuisinecucinanotfromtheclassicalLatinculina

Liverbookliberoriginallythebarkoftreesonwhichbookswerewritten

DinaircoindenariusSetharrowsagittaCaus cheese caseusCaul cabbagecaulis

These words are certainly foreign words in Cornish and the other Celticlanguages in which they occur and to attempt to supply for some of them apurely Celtic etymology shows a complete want of appreciation both of thehistoryofwordsandofthephoneticlawsthatgoverneachfamilyoftheIndo-European languages Sometimes no doubt the Latin words have beenconsiderably changed andmodified according to the phonetic peculiarities ofthedialects intowhich theywere receivedThusgwespar forvesperseth forsagittacausforcaseushardlylooklikeLatinwordsYetnorealCelticscholarwould claim them as Celtic and the Rev RobertWilliams the author of theldquoLexiconCornu-Britannicumrdquo in speaking of a list of words borrowed fromLatinbytheWelshduringthestayoftheRomansinBritainisnodoubtrightinstatingldquothatitwillbefoundmuchmoreextensivethanisgenerallyimaginedrdquo

LatinwordswhichhavereachedtheCornishaftertheyhadassumedaFrenchorNormandisguiseareforinstancemdash

EmperurinsteadofLatinimperator(Welshymherawdwr)

LaiantheFrenchloyalbutnottheLatinlegalisLikewisedislaiandisloyal

[pg262]

FruitfruitLatfructusFrenchfruit

FuntenfountaincommonlypronouncedfentonLatfontanaFrenchfontaine

Gromersyiegrandmercythanks

HoyzhoyzhoyzhearhearTheNorman-FrenchOyez

Thetown-crierofAberconwymaystillbeheardprefacinghisnoticeswiththeshout of ldquoHoyz hoyz hoyzrdquowhich in other places has been corrupted to ldquoOyesrdquo

The following words adopted into Cornish and other Celtic dialects clearlyshowtheirSaxonoriginmdash

CaforachaferGermkaumlferCraftartcraftRediorareaderStorcastorkLethindranceletpreservedintheGermanverletzen54

[pg263]Considering that Cornish and other Celtic dialects are members of the samefamilytowhichLatinandGermanbelongitissometimesdifficulttotellatoncewhetheraCelticwordwasreallyborrowedorwhetheritbelongstothatancientstockofwordswhichalltheAryanlanguagesshareincommonThisisapointwhichcanbedeterminedbyscholarsonlyandbymeansofphonetictestsThustheCornishhuirorhoerisclearlythesamewordastheLatinsororsisterButthechangeofsintohwouldnothavetakenplaceifthewordhadbeensimplyborrowedfromLatinwhilemanywordsbeginningwithsinSanskritLatinandGerman change the s intoh inCornish aswell as inGreek andPersianTheCornish hoer sister is indeed curiously like the Persian khaacuteher the regularrepresentativeoftheSanskritsvasartheLatinsororThesameappliestobraudbrotherdedh daydri three andmanymorewordswhich form theprimitivestock of Cornish and were common to all the Aryan languages before theirearliestdispersion

WhatappliestothelanguageofCornwallapplieswithequalforcetotheotherrelicsofantiquityofthatcuriouscountyIthasbeentrulysaidthatCornwallispoorinantiquitiesbutitisequallytruethatitisrichinantiquityThedifficultyistodiscriminateandtodistinguishwhatisreallyCornishorCelticfromwhatmaybelateradditionsofRomanSaxonDanishandNormanoriginNowhereas[pg264]wesaidbeforethesafestruleisclearlythesameasthatwhichwefollowed in our analysis of language Let everything be claimed for EnglishNormanDanish andRomansources that canclearlybeproved tocome fromthencebutletwhatremainsunclaimedbeconsideredasCornishorCelticThusif we do not find in countries exclusively inhabited by Romans or Saxonsanything like a cromlech surely we have a right to look upon these strangestructuresasremnantsofCeltictimesItmakesnodifferenceifitcanbeshownthat below these cromlechs coins have occasionally been found of theRomanEmperorsThisonlyprovesthatevenduringthedaysofRomansupremacytheCornishstyleofpublicmonumentswhethersepulchralorotherwiseremainedNay why should not even a Roman settled in Cornwall have adopted the

monumental style of his adopted countryRoman andSaxonhandsmayhavehelpedtoerectsomeofthecromlechswhicharestilltobeseeninCornwallbuttheoriginalideaofsuchmonumentsandhencetheirnameispurelyCeltic

CromlecirchinCornishorcromlechinWelshmeansabentslabfromtheCornishcrombentcurved roundedand lecirchaslabThoughmanyof thesecromlechshave been destroyed Cornwall still possesses some fine specimens of theseancient stone tripodsMostof themare largegranite slabs supportedby threestones fixed in thegroundThese supporters are likewisehuge flat stones butthe capstone is always the largest and itsweight inclining towards one pointimpartsstrengthtothewholestructureAtLanyonhoweverwherethetop-stoneof a cromlech was thrown down in 1816 by a violent storm the supportersremainedstanding[pg265]andthecapstonewasreplacedin1824thoughnotit would seem at its original height Dr Borlase relates that in his time themonumentwashighenoughforamantositonhorsebackunder itAtpresentsuchafeatwouldbeimpossiblethecover-stonebeingonlyaboutfivefeetfromthe ground These cromlechs though very surprising when seen for the firsttime represent in reality one of the simplest achievements of primitivearchitectureItisfareasiertobalanceaheavyweightonthreeunevenpropsthanto rest it level on twoor four even supportersThere are however cromlechsrestingonfourormorestonesthesestonesformingakindofchamberorakist-vaen which is supposed to have served originally as a sepulchre Thesestructures presuppose a larger amount of architectural skill still more so thegiganticportalsofStonehengewhichareformedbytwopillarsofequalheightjoinedbyasuperincumbentstoneHereweightalonewasnolongerconsideredsufficientforimpartingstrengthandsafetybutholeswereworkedintheupperstonesandthepointedtopsofthepillarswerefittedintothemIntheslabsthatformthecromlechswefindnosuchtracesofcarefulworkmanshipandthisaswellasotherconsiderationswouldsupport theopinionthatinStonehengewehave one of the latest specimens of Celtic architectureMarvelous as are theremains of that primitive style of architectural art the only real problem theyofferishowsuchlargestonescouldhavebeenbroughttogetherfromadistanceandhowsuchenormousweightscouldhavebeenliftedupThefirstquestionisanswered by ropes [pg 266] and rollers and themural sculptures of Ninevehshowuswhat canbedoneby such simplemachineryWe there see thewholepictureofhowthesecolossalblocksofstoneweremovedfromthequarryontotheplacewheretheywerewantedGivenplentyoftimeandplentyofmenandoxenandthereisnoblockthatcouldnotbebroughttoitsrightplacebymeansof ropesandrollersAnd thatour forefathersdidnotstint themselveseither in

timeorinmenorothercattlewhenengagedinerectingsuchmonumentsweknowevenfromcomparativelymoderntimesUnderHaroldHarfagrtwokingsspent threewholeyears in erectingone single tumulus andHaroldBlatand issaid to have employed the whole of his army and a vast number of oxen intransportingalargestonewhichhewishedtoplaceonhismotherstombAstothe second question we can readily understand how after the supporters hadoncebeenfixedinthegroundanartificialmoundmightberaisedwhichwhentheheavyslabhadbeenrolleduponaninclinedplanemightberemovedagainandthusleavetheheavystonepoisedinitsstartlingelevation

Asskeletonshavebeenfoundundersomeof thecromlechs therecanbe littledoubt that the chambers inclosed by them the so-called kist-vaens wereintendedtoreceivetheremainsofthedeadandtoperpetuatetheirmemoryAndas these sepulchralmonuments aremost frequent in those parts of theBritishIsleswhichfromtheearliesttothelatesttimeswereinhabitedbyCelticpeopletheymaybeconsideredasrepresentativeof theCelticstyleofpublic[pg267]sepultureKist-vaen orcist-vaenmeans a stone-chamber from cista a chestand vaen the modified form ofmaen ormecircn stone Their size is with fewexceptions not less than the size of a human body But although thesemonuments were originally sepulchral we may well understand that theburying-placesofgreatmenofkingsorpriestsorgeneralswerelikewiseusedforthecelebrationofotherreligiousritesThuswereadintheBookofLecanldquothatAmhalgaithbuiltacairnforthepurposeofholdingameetingoftheHy-Amhalgaitheveryyearandtoviewhisshipsandfleetgoingandcomingandasa place of interment for himselfrdquo55 Nor does it follow as some antiquariansmaintain that every structure in the style of a cromlech even in England isexclusively Celtic We imitate pyramids and obelisks why should not theSaxonshavebuilttheKittsCottyHousewhichisfoundinathoroughlySaxonneighborhood after Celtic models and with the aid of Celtic captives Thiscromlech stands in Kent on the brow of a hill about amile and a half fromAylesford to the rightof thegreat road fromRochester toMaidstoneNear itacross theMedwayare thestonecirclesofAddingtonThestoneon thesouthsideis8fthighby7-frac12broadand2ftthickweightabout8tonsThatonthenorthis8ftby8and2thickweight8tons10cwtTheendstone5ft6inhighby5ftbroadthickness14inweight2tons8-frac14cwtTheimpostis11ftlongby8ftbroadand2ftthickweight10tons7cwtItishigherthereforethan theCornish cromlechs but in other respects it is a true specimen of thatclassofCelticmonumentsThecover-stoneofthecromlechatMolfrais9ft8inby14ft3initssupporters[pg268]are5fthighThecover-stoneofthe

Chucircncromlechmeasures12-frac12ftinlengthand11ftinwidthThelargestslabis that atLanyonwhichmeasures 18-frac12 ft in length and 9 ft at the broadestpart

Thecromlechsarenodoubtthemostcharacteristicandmoststrikingamongthemonuments of Cornwall Though historians have differed as to their exactpurposenoteventhemostcarelesstravellercouldpassthembywithoutseeingthattheydonotstandtherewithoutapurposeTheyspeakforthemselvesandthey certainly speak in a language that is neither Roman Saxon Danish norNorman Hence in England they may by a kind of exhaustive process ofreasoningbeclaimedasrelicsofCelticcivilizationThesameargumentappliestothecromlechsandstoneavenuesofCarnac inBrittanyHere too languageandhistoryattesttheformerpresenceofCelticpeoplenorcouldanyotherracethat influenced the historical destinies of the North of Gaul claim suchstructuresastheirownEveninstillmoredistantplacesintheSouthofFrancein Scandinavia orGermanywhere similarmonuments have been discoveredtheymaythoughmorehesitatinglybeclassedasCelticparticularlyiftheyarefound near the natural high roads on which we know that the Celts in theirwestwardmigrationsprecededtheTeutonicandSlavonicAryansButthecaseistotallydifferentwhenwehearofcromlechscairnsandkist-vaensintheNorthofAfrica inUpperEgyptontheLebanonnear theJordan inCircassiaor intheSouthofIndiaHereandmoreparticularlyintheSouthofIndiawehavenoindicationswhateverofCelticAryansonthecontraryifthatnameistakeninitsstrictscientificmeaningitwouldbeimpossibletoaccountforthepresence[pg269]ofCelticAryans in those southern latitudesat any timeafter theoriginaldispersionof theAryanfamily It isverynatural thatEnglishofficers living inIndiashouldbesurprisedatmonumentswhichcannotbutremindthemofwhattheyhadseenathomewhetherinCornwallIrelandorScotlandAdescriptionof some of these monuments the so-called Pandoo Coolies in Malabar wasgiven byMr J Babington in 1820 and published in the third volume of theldquoTransactions of theLiterarySociety ofBombayrdquo in 1823CaptainCongrevecalledattentiontowhatheconsideredScythicDruidicalremainsintheNilghirihills in a paper published in 1847 in the ldquoMadras Journal of Literature andSciencerdquoand thesamesubjectwas treated in thesamejournalby theRevWTaylor A most careful and interesting description of similar monuments haslately been published in the ldquoTransactions of the Royal Irish Academyrdquo byCaptainMeadowsTaylorunder the titleofldquoDescriptionofCairnsCromlechsKist-vaensandotherCelticDruidicalorScythianMonumentsintheDekhanrdquoCaptainTaylorfoundthesemonumentsnear thevillageofRajunkolloor in the

principality of Shorapoor an independent native state situated between theBheema and Krishna rivers immediately above their junction Others werediscoverednearHuggeritgiotherson thehillofYemmeeGoodaothersagainnearShapoorHyderabadandotherplacesAllthesemonumentsintheSouthofIndia arenodoubt extremely interestingbut to call themCelticDruidical orScythic isunscientificoratalleventsexceedinglyprematureThere is inallarchitecturalmonumentsanaturalorrationalandaconventionaloritmaybeirrationalelementAstrikingagreementinpurelyconventional[pg270]featuresmayjustifytheassumptionthatmonumentssofardistantfromeachothersasthecromlechsofAngleseaandtheldquoMori-MunnirdquoofShorapoorowetheirorigintothe same architects or to the same races But an agreement in purely naturalcontrivancesgoesfornothingoratleastforverylittleNowthereisverylittlethat canbecalledconventional inamere stonepillaror inacairn that is anartificialheapofstonesEventheerectionofacromlechcanhardlybeclaimedasaseparatestyleofarchitectureChildrenallovertheworldifbuildinghouseswith cards will build cromlechs and people all over the world if theneighborhoodsupplieslargeslabsofstonewillputthreestonestogethertokeepoutthesunor thewindandputafourthstoneonthetoptokeepout therainBefore monuments like those described by Captain Meadows Taylor can beclassed as Celtic orDruidical a possibility at all eventsmust be shown thatCeltsinthetruesenseofthewordcouldeverhaveinhabitedtheDekhanTillthatisdoneitisbettertoleavethemanonymousortocallthembytheirnativenamesthantogivetothemanamewhichisapttomisleadthepublicatlargeandtoencouragetheorieswhichexceedthelimitsoflegitimatespeculation

Returning to Cornwall we find there besides the cromlechs pillars holedstones and stone circles all of which may be classed as public monumentsTheyallbearwitnesstoakindofpublicspiritandtoacertainadvanceinsocialandpoliticallifeatthetimeoftheirerectionTheyweremeantforpeoplelivingatthetimewhounderstoodtheirmeaningifnotasmessagestoposterityandifsoas trulyhistoricalmonuments forhistorybeginswhenthe livingbegin[pg271] tocareaboutagoodopinionof thosewhocomeafter themSomeof thesingleCornishpillarstelluslittleindeednothinginrealitybeyondthefactthattheywereerectedbyhumanskillandwithsomehumanpurposeSomeofthesemonoliths seem to have been of a considerable size In a village calledMecircnPerhen in Constantine parish there stood ldquoabout five years agordquomdashso DrBorlaserelatesintheyear1769mdashalargepyramidalstonetwentyfeetabovethegroundandfourfeetinthegrounditmadeabovetwentystonepostsforgateswhenitwascloveupbythefarmerwhogavetheaccounttotheDoctor56Other

stonesliketheMecircnScrifahaveinscriptionsbuttheseinscriptionsareRomanandofcomparativelylatedateTherearesomepillarslikethePipersatBolleitwhichareclearlyconnectedwiththestonecirclesclosebyremnantsitmaybeof old stone avenues or beacons from which signals might be sent to otherdistantsettlementsTheholedstonestooaregenerallyfoundincloseproximityto other large stone monuments They are called mecircn-an-tol hole-stones inCornwall and the name of tol-men or dol-men which is somewhatpromiscuouslyusedbyCelticantiquariansshouldberestrictedtomonumentsofthisclasstollbeingtheCornishwordforholemecircnforstoneandanthearticleFrenchantiquarianstakingdolortocirclasacorruptionoftabulausedolmaninthesenseoftable-stonesandassynonymouswithcromlechwhiletheyfrequentlyusecromlechinthesenseofstonecirclesThiscanhardlybejustifiedandleadsatalleventstomuchconfusion

The stone circles whether used for religious or judicial purposesmdashand therewas in ancient times very little [pg 272] difference between the twomdashwereclearlyintendedforsolemnmeetingsThereisaveryperfectcircleatBoscawen-ucircnwhichconsistedoriginallyofnineteen stonesDrBorlasewhoseworkonthe Antiquities of the County of Cornwall contains the most trustworthyinformation as to the state of Cornish antiquities about a hundred years agomentionsthreeothercircleswhichhadthesamenumberofstoneswhileothersvaryfromtwelvetoseventy-two

ldquoThefigureofthesemonumentsrdquohesaysldquoiseithersimpleorcompoundedOfthefirstkindareexactcirclesellipticalorsemicircularTheconstructionoftheseisnotalways the same some having their circumference marked with large separatestonesonlyothershavingridgesofsmallstonesintermixedandsometimeswallsandseatsservingtorendertheinclosuremorecompleteOthercircularmonumentshavetheirfiguremorecomplexandvariedconsistingnotonlyofacirclebutofsomeotherdistinguishingproperties Inornear thecentreofsomestandsastonetaller than the rest as at Boscawen-ucircn in the middle of others a kist-vaen Acromlecirchdistinguishes thecentreof somecirclesandone remarkable rock thatofothers somehave only one line of stones in their circumference and somehavetwo some circles are adjacent some contiguous and some include and someintersecteachotherSometimesurnsarefoundinornearthemSomearecuriouslyerected on geometrical plans the chief entrance facing the cardinal points of theheavenssomehaveavenuesleadingtothemplacedexactlynorthandsouthwithdetached stones sometimes in straight lines to the east and west sometimestriangular These monuments are found in many foreign countries in IcelandSwedenDenmarkandGermanyaswellasinalltheislesdependentuponBritain(theOrkneysWesternIslesJerseyIrelandandtheIsleofMan)andinmostpartsofBritainitselfrdquo

ModerntraditionshaveeverywhereclusteredroundthesecuriousstonecirclesBeingplaced inacircularorder soas tomakeanarea fordancing theywerenaturallycalledDawns-mecircn iedancingstones [pg273]Thisnamewassooncorrupted into dancemen and a legend sprang up at once to account for thenamenamely that thesemenhaddancedonaSundayandbeenchanged intostonesAnothercorruptionofthesamenameintoDanis-mecircnledtothetraditionthat thesecircleswerebuiltby theDanesAstillmorecuriousname for thesecirclesisthatofldquoNineMaidensrdquowhichoccursatBoscawen-ucircnandinseveralother places in Cornwall Now the Boscawen-ucircn circle consists of nineteenstonesandthereareveryfewldquoNineMaidensrdquothatconsistofninestonesonlyYet the name prevails and is likewise supported by local legends of ninemaidens having been changed into stones for dancing on a Sunday or someothermisdeedOnepartofthelegendmayperhapsbeexplainedbythefactthatmecircdnwouldbeacommoncorruptioninmodernCornishformecircnstoneaspenbecomes pedn and gwyn gwydn etc and that the Saxons mistook CornishmecircdnfortheirownmaidenButevenwithoutthislegendsofasimilarcharacterwould springupwherever thepopularmind is startledby strangemonumentsthe history and purpose of which has been forgotten Thus CaptainMeadowsTaylortellsusthatatVibat-Hulliethepeopletoldhimldquothatthestonesweremenwhoas theystoodmarkingout theplaces for theelephantsof thekingof thedwarfswereturnedintostonebyhimbecausetheywouldnotkeepquietrdquoAndMdeCambryasquotedbyhimsaysinregardtoCarnacldquothattherockswerebelieved to be an army turned into stone or theworkof theCroinsmdashmenordemons two or three feet high who carried these rocks in their hands andplacedthemthererdquo

A second class of Cornish antiquities comprises private buildings whethercastlesorhutsorcaves[pg274]WhatarecalledcastlesinCornwallaresimpleintrenchmentsconsistingoflargeandsmallstonespiledupabouttenortwelvefeethighandheldtogetherbytheirownweightwithoutanycementThereareeverywhere tracesof aditch thenof awall sometimes as atChucircnCastleofanother ditch and another wall and there is generally some contrivance forprotecting the principal entrance bywalls overlapping the ditches Near thesecastles barrows are found and in several cases there are clear traces of acommunicationbetweenthemandsomeancientCelticvillagesandcaveswhichseem to have been placed under the protection of these primitive strongholdsMany of the cliffs in Cornwall are fortified towards the land by walls andditches thuscuttingoff theseextremepromontories fromcommunicationwiththe land as they are by nature inaccessible from the sea Some antiquarians

ascribedthesecastlestotheDanestheverylastpeopleonewouldthinktoshutthemselvesup insuchhopeless retreatsHere tooas inothercasesapopularetymologymayhavetakentheplaceofanhistoricalauthorityandtheCornishword for castle beingDinas as inCastle-an-Dinas Pendennis etc the laterSaxon-speakingpopulationmayhavebeenremindedbyDinasoftheDanesandonthestrengthofthisvaguesimilarityhaveascribedtothesepiratestheerectionoftheCornishcastles

Itisindeeddifficultwithregardtothesecastlestobepositiveastothepeopleby whom they were constructed Tradition and history point to Romans andSaxons as well as to Celts nor is it at all unlikely that many of these half-natural half-artificial strongholds though originally planned by the CelticinhabitantswereafterwardstakenpossessionofandstrengthenedbyRomansorSaxons

[pg275]But no such doubts are allowed with regard to Cornish huts of which somestriking remains have been preserved inCornwall and other parts ofEnglandparticularlyinthosewhichtotheverylastremainedthetruehomeoftheCelticinhabitantsofBritainThehousesandhutsoftheRomanswererectangularnoristhereanyevidencetoshowthattheSaxoneverapprovedofthecircularstyleindomesticarchitecture

Ifthenwefindtheseso-calledbee-hivehutsinplacespeculiarlyCelticandifwerememberthatsoearlyawriterasStrabo57wasstruckwiththesamestrangestyle of Celtic architecture we can hardly be suspected of Celtomania if weclaimthemasCelticworkmanshipanddwellwithamorethanordinaryinterestontheseancientchambersnowlongdesertedandnearlysmotheredwithfernsandweeds but in their general planning as well as in their masonry clearlyexhibitingbeforeussomethingoftheartsandthelifeoftheearliestinhabitantsof these islesLetanybodywhohasasenseofantiquityandwhocanfeel thespark which is sent on to us through an unbroken chain of history when westandontheAcropolisorontheCapitolorwhenwereadaballadofHomerorahymnof theVedamdashnay ifwebut read inaproperspiritachapterof theOldTestament toomdashlet such a man look at the Celtic huts at Bosprennis orChysauster and discover for himself through the ferns and brambles the oldgray walls slightly sloping inward and arranged according to a design thatcannotbemistakenandmiserableastheseshapelessclumpsmayappeartothethoughtless traveller theywill convey to the true historian a lessonwhich he

couldhardlylearnanywhereelseThe[pg276]ancientBritonswillnolongerbeamerenametohimnomerePelasgiansorTyrrheniansHehasseentheirhomesand theirhandiworkhehasstoodbehind thewallswhichprotected their livesandpropertyhehas touched thestoneswhich theirhandspiledup rudelyyetthoughtfully And if that small spark of sympathy for those who gave thehonored name ofBritain to these islands has once been kindled among a fewwhohave thepowerof influencingpublicopinion inEnglandwe feel certainthat somethingwill be done to preserve what can still be preserved of Celticremains from further destruction It does honor to the British Parliament thatlarge sums are granted when it is necessary to bring to these safe shoreswhatever can still be rescued from the ruins of Greece and Italy of LyciaPergamos Palestine Egypt Babylon or Nineveh But while explorers andexcavators are sent to those distant countries and the statues of Greece thecoffins of Egypt and the winged monsters of Nineveh are brought home intriumph to the portals of theBritishMuseum it is painful to see the splendidgranite slabsofBritish cromlechs throwndownand carted away stone circlesdestroyed tomakeway for farming improvements andancienthutsandcavesbrokenuptobuildnewhousesandstableswiththestonesthusreadytohandItishightimeindeedthatsomethingshouldbedoneandnothingwillavailbuttoplace every truly historical monument under national protection Individualeffortsmayanswerhereandthereandarightspiritmaybeawakenedfromtimetotimebylocalsocietiesbutduringintervalsofapathymischiefisdonethatcanneverbemendedandunlessthedamagingofnationalmonumentseventhoughtheyshouldstand[pg277]onprivategroundismadeamisdemeanorwedoubtwhether two hundred years hence any enterprising explorer would be asfortunate as Mr Layard and Sir H Rawlinson have been in Babylon andNinevehandwhetheronesinglecromlechwouldbeleftforhimtocarryawaytotheNationalMuseumoftheMaorisItiscuriousthatthewillfuldamagedonetoLoganStonesonceinthetimeofCromwellbyShrubsallandmorerecentlyby Lieutenant Goldsmith should have raised such indignation while acts ofVandalismcommittedagainstrealantiquitiesareallowedtopassunnoticedMrScaweninspeakingofthemischiefdonebystrangersinCornwallsaysmdash

ldquoHere too we may add what wrong another sort of strangers has done to usespeciallyinthecivilwarsandinparticularbydestroyingofMincamberafamousmonumentbeingarockofinfiniteweightwhichasaburdenwaslaiduponothergreatstonesandyetsoequallythereonpoisedupbyNatureonlyasalittlechildcouldinstantlymoveitbutnoonemanormanyremoveitThisnaturalmonumentall travellers that came that way desired to behold but in the time of OliversusurpationwhenallmonumentalthingsbecamedespicableoneShrubsalloneof

OliversheroesthenGovernorofPendennisbylaborandmuchadocausedtobeunderminedandthrowndowntothegreatgriefofthecountrybuttohisowngreatglory ashe thoughtdoing it ashe saidwitha small cane inhishand Imyselfhaveheardhimtoboastofthisactbeingaprisonerthenunderhimrdquo

MrScawenhoweverdoesnottellusthatthisShrubsallinthrowingdowntheMincamberietheMecircnamberactedveryliketheoldmissionariesinfellingthesacredoaksinGermanyMerlinitwasbelievedhadproclaimedthatthisstoneshouldstanduntilEnglandhadnokingandasCornwallwasastrongholdoftheStuarts the destruction of this loyal stonemay have seemed amatter ofwisepolicy

[pg278]EventhefoolishexploitofLieutenantGoldsmithin1824wouldseemtohavehad some kind of excuse Dr Borlase had asserted ldquothat it was morallyimpossiblethatanyleverorindeedforcehoweverappliedinamechanicalwaycould remove the famous Logan rock at Trereen Dinas from its presentpositionrdquoPtolemythesonofHephaeligstionhadmadeasimilarremarkabouttheGigomanrock58statingthatitmightbestirredwiththestalkofanasphodelbutcouldnotbe removedbyany forceLieutenantGoldsmith living inanageofexperimentalphilosophyundertooktheexperimentinordertoshowthatitwasphysicallypossibletooverthrowtheLoganandhediditHewashoweververyproperly punished for this unscientific experiment and he had to replace thestoneathisownexpense

As this matter is really serious we have drawn up a short list of acts ofVandalism committed inCornwallwithin thememory of livingmanThat listcouldeasilybeincreasedbutevenasitiswehopeitmayrousetheattentionofthepublicmdash

BetweenStIvesandZennoronthelowerroadoverTregarthenDownsstoodaLogan rock An old man perhaps ninety years of age told Mr Hunt whomentions this and other cases in the preface to his charming collection ofCornishtalesandlegendsthathehadoftenloggeditandthatitwouldmakeanoisewhichcouldbeheardformiles

AtBalnoon betweenNancledrea andKnillsSteeple someminers cameuponldquotwo slabs of granite cemented togetherrdquowhich covered awalled grave threefeetsquareanancientkist-vaenInittheyfoundan[pg279]earthenwarevesselcontaining someblack earth and a leaden spoonThe spoonwas given toMr

PraedofTrevethowthekist-vaenwasutterlydestroyed

InBosprennisCross therewasavery largecoitorcromlech It issaid tohavebeenfifteenfeetsquareandnotmorethanonefootthickinanypartThiswasbrokenintwopartssomeyearssinceandtakentoPenzancetoformthebedsoftwoovens

ThecuriouscavesandpassagesatChysausterhavebeendestroyedforbuildingpurposeswithinlivingmemory

AnotherCornishmanMrBellowsreportsasfollowsmdash

ldquoIn a field between the recently discovered Beehive hut and the Boscawen-ucircncircleoutofthepublicroadwediscoveredpartofalsquoNineMaidensrsquoperhapsthethirdof thecircle the restof thestonesbeingdraggedoutandplacedagainst thehedgetomakeroomfortheploughrdquo

Thesameintelligentantiquarianremarksmdash

ldquoThe Boscawen-ucircn circle seems to have consisted originally of twenty stonesSeventeenofthemareuprighttwoaredownandagapexistsofexactlythedoublespaceforthetwentiethWefoundthemissingstonenottwentyyardsoffAfarmerhadremoveditandmadeitintoagate-postHehadcutaroadthroughthecircleandinsuchamannerthathewasobligedtoremovetheoffendingstonetokeepitstraightFortunatelythepresentproprietressisaladyoftasteandhassurroundedthecirclewithagoodhedgetopreventfurtherVandalismrdquo

Of theMecircn-an-tol atBoleitwehave received the followingdescription fromMrBotterellwhosuppliedMrHuntwithsomanyofhisCornishtalesmdash

ldquoThesestonesarefromtwentytotwenty-fivefeetabovethesurfaceandweweretoldby some folksofBoleit thatmore than ten feethadbeen sunknearwithoutfinding the base The Mecircn-an-tol have both been displaced and removed aconsiderable[pg280]distancefromtheiroriginalsiteTheyarenowplacedinahedgetoformthesideofagatewayTheupperportionofoneissomuchbrokenthatonecannotdeterminetheangleyetthatitworkedtoanangleisquiteapparentTheotheristurneddownwardandservesasthehanging-postofagateFromtheheadbeing buried so deep in the ground only part of the hole (which is in bothstonesaboutsixinchesdiameter)couldbeseenthoughtheholeistoosmalltopopthesmallestorallbutthesmallestbabythroughthepeoplecallthemcrick-stonesandmaintaintheyweresocalledbeforetheywerebornCrick-stoneswereusedfordraggingpeoplethroughtocurethemofvariousdiseasesrdquo

The samegentlemanwriting tooneof theCornishpapers informs thepublicthatafewyearsagoarockknownbythenameofGarrack-zansmightbeseeninthetown-placeofSawahintheparishofStLevananotherinRoskestalinthesame parish One is also said to have been removed from near the centre ofTrereenbythefamilyofJanstomakeagranderapproachtotheirmansionThe

ruinswhichstillremainareknownbythenameoftheJansHousealthoughthefamily became extinct soon after perpetrating what was regarded by the oldinhabitants as a sacrilegious act The Garrack-zans may still be remaining inRoskestalandSawahbutasmuchalterationhas recently takenplace in thesevillagesinconsequenceofbuildingnewfarm-housesmakingnewroadsetcitisagreatchanceiftheyhavenotbeeneitherremovedordestroyed

Mr J T Blight the author of one of the most useful little guide-books ofCornwallldquoAWeekat theLandsEndrdquostates thatsomeeightor tenyearsagotheruinsoftheancientChapelofStEloyinStBurianwerethrownoverthecliff by the tenant of the estate without the knowledge or permission of theownerofthepropertyChucircnCastlehesaysoneof[pg281]thefinestexamplesofearlymilitaryarchitectureinthiskingdomhasformanyyearsbeenresortedtoasasortofquarryThesameappliestoCastle-an-Dinas

From an interesting paper on Castallack Round by the same antiquarian wequote the following passages showing the constantmischief that is going onwhetherduetodownrightVandalismortoignoranceandindifferencemdash

ldquoFromadescriptionofCastallackRoundintheparishofStPaulwrittenbyMrCrozierperhapsfourteenor fifteenyearsago itappears that therewasamassiveouterwallwithanentranceonthesouthfromwhichacolonnadeofstonesledtoaninnerinclosurealsoformedwithstonesandninefeetindiameterMrHaliwellsorecentlyas1861referstotheavenueofuprightstonesleadingfromtheoutertotheinnerinclosure

ldquoOnvisitingthespotafewdaysago(in1865)Iwassurprisedtofindthatnotonlywere there no remains of an avenue of stones but that the existence of an innerinclosurecouldscarcelybetracedItwasinfactevidentthatsomemodernVandalhadherebeenatworkAlaboreremployedinthefieldclosebywithacomplaisantsmileinformedmethattheoldRoundhadbeendugintolastyearforthesakeofthestonesIfoundhoweverenoughoftheworklefttobeworthyofafewnotessufficient to show that itwas a kindred structure to that atKerris known as theRoundagoanddescribedandfiguredinBorlaseslsquoAntiquitiesofCornwallrsquoMrCrozieralsoreferstoastonefivefeethighwhichstoodwithinahundredyardsoftheCastallackRoundandfromwhichthePipersatBoleitcouldbeseen

ldquoTheattentionoftheRoyalInstitutionofCornwallhasbeenrepeatedlycalledtothedestruction of Cornish antiquities and the interference of landed proprietors hasbeenfrequentlyinvokedinaidoftheirpreservationbutitunfortunatelyhappensinmost cases that important remains are demolished by the tenants without theknowledgeorconsentofthelandlordsOncomparingthepresentconditionoftheCastallackRoundwithadescriptionofitsappearancesorecentlyasin1861Ifind

that the greater and more interesting part has been barbarously and irreparablydestroyed and I regret to say I could drawup a [pg282] long list of ancientremainsinCornwallpartiallyortotallydemolishedwithinthelastfewyearsrdquo

Wecanhardlyhopethatthewholesomesuperstitionwhichpreventedpeopleinformerdaysfromdesecratingtheirancientmonumentswillbeanyprotectiontothemmuchlongerthoughthefollowingstoryshowsthatsomegrainsoftheoldleavenarestill left in theCornishmindNearCarleen inBreageanoldcrosshasbeenremovedfromitsplaceandnowdoesdutyasagate-postThefarmeroccupying the farmwhere the cross stood set his laborer to sink a pit in therequiredspotforthegate-postbutwhenitwasintimatedthatthecrossstandingat a littledistanceoffwas tobeerected therein themanabsolutely refused tohaveanyhandinthematternotonaccountofthebeautifulortheantiquebutfor fear of theoldpeopleAnother farmer related that hehad a neighborwholdquohaeleddownalotofstoanscalledtheRoundagoandsoldemforbuildingthedocksatPenzanceButnotapennyofthemoneyhegotforemeverprosperedandtherewasntwanofthehossesthathaeldemthatlivedoutthetwelvemonthandtheydosaythatsomeofthestoansdoweepbloodbutIdontbelievethatrdquo

Therearemanyantiquarianswhoaffect todespise the rudearchitectureof theCelts nay who would think the name of architecture disgraced if applied tocromlechs and bee-hive huts But even thesewill perhaps bemorewilling tolendahelpinghandinprotectingtheantiquitiesofCornwallwhentheyhearthatevenancientNormanmasonryisnolongersafeinthatcountryAnantiquarianwrites tous fromCornwall ldquoI heardof some farmers inMeneage (theLizarddistrict)whodraggeddownanancientwelland rebuilt itWhencalled to taskfor it they said lsquoThe[pg283]ould thingwas so shaky that awasnt fit tobeseensowethoughtwedputtentorightsandbuildunupfittyrsquothinsprdquo

SuchthingswefeelsureshouldnotbeandwouldnotbeallowedanylongerifpublicopinionorthepublicconsciencewasoncerousedLetpeoplelaughatCelticmonumentsasmuchastheylike if theywillonlyhelptopreservetheirlaughing-stocksfromdestructionLetantiquariansbeasskepticalastheylikeiftheywill onlyprevent thedishonestwithdrawalof the evidenceagainstwhichtheirskepticismisdirectedArelake-dwellingsinSwitzerlandareflint-depositsin France is kitchen-rubbish in Denmark so very precious and are themagnificent cromlechs the curious holed stones and even the rock-basins ofCornwallsocontemptibleThereisafashioneveninscientifictastesForthirtyyearsMBoucherdePerthescouldhardlygetahearingforhisflint-headsand

now he has become the centre of interest for geologists anthropologists andphysiologistsThereiseveryreasontoexpectthattheinterestonceawakenedintheearlyhistoryofourownracewillgoonincreasingandtwohundredyearshencetheantiquariansandanthropologistsofthefuturewillcallushardnamesif they find out how we allowed these relics of the earliest civilization ofEnglandtobedestroyedItiseasytosayWhatisthereinaholedstoneItisastonewithaholeinitandthatisallWedonotwishtopropoundnewtheoriesbut in order to show how full of interest even a stone with a hole in it maybecome we will just mention that theMecircn-an-tol or the holed stone whichstandsinoneofthefieldsnearLanyonisflankedbytwootherstonesstandingerectoneachsideLetanyonegotheretowatchasunsetaboutthetimeofthe[pg284]autumnalequinoxandhewillseethattheshadowthrownbytheerectstonewouldfallstraight throughtheholeof theMecircn-an-tolWeknowthat thegreatfestivalsoftheancientworldwereregulatedbythesunandthatsomeofthese festive seasonsmdashthe winter solstice about Yule-tide or Christmas thevernalequinoxaboutEasterthesummersolsticeonMidsummer-eveaboutStJohnBaptistsdayandtheautumnalequinoxaboutMichaelmasmdasharestillkeptunderchangednamesandwithnewobjects inourowntimeThisMecircn-an-tolmaybeanolddialerectedoriginallytofixthepropertimeforthecelebrationofthe autumnal equinox and though itmayhavebeenapplied tootherpurposeslikewisesuchasthecuringofchildrenbydraggingthemseveraltimesthroughtheholestillitsoriginalintentionmayhavebeenastronomicalItiseasytotestthisobservationandtofindoutwhetherthesameremarkdoesnotholdgoodofother stones inCornwall as for instance theTwoPipersWe do notwish toattribute to this guess as to the original intention of the Mecircn-an-tol moreimportancethanitdeservesnorwouldweinanywaycountenancetheopinionofthosewhobeginningwithCaeligsarascribetotheCeltsandtheirDruidseverykind ofmysteriouswisdomAmere shepherd though he had never heard thenameoftheequinoxmighthaveerectedsuchastoneforhisownconvenienceinordertoknowthetimewhenhemightsafelybringhisflocksoutortakethembacktotheirsaferstablesButthiswouldinnowaydiminishtheinterestoftheMecircn-an-tol Itwouldstill remainoneof the fewrelicsof thechildhoodofourrace one of the witnesses of the earliest workings of the human mind in itsstruggleagainstandinitsalliancewith thepowersofnatureoneof[pg285]thevestigesof thefirstcivilizationof theBritishIslesEventheRomanswhocarried their Roman roads in a straight line through the countries they hadconqueredundeterredbyanyobstaclesunawedbyanysanctuaries respectedascanhardlybedoubtedSilburyHillandmadetheroadfromBathtoLondondivergefromtheusualstraightlineinsteadofcuttingthroughthattime-honored

mound Would the engineers of our railways show a similar regard for anynational monument whether Celtic Roman or Saxon When Charles II in1663 went to see the Celtic remains of Abury sixty-three stones were stillstandingwithin the intrenched inclosureNot quite a hundred years later theyhad dwindled down to forty-four the rest having been used for buildingpurposesDrStukeleywhopublishedadescriptionofAbury in1743 tellsusthat he himself saw the upper stone of the great cromlech there broken andcarried away the fragments of itmakingno less than twenty cart-loadsAfteranother century had passed seventeen stones only remained within the greatinclosureandthesetooarebeinggraduallybrokenupandcartedawaySurelysuchthingsoughtnottobeLetthosewhomitconcernslooktoitbeforeitistoolate These Celtic monuments are public property as much as London StoneCoronation Stone or Westminster Abbey and posterity will hold the presentgeneration responsible for the safe keeping of the national heirlooms ofEngland59

[pg287]

XIVARETHEREJEWSINCORNWALL

There is hardly a book on Cornish history or antiquities inwhichwe are notseriouslyinformedthatatsometimeorothertheJewsmigratedtoCornwallorworked as slaves in Cornish mines Some writers state this simply as a factrequiring no further confirmation others support it by that kind of evidencewhichHerodotus no doubt would have considered sufficient for establishingtheformerpresenceofPelasgiansindifferentpartsofGreecebutwhichwouldhardly have satisfiedNiebuhr still less SirGCLewisOld smelting-housesthey tell us are still called Jews houses in Cornwall and if even after thatanybodycouldbesoskepticalastodoubtthattheJewsafterthedestructionofJerusalemweresentinlargenumberstoworkasslavesintheCornishminesheissilencedatoncebyanappealtothenameofMarazionthewell-knowntownoppositeStMichaelsMountwhichmeanstheldquobitternessofZionrdquoandisalsocalledMarketJewManyatravellerhasnodoubtshakenhisunbelievingheadandaskedhimselfhowitisthatnorealhistorianshouldeverhavementionedthemigrationoftheJewstotheFarWestwhetherittookplaceunderNeroorunderone of the later Flavian [pg 288] Emperors Yet all the Cornish guides arepositiveonthesubjectandtheprimacircfacieevidenceiscertainlysostartlingthatwe can hardly wonder if certain anthropologists discovered even the sharplymarkedfeaturesoftheJewishraceamongthesturdyfishermenofMountsBay

BeforeweexaminethefactsonwhichthisJewishtheoryisfoundedmdashfactsaswillbeseenchieflyderivedfromnamesofplacesandotherrelicsoflanguagemdashitwillbewelltoinquirealittleintothecharacteroftheCornishlanguagesothatwemayknowwhatkindofevidencewehaveanyrighttoexpectfromsuchawitness

TheancientlanguageofCornwallasiswellknownwasaCelticdialectcloselyallied to the languages of Brittany andWales and less nearly though by nomeans distantly related to the languages of Ireland Scotland and the Isle of

ManCornishbegantodieout inCornwallabout the timeof theReformationbeing slowly but surely supplanted by English till it was buried with DollyPentreathandsimilarworthiesabouttheendofthelastcentury60Nowthereisinmost languages but more particularly in those which are losing theirconsciousnessortheirvitalitywhatbyanameborrowedfromgeologymaybecalled ametamorphic process It consists chiefly in this that words as theyceasetobeproperlyunderstoodareslightlychangedgenerallywiththeobjectof imparting to themoncemore an intelligiblemeaningThis newmeaning ismostlyamistakenoneyetitisnotonlyreadilyacceptedbutthewordinitsnewdressandwith itsnewcharacter is frequentlymade tosupport factsor fictionswhichcouldbesupportedbyno[pg289]otherevidenceWhodoesnotbelievethatsweethearthassomethingtodowithheartYetitwasoriginallyformedlikedrunk-arddull-ardandnigg-ard andpoetsnotgrammariansare responsiblefor the mischief it may have done under its plausible disguise By the sameprocessshamefastformedlikesteadfastandstillproperlyspeltbyChaucerandin the early editions of theAuthorizedVersion of theBible has long becomeshamefacedbringingbeforeustheblushingrosesofalovelyfaceTheVikingsmerepiratesfromtheviksorcreeksofScandinaviahavebythesameprocessbeenraisedtothedignityofkingsjustascoatcardsmdashthekingandqueenandknaveintheirgorgeousgownsmdashwereexaltedintocourtcards

Although this kind of metamorphosis takes place in every language yet it ismostfrequentincountrieswheretwolanguagescomeincontactwitheachotherandwhereintheendoneissupersededbytheotherRobertusCurtustheeldestsonoftheConquerorwasbytheSaxonscalledCurt-hoseThenameofOxfordcontainsinitsfirstsyllableanoldCelticwordthewell-knowntermforwaterorriverwhichoccursasuxinUxbridgeasexinExmouthasaxinAxmouthandinmanymoredisguisesdowntothewhiskofwhiskeytheScotchUsquebaugh61In thenameof the Isis andof thesuburbofOsney the sameCelticwordhasbeenpreservedTheSaxonskepttheCelticnameoftheriverandtheycalledtheplacewhereoneof theRoman roads crossed the riverOxOxfordThenamehoweverwas soonmistaken and interpreted as purely Saxon and if any oneshould doubt thatOxfordwas a kind ofBosphorus andmeant a ford for [pg290]oxentheancientarmsofthecitywerereadilyappealedtoinordertocutshort all doubts on the subject TheWelsh nameRyt-yhcen for Oxford was aretranslationintoWelshofanoriginalCelticnametowhichanewformandanewmeaninghadbeengivenbytheSaxonconquerors

Similar accidents happened to Greek words after they were adopted by the

peopleofItalyparticularlybytheRomansTheLatinorichalcumforinstanceissimplytheGreekwordὀρείχαλκοςfromὄροςmountainandχαλκόςcopperWhyitwascalledmountain-coppernooneseemstoknowItwasoriginallyakindoffabulousmetalbrought to lightfromthebrainsof thepoetrather thanfromthebowelsof theearthThoughthepoetsandevenPlatospeakof itasaftergold themostpreciousofmetalsAristotle sternlydenies that there everwas any real metal corresponding to the extravagant descriptions of theὀρείχαλκοςAfterwardsthesamewordwasusedinamoresoberandtechnicalsensethoughitisnotalwayseasytosaywhenitmeanscopperorbronze(iecopperandtin)orbrass(iecopperandzinc)TheLatinpoetsnotonlyadoptedtheGreekwordinthefabuloussenseinwhichtheyfounditusedinHomerbutforgetting that the first portionof thenamewasderived from theGreekὄροςhilltheypronouncedandevenspeltitasifderivedfromtheLatinaurumgoldandthusfoundanewconfirmationofitsequalitywithgoldwhichwouldhavegreatlysurprisedtheoriginalframersofthatcuriouscompound62

In a county like Cornwall where the ancient Celtic dialect continued to bespoken though disturbed and [pg 291] overlaid from time to time by LatinSaxonandNormanwhereCeltshad toadoptcertainSaxonandNormanandSaxonsandNormanscertainCelticwordswehavearight toexpectanamplefieldforobservingthismetamorphicprocessandfortracingitsinfluenceinthetransformationofnamesandintheformationoflegendstraditionsnayevenasweshallseeintheproductionofgenerallyacceptedhistoricalfactsTocallthisprocessmetamorphicusingthatnameinthesensegiventoitbygeologistsmayatfirstsightseempedanticandfar-fetchedButifweseehowanewlanguageformswhatmaybecalledanewstratumcoveringtheoldlanguagehowthelifeorheatoftheoldlanguagethoughapparentlyextinctbreaksforthagainthroughthe superincumbent crust destroys its regular features and assimilates itsstratifiedlayerswithitsownigneousorvolcanicnatureourcomparisonthoughsomewhatelaboratewillbejustifiedtoagreatextentandweshallonlyhavetoask our geological readers tomake allowance for this that in languages theforeign element has always to be considered as the superincumbent stratumCornish forming the crust to English or English to Cornish according as thespeakerusestheoneortheotherashisnativeorashisacquiredspeech

Our firstwitness in support of thismetamorphic process isMr Scawenwholived about two hundred years ago a true Cornishman though he wrote inEnglishor inwhathe ispleasedsotocall InblamingtheCornishgentryandnobilityforhavingattemptedtogivetotheirancientandhonorablenamesakind

of Norman varnish and for having adopted new-fangled coats of arms MrScawen remarks on the several mistakes intentional or unintentional thatoccurredinthis[pg292]foolishprocessldquoThegroundsoftwoseveralmistakesrdquohewritesldquoareveryobvious1stupontheTreorTer2dupontheRossorRoseTre orTer in Cornish commonly signifies a town or rather place and it hasalwaysanadjunctwithitTriisthenumber3ThosemenwillinglymistakeoneforanotherAndso inFrenchheraldry terms theyused to fancyandcontrivethose with any such three things as may be like or cohere with or may beadaptedtoanythingorthingsintheirsurnameswhetherveryhandsomeornotisnotmuchstooduponAnotherusualmistakeisuponRosswhichastheyseemtofancyshouldbeaRosebutRossinCornishisavaleorvalleyNowforthistheirFrench-LatintutorswhentheygointothefieldofMarsputthemintheircoat armor prettily to smell out aRose or flower (a fadinghonor insteadof adurableone)soanythreesuchthingsagreeableperhapsalittletotheirnamesare takenup and retained fromabroadwhen their own at homehave amuchbetterscentandmorelastingrdquo

Someamusing instancesofwhatmaybecalledSaxonpunsonCornishwordshavebeencommunicatedtomebyaCornishfriendofmineMrBellowsldquoTheoldCornishnameforFalmouthrdquohewritesldquowasPennycomequick63andtheytellamostimprobablestorytoaccountforitIbelievethewholecompoundistheCornishPen y cwmgwic lsquoHead of the creek valleyrsquo In likemanner theyhave turned Bryn uhella (highest hill) into Brown Willy and Cwm ty goed(woodhouse valley) intoCome togoodrdquoTo thismight be added the commonetymologies ofHelstone andCamelford The former name has nothing to dowiththeSaxonhelstoneacoveringstoneorwiththeinfernalregions[pg293]butmeantldquoplaceontheriverrdquothelatterinspiteofthecamelinthearmsofthetown meant the ford of the river Camel A frequent mistake arises from themisapprehensionoftheCelticdunhillwhichentersinthecompositionofmanylocalnamesandwaschangedbytheSaxonsintotownortunThusMeli-dunumisnowMoultonSeccan-dunisSeckingtonandBeamdunisBampton64

This transformation of Celtic into Saxon or Norman terms is not confinedhowevertothenamesoffamiliestownsandvillagesandweshallseehowthefablestowhichithasgivenrisehavenotonlydisfiguredtherecordsofsomeofthemostancientfamiliesinCornwallbuthavethrownahazeovertheannalsofthewholecounty

Returning to the Jews in theirCornish exilewe find no doubt asmentioned

before that even in the Ordnancemaps the little town opposite StMichaelsMount is calledMarazion andMarket JewMarazion sounds decidedly likeHebrew and might signify Macircracirch ldquobitterness griefrdquo Zion ldquoof Zionrdquo MEsquirosabelieverinCornishJewsthinksthatMaramightbeacorruptionoftheLatinAmarabitterbutheforgetsthatthisetymologywouldreallydefeatitsvery object and destroy the Hebrew origin of the name The next questiontherefore is What is the real origin of the nameMarazion and of its aliasMarketJewItcannotbetoooftenrepeatedthatinquiriesintotheoriginoflocalnames are in the first place historical and only in the second placephilologicalToattemptanexplanationofanynamewithouthavingfirsttracedit back to the earliest form in which we can find it is to set at defiance theplainest rules of the [pg294] scienceof language aswell as of the scienceofhistoryEveniftheinterpretationofalocalnameshouldberightitwouldbeofno scientific value without the preliminary inquiry into its history whichfrequentlyconsistsinasuccessionofthemoststartlingchangesandcorruptionsThosewhoareatall familiarwith thehistoryofCornishnamesofplaceswillnot be surprised to find the same name written in four or five nay in tendifferentwaysThefactisthatthosewhopronouncedthenameswerefrequentlyignorantoftheirrealimportandthosewhohadtowritethemdowncouldhardlycatch their correct pronunciation Thus we find that Camden calls MarazionMerkiuCarewMarcaiewLelandinhisldquoItineraryrdquo(about1538)usesthenamesMarkesinMarkine (vol iii fol4) and inanotherplace (volvii fol119)heappliesitwouldseemtothesametownthenameofMarasdeythyonWilliamofWorcester(about1478)writespromiscuouslyMarkysyoo(p103)MarchewandMargew (p133)MarchasyoweandMarkysyow (p98) InacharterofQueenElizabethdated1595thenameiswrittenMarghasieweinanotheroftheyear1313Markesioninanotherof1309MarkasyoninanotherofRichardEarlofCornwall(RexRomanorum1257)Marchadyonwhichseemstheoldestandatthesametimethemostprimitiveform65BesidestheseDrOliverhasfoundindifferent title-deeds [pg 295] the following varieties of the same namemdashMarghasionMarkesiowMarghasiewMaryazion andMarazion The onlyexplanationof thenamewhichwemeetwith in earlywriters suchasLelandCamden and Carew is that it meant ldquoThursday Marketrdquo Leland explainsMarasdeythyon by forumJovisCamdenexplainsMerkiu in the samemannerandCarewtakesMarcaiewasoriginallyMarhasdiew ieldquoThursdaiesmarketforthenituseththistraffikerdquo

This interpretation ofMarhasdiew as Thursday Market appears at first veryplausible and it has at all events far better claims on our acceptance than the

modernHebrewetymologyofldquoBitternessofZionrdquoButstrangetosayalthoughfrom a charter of Robert Earl of Cornwall it appears that the monks of theMount had the privilege of holding amarket on Thursday (die quintaelig feriaelig)there is no evidence andnoprobability that a town so close to theMount asMarazioneverheldamarketonthesameday66ThursdayinCornishwascalleddeyownotdiewTheonlyadditionalevidencewegetisthisthatinthetaxationofBishopWalterBronescombemadeAugust 12 1261 andquoted inBishopStapledonsregisterof1313 theplace iscalledMarkesiondeparvomercato67and that in a charter of Richard King of the Romans and Earl of Cornwallpermissionwasgranted to thepriorofStMichaelsMount that threemarketswhich formerly had been held inMarghasbigan on ground not belonging tohim should in future be held on his own ground [pg 296] in MarchadyonParvusmercatus is evidently the same place asMarghasbigan forMarghas-biganmeansinCornishthesameasMercatusparvusnamelyldquoLittleMarketrdquoThecharterofRichardEarlofCornwallismoreperplexinganditwouldseemto yield no sense unless we again take Marchadyon as a mere variety ofMarghasbigan and suppose that the privilege granted to the prior of StMichaelsMountconsistedreallyintransferringthefairfromlandinMarazionnotbelongingtohimtolandinMarazionbelongingtohimAnyhowitisclearthatinMarazionwehavesomekindofnameformarket

TheoldCornishwordformarketismarchasacorruptionoftheLatinmercatusOriginallytheCornishwordmusthavebeenmarchadandthisformispreservedinArmoricanwhileinCornishthechgraduallysunktohandthefinaldtosThischangeofd intos isof frequentoccurrence inmodernascomparedwithancientCornishandthehistoryofourwordwillenableustoacertainextenttofix the time when that change took place In the charter of Richard Earl ofCornwall(about1257)wefindMarchadyon inacharterof1309MarkasyonThechangeofdintoshadtakenplaceduringthesefiftyyears68ButwhatistheterminationyonConsideringthatMarazioniscalledtheLittleMarketIshouldliketoseeinyonthediminutiveCornishsuffixcorrespondingtotheWelshynButifthisshouldbeobjectedtoonthegroundthatnosuchdiminutivesoccurintheliterary[pg297]monumentsoftheCornishlanguageanotherexplanationisopen which was first suggested to me byMr BellowsMarchadion may betaken as a perfectly regular plural in Cornish and we should then have tosupposethat insteadofbeingcalledtheMarketor theLittleMarket theplacewascalledfromitsthreestatutemarketsldquoTheMarketsrdquoAndthiswouldhelpustoexplainnotonlythegradualgrowthofthenameMarazionbutlikewiseIthink the gradual formation of ldquoMarket Jewrdquo for another termination of the

pluralinCornishisieuwhichaddedtoMarchadwouldgiveusMarchadieu69

Now it is perfectly true that no real Cornishman I mean nomanwho spokeCornishwouldeverhave takenMarchadiew forMarket Jewor JewsMarketThename for Jew inCornish isquitedifferent It isEdhowYedhowYudhowcorrupted likewise into Ezow plural Yedhewon etc But to a Saxon ear theCornishnameMarchadiewmightwellconveytheideaofMarketJewandthusbyametamorphicprocessanamemeaninginCornishtheMarketswouldgiverise in a perfectly natural manner not only to the two names Marazion andMarketJewbutlikewisetothehistoricallegendsofJewssettledinthecountyofCornwall70

[pg298]But there still remain the Jews houses the name given it is said to the olddesertedsmelting-houses[pg299] inCornwalland inCornwallonlyThoughintheabsenceofanyhistoricalevidenceastotheemploymentofthistermJewshouse informerages itwillbemoredifficult toarriveat itsoriginalformandmeaningyetanexplanationoffers itselfwhichbyaprocedureverysimilar tothatwhichwasappliedtoMarazionandMarketJewmayaccountfortheoriginofthisnamelikewise

TheCornishnameforhousewasoriginallytyInmodernCornishhowevertoquotefromLhuydsGrammarthasbeenchangedtotshastithoutshei tyahousetsheywhichtshisalsosometimeschangedtodzhasolmeinydzkyildquoallinthehouserdquoOutofthisdzhyiwemayeasilyunderstandhowaSaxonmouthandaSaxonearmighthaveelicitedasoundsomewhatliketheEnglishJew

ButwedonotgetatJewshousebysoeasyaroadifindeedwegetatitatallWe are told that a smelting-house was called a White-house in CornishChiwiddenwiddenstandingforgwydnwhichisacorruptionoftheoldCornishgwynwhiteThisnameofChiwiddenisafamousnameinCornishhagiographyHewasthecompanionofStPerranorStPiranthemostpopularsaintamongtheminingpopulationofCornwall

MrHuntwhoinhis interestingworkldquoThePopularRomancesof theWestofEnglandrdquo has assigned a separate chapter to Cornish saints tells us how StPiranwhile livinginIrelandfedtenIrishkingsandtheirarmiesfor tendaystogether with three cows Notwithstanding this and other miracles some ofthese kings condemned him to be cast off a precipice into the sea with a

millstoneroundhisneckStPiranhoweverfloatedonsafelytoCornwallandhe[pg300]landedonthe5thofMarchonthesandswhichstillbearhisnamePerranzabuloeorPerranontheSands

Thelivesofsaintsformoneof themostcurioussubjectsfor thehistorianandstillmoreforthestudentoflanguageandthedaynodoubtwillcomewhenitwill be possible to take those wonderful conglomerates of fact and fiction topieces and as in one of those huge masses of graywacke or rubblestone toassigneachgrainandfragment to thestratumfromwhich itwas takenbeforethey were all rolled together and cemented by the ebb and flow of populartraditionWithregardtothelivesofIrishandScotchandBritishsaintsitoughtto be stated for the credit of the pious authors of the ldquoActa Sanctorumrdquo thateven they admit their tertiary origin ldquoDuring the twelfth centuryrdquo they sayldquowhenmanyof theancientmonasteries in Irelandwerehandedover tomonksfromEnglandandmanynewhouseswerebuiltforthemthesemonksbegantocompile the acts of the saints with greater industry than judgment TheycollectedalltheycouldfindamongtheuncertaintraditionsofthenativesandinobscureIrishwritingsfollowingtheexampleofJocelinwhoseworkontheactsofStPatrickhadbeenreceivedeverywherewithwonderfulapplauseButmanyofthemhavemiserablyfailedsothatthefoolishhavelaughedatthemandthewisebeenfilledwithindignationrdquo(ldquoBollandiActardquo5thofMarchp390B)Inthesamework(p392A)itispointedoutthattheIrishmonkswhenevertheyheardofanysaints inotherpartsofEnglandwhosenamesand lives remindedthemofIrishsaintsatonceconcludedthattheywereofIrishoriginandthatthepeopleinsomepartsofEnglandastheypossessednowrittenactsof[pg301]theirpopularsaintsweregladtoidentifytheirownwiththefamoussaintsoftheIrishChurchThishasevidentlyhappenedinthecaseofStPiranStPiraninoneofhischaracters iscertainlya trulyCornishsaintbutwhenthemonksinCornwallheardthewonderfullegendsoftheIrishsaintStKirantheyseemtohave grafted their own St Piran on the Irish St Kiran The difference in thenamesmusthaveseemedlesstothemthantousforwordswhichinCornisharepronounced with p are pronounced as a rule in Irish with k Thus head inCornish ispen in Irishceann son ismap in IrishmacThe townbuilt at theeasternextremityof thewallofSeveruswascalledPenguaul iepen caputguaulwalls theEnglish call itPenel-tunwhile in Scotch itwas pronouncedCenail71ThatStKiranhadoriginallynothingtodowithStPirancanstillbeproved for the earlier Lives of St Kiran though full of fabulous storiesrepresenthimasdyinginIrelandHissaintsdaywasthe5thofMarchthatofStPiran the2dofMayThelaterLiveshowever thoughtheysaynothingas

yet of the millstone represent St Kiran when a very old man as suddenlyleaving his country in order that he might die in Cornwall We are told thatsuddenlywhenalreadynearhisdeathhecalledtogetherhislittleflockandsaidto themldquoMydearbrothers and sons according to adivinedisposition ImustleaveIrelandandgotoCornwallandwaitfortheendofmylifethereIcannotresist thewillofGodrdquoHe then sailed toCornwall andbuilthimself ahousewhere he performedmanymiraclesHewas buried inCornwall on the sandysea fifteenmiles from Petrokstowe and twenty-fivemiles fromMousehole72[pg 302] In this manner the Irish and the Cornish saints who originally hadnothingincommonbuttheirnamesbecameamalgamated73andthesaintsdayofStPiranwasmovedfromthe2dofMayto the5thofMarchYetalthoughthuswelded into one nothing couldwell be imaginedmore different than thecharacters of the Irish and of the Cornish saint The Irish saint lived a trulyascetic lifehepreachedwroughtmiracles anddiedTheCornish saintwasajollyminernotalwaysverysteadyonhis legs74Letushearwhat theCornishhavetotellofhimHisnameoccursinseveralnamesofplacessuchasPerranZabuloePerranUthnoinPerrantheLittleandinPerranAr-worthallHisnamepronouncedPerranorPiranhasbeenfurthercorruptedintoPicrasandPicrousthoughsomeauthoritiessupposethatthisisagainadifferentsaintfromStPiranAnyhowbothStPerranandStPicrasliveinthememoryoftheCornishmineras the discoverers of tin and the tinners great holiday the Thursday beforeChristmas isstillcalledPicrousday75The legend relates thatStPiranwhenstill inCornwallemployedaheavyblackstoneasapartofhisfire-placeThefirewasmoreintensethanusualandastreamofbeautifulwhitemetalflowedoutofthefireGreatwasthejoyof[pg303]thesaintandhecommunicatedhisdiscoverytoStChiwiddenTheyexaminedthestonetogetherandChiwiddenwho was learned in the learning of the East soon devised a process forproducing thismetal in largequantitiesThe two saints called theCornishmentogetherTheytoldthemoftheirtreasuresandtheytaughtthemhowtodigtheorefromtheearthandhowbytheagencyoffiretoobtainthemetalGreatwasthe joy in Cornwall and many days of feasting followed the announcementMead andmetheglin with other drinks flowed in abundance and vile rumorsaysthesaintsandtheirpeoplewererenderedequallyunstabletherebyldquoDrunkasaPerranerrdquohascertainlypassedintoaproverbfromthatday

It is quite clear from these accounts that the legendary discoverer of tin inCornwall was originally a totally different character from the Irish saint StKiranIfonemightindulgeinaconjectureIshouldsaythatthereprobablywasintheCelticlanguagearootkarwhichintheCymbricbranchwouldassumethe

formparNowcair inGaelicmeans todig to raiseandfromitasubstantivemightbederivedmeaningdiggerorminerInIrelandKiranseemstohavebeensimplyapropernamelikeSmithorBakerforthereisnothinginthelegendsofSt Kiran that points to mining or smelting In Cornwall on the contrary StPiran before he was engrafted on St Kiran was probably nothing but apersonification or apotheosis of the Miner as much as Dorus was thepersonificationoftheDoriansandBrutusthefirstKingofBritain

The rule ldquonoscitur a sociisrdquo may be applied to St Piran His friend andassociate StChiwidden or StWhitehouse is a personification of thewhite-house ie the smelting-house without which St Piran the [pg 304] minerwould have been a very useless saint If Chywidden ie the smelting-housebecame the St Chywidden why should we look in the Cornish St Piran foranythingbeyondPiranietheminer

HoweverwhatisofimportancetousforourpresentobjectisnotStPiranbutStChywiddenthewhite-houseorsmelting-houseWearelookingallthistimefor theoriginalmeaningof theJewshousesand thequestion ishowcanwestarting fromChywidden arrive at Jews-house I amafraidwecannotdo sowithout a jump or two all we can do is to show that they are jumps whichlanguageherselfisfondoftakingandwhichthereforewemustnotshirkifwewishtoridestraightafterher

Wellthenthefirstjumpwhichlanguagefrequentlytakesisthisthatinsteadofusinganounwithaqualifyingadjectivesuchaswhite-housethenounbyitselfisusedwithout any suchqualificationThis canof course bedonewithveryprominentwordsonlywordswhichareusedsooftenandwhichexpressideassoconstantlypresenttothemindofthespeakerthatnomistakeislikelytoariseIn English ldquothe Houserdquo is used for the House of Commons in later Latinldquodomusrdquowasusedfor theHouseofGodAmongfishermaninScotlandldquofishrdquomeans salmon InGreekλίθος stone in the feminine is used for themagnetoriginallyΜαγνῆτιςλίθοςwhilethemasculineλίθοςmeansastoneingeneralInCornwallorebyitselfmeanscopperoreonlywhiletinoreiscalledblacktinIntimesthereforewhenthewholeattentionofCornwallwasabsorbedbyminingand smelting and when smelting-houses were most likely the only largebuildings that seemed to deserve the name of houses there is nothingextraordinary in tshey or dzhyi [pg 305] even withoutwidden white havingbecometherecognizednameforsmelting-houses

Butnowcomesasecondjumpandagainonethatcanbeprovedtohavebeenavery favorite one with many languages When people speaking differentlanguages live together in the same country they frequently in adopting aforeigntermaddtoitbywayofinterpretationthewordthatcorrespondstoitintheirownlanguageThusPortsmouth isanamehalfLatinandhalfEnglishPortus was the Roman name given to the harbor This was adopted by theSaxonsbutinterpretedatthesametimebyaSaxonwordnamelymouthwhichreally means harbor This interpretation was hardly intentional but arosenaturallyPortfirstbecameakindofpropernameandthenmouthwasaddedsothatldquothemouthofPortrdquoieoftheplacecalledPortusbytheRomansbecameatlastPortsmouthButthisdoesnotsatisfytheearlyhistoriansandashappensso frequentlywhen there is anything corrupt in language a legend springs upalmostspontaneouslytoremovealldoubtsanddifficultiesThuswereadinthevenerableSaxonChronicleunder theyear501ldquothatPortcame toBritainwithhis two sons Bieda and Maegla with two ships and their place was calledPortsmouth and they slew a British man a very noble manrdquo76 Such is thegrowthoflegendsayeandinmanycasesthegrowthofhistory

FormedonthesameprincipleasPortsmouthwefindsuchwordsasHayle-rivertheCornishhalbyitselfmeaningsaltmarshmoororestuaryTrevilleorTrou-villewheretheCeltictre townisexplainedbytheFrenchville theCotswoldHillswheretheCelticwordcotwood isexplainedby theSaxonwoldor [pg306]wealdawoodInDun-bar-ton theCelticworddunhill isexplainedbytheSaxonbarforbyrigburgtonbeingaddedtoformthenameofthetownthatroseupundertheprotectionofthehill-castleInPenhow thesameprocesshasbeen suspectedhow theGermanHoumlhe77 expressing nearly the same idea aspenheadInConstantineinCornwalloneofthelargestoneswithrock-basinsiscalledtheMecircn-rock78rockbeingsimplytheinterpretationoftheCornishmecircn

If then we suppose that in exactly the samemanner the people of Cornwallspoke of Tshey-houses orDshyi-houses is it so very extraordinary that thishybridwordshouldatlasthavebeeninterpretedasJew-housesorJewshousesIdonotsaythatthehistoryofthewordcanbetracedthroughallitsphaseswiththe same certainty as that ofMarazion all Imaintain is that in explaining itshistorynostephasbeenadmittedthatcannotbeprovedbysufficientevidencetobeinstrictkeepingwiththewell-knownmovementsorifitisrespectfultosaysothewell-knownanticsoflanguage

ThusvanishtheJewsfromCornwallbuttherestillremaintheSaracensOneis

surprised tomeetwithSaracens in theWest ofEngland stillmore tohearoftheirhavingworkedinthetin-minesliketheJewsAccordingtosomewritershoweverSaracenisonlyanothernameforJewsthoughnoexplanationisgivenwhythisdetestednameshouldhavebeenappliedtotheJewsinCornwallandnowhereelseThisview isheld for instancebyCarewwhowrites [pg 307]ldquoThe Cornish maintain these works to have been very ancient and the firstwroughtbytheJewswithpickaxesofholmboxhartshorntheyprovethisbythe names of those places yet enduring towitAttall-Sarazin (or as in someeditionsSazarin)inEnglishtheJewsOffcastrdquo

Camden(p69)saysldquoWearetaughtfromDiodorusandAEligthicusthattheancientBritonshadworkedhardattheminesbuttheSaxonsandNormansseemtohaveneglected them for a long time or to have employed the labor of Arabs orSaracensfortheinhabitantscalldesertedshaftsAttall-SarazinietheleavingsoftheSaracensrdquo

Thus then we have not only the Saracens in Cornwall admitted as simply amatter of history but their presence actually used in order to prove that theSaxonsandNormansneglectedtoworktheminesintheWestofEngland

AstillmorecircumstantialaccountisgivenbyHalsasquotedbyGilbertinhisldquoParochial History of Cornwallrdquo Here we are told that King Henry III byproclamationletoutallJewsinhisdominionsatacertainrenttosuchaswouldpoll and rifle them and amongst others to his brother Richard King of theRomanswhoafterhehadplunderedtheirestatescommittedtheirbodiesashisslavestolaborinthetin-minesofCornwallthememoryofwhoseworkingsisstill preserved in the names of several tin works called Towle Sarasin andcorruptlyAttallSaracenie therefuseoroutcastofSaracensthatistosayofthoseJewsdescendedfromSarahandAbrahamOtherworkswerecalledWheleEtherson(aliasEthewon)theJewsWorksorUnbelieversWorksinCornish

[pg308]Hereweseehowhistoryismadeandifourinquiriesledtonootherresulttheywouldstillbeusefulasawarningagainstputtingimplicitfaithinthestatementsof writers who are separated by several centuries from the events they arerelating Here we have men like Carew and Camden both highly cultivatedlearned and conscientious and yet neither of them hesitating in a work ofhistoricalcharactertoassertasafactwhataftermakingeveryallowancecanonlybecalledaveryboldguessHaveweanyreasontosupposethatHerodotus

andThucydideswhen speaking of the original abodes of the various races ofGreeceoftheirmigrationstheirwarsandfinalsettlementshadbetterevidencebefore themorweremore cautious inusing their evidence thanCamdenandCarew And is it likely that modern scholars however learned and howevercarefulcaneverarriveatreallysatisfactoryresultsbysiftingandarrangingandrearrangingtheethnologicalstatementsoftheancientsastotheoriginalabodesorthelatermigrationsofPelasgiansTyrrheniansThraciansMacedoniansandIllyriansorevenofDoriansAEligoliansandIoniansWhatisCarewsevidenceinsupportofhis statement that the Jews firstworked the tin-minesofCornwallSimplythesayingsofthepeopleinCornwallwhosupporttheirsayingsbythenamegiventodesertedminesAttallSarazinNowadmittingthatAttallSarazinorAttallSazarinmeant the refuseof theSaracens how is it possible in coldbloodtoidentifytheSaracenswithJewsandwhereisthereatittleofevidenceto prove that the Jews were the first to work these minesmdashmines be itrememberedwhichaccordingtothesameCarewwerecertainlyworkedbeforethebeginningofourera

[pg309]ButleavingtheJewsofthetimeofNeroletusexaminethemoredefiniteandmoremoderatestatementsofHalsandGilbertAccordingtothemthedesertedshaftsarecalledbyaCornishnamemeaningtherefuseoftheSaracensbecauseaslateasthethirteenthcenturytheJewsweresenttoworkintheseminesItisdifficultnodoubttoproveanegativeandtoshowthatnoJewseverworkedintheminesofCornwallAllthatcanbedoneinacaselikethisistoshowthatnoonehasproducedanatomofevidenceinsupportofMrGilbertsopinionTheJewswerecertainlyilltreatedplunderedtorturedandexiledduringthereignofthe Plantagenet kings but that they were sent to the Cornish mines nocontemporarywriterhaseverventuredtoassertThepassageinMatthewParistowhichMrGilbertmostlikelyalludessaystheverycontraryofwhathedrawsfromitMatthewParissaysthatHenryIIIextortedmoneyfromtheJewsandthat when they petitioned for a safe conduct in order to leave Englandaltogether he sold them to his brother Richard ldquout quos Rex excoriaveratComesevisceraretrdquo79But this sellingof the Jewsmeantnomore than that inreturn formoneyadvancedhimbyhisbrother theEarlofCornwall theKingpawnedtohimforanumberofyearsthetaxeslegitimateorillegitimatewhichcouldbeextortedfromtheJewsThatthiswastherealmeaningofthebargainbetween theKing andhis brother theEarl ofCornwall canbeprovedby thedocument printed in Rymers ldquoFœderardquo vol i p 543 ldquoDe Judaeligis ComitiCornubiaeligassignatisprosolutionepecuniaeligsibiaRegedebitaeligrdquo80Anyhowthere

isnotasinglewordabout [pg310] theJewshavingbeensent toCornwallorhavinghadtoworkintheminesOnthecontraryMatthewParissaysldquoComespepercitiisrdquoldquotheEarlsparedthemrdquo

AfterthuslookinginvainforanytrulyhistoricalevidenceinsupportofJewishsettlements in Cornwall I suppose they may in future be safely treated as aldquoverbalmythrdquoofwhich therearemore indeed indifferentchaptersofhistorybothancientandmodernthaniscommonlysupposedAsinCornwallthenameofamarkethasgivenrisetothefableofJewishsettlementsthenameofanothermarketinFinlandledtothebeliefthattherewereTurkssettledinthatnortherncountry Abo the ancient capital of Finland was called Turku which is theSwedishword torg market Adam of Bremen enumerating the various tribesadjoining the Baltic mentionsTurci among the rest and theseTurci were byothersmistakenforTurks81

Evenafter suchmythshavebeen laidopen to thevery roots there is a strongtendencynot todropthemaltogetherThusMrHMerivale isfar toogoodanhistoriantoadmitthepresenceofJewsinCornwallasfarbackasthedestructionofJerusalem82Heknowsthereisnoevidenceforitandhewouldnotrepeatamere fable however plausible Yet Marazion and the Jews houses evidentlylinger inhismemoryandhethrowsoutahint that theymayfindanhistoricalexplanation in the fact that under the Plantagenet kings the Jews commonlyfarmedorwroughttheminesIsthereanycontemporaryevidence[pg311]evenfor this I do not think so Dr Borlase indeed in his ldquoNatural History ofCornwallrdquo(p190)saysldquoInthetimeofKingJohnIfindtheproductoftininthiscountyveryinconsiderabletherightofworkingfortinbeingasyetwhollyin theKing thepropertyof tinnersprecariousandunsettledandwhat tinwasraisedwasengrossedandmanagedbytheJewstothegreatregretofthebaronsand their vassalsrdquo It is a pity that Dr Borlase should not have given hisauthoritybutthereislittledoubtthathesimplyquotedfromCarewCarewtellsushowtheCornishgentlemenborrowedmoneyfromthemerchantsofLondongiving them tin as security (p14) and thoughhedoesnot call themerchantsJews yet he speaks of them as usurers and reproves their ldquocut throate andabominabledealingrdquoHecontinuesafterwardsspeakingofthesameusurers(p16) ldquoAfter such time as the Jewes by their extreme dealing had wornethemselvesfirstoutoftheloveoftheEnglishinhabitantsandafterwardsoutofthe land itselfe and so left the mines unwrought it hapned that certainegentlemen being lords of seven tithings in Blackmoore whose grounds werebest stored with this minerall grewe desirous to renew this benefitrdquo etc To

judgefromseveralindicationsthisisreallythepassagewhichDrBorlasehadbefore himwhenwriting of the Jews as engrossing andmanaging the tin thatwasraisedandinthatcaseneitherisCarewacontemporarywitnessnorwoulditfollowfromwhathesaysthatonesingleJeweversetfootonCornishsoilorthatanyJewsevertastedtheactualbitternessofworkinginthemines

Having thus disposed of the Jews we now turn to [pg 312] the Saracens inCornwallWe shall not enterupon the curious andcomplicatedhistoryof thatname It is enough to refer to a short note inGibbon83 in order to show thatSaracenwasanameknowntoGreeksandRomanslongbeforetheriseofIslambutneverappliedtotheJewsbyanywriterofauthoritynotevenbythosewhosawintheSaracensldquothechildrenofSarahrdquo

What then it may be asked is the origin of the expressionAttal Sarazin inCornwallAttal orAtal is said to be aCornishword theWelshAdhail andmeans refusewaste84 As to Sarazin it is most likely another Cornish wordwhich by ametamorphic process has been slightly changed in order to yieldsomesenseintelligibletoSaxonspeakersWefindinCornishtaradmeaningapierceraborerandinanotherformtardarisdistinctlyusedtogetherwithaxeand hammer as the name of a mining implement The Latin taratrum GrτέρετρονFr tariegravere all come from the samesource If from taradwe formapluralwegettaradionInmodernCornishwefindthatdsinksdowntoswhichwould give us taras85 and plural tarasion Next the final l of atal may likeseveralfinallsinthecloselyalliedlanguageofBrittanyhave[pg313]infectedtheinitialtoftarasionandchangedittothwhichthagainwouldinmodernCornishsinkdowntos86ThusataltharasionmighthavebeenintendedfortherefuseoftheboringspossiblytherefuseoftheminesbutpronouncedinSaxonfashion it might readily have been mistaken for the Atal or refuse of theSarasionorSaracens

POSTSCRIPT

The essay on the presence of Jews in Cornwall has given rise to muchcontroversyandasIrepublishitherewithoutanyimportantalterationsIfeelitincumbenttosayafewwordsinanswertotheobjectionsthathavebeenbroughtforwardagainst itNoone I think can readmyessaywithoutperceiving thatwhatIquestionisnotthepresenceofsingleJewsinCornwallbutthemigrationoflargenumbersofJewsintotheextremeWestofBritainwhetheratthetimeofthe Phœnicians or at the period of the destruction of Jerusalem or under the

FlavianprincesorevenatalatertimeTheRevDrBannisterinapaperonldquotheJewsinCornwallrdquopublishedintheJournaloftheRoyalInstitutionofCornwall1867doesindeedrepresentmeashavingmaintainedldquothatonesingleJewneversetfootonCornishsoilrdquoButifmyreaderswillrefertothepassagethusquotedfrommyessaybyDrBannistertheywillseethatitwasnotmeantinthatsenseIn thepassage thusquotedwith inverted commas87 I simply argued that fromcertainwordsusedbyCarewonwhichgreatstresshadbeenlaiditwouldnotevenfollowldquothatonesingleJeweversetfootonCornishsoilrdquowhichsurelyisverydifferentfromsayingthatImaintainedthatnosingleJeweversetfootonCornishsoilItwouldindeed[pg314]bethemostextraordinaryfactifCornwallhadneverbeenvisitedbyJewsIfitweresoCornwallwouldstandaloneasfarassuchanimmunityisconcernedamongall thecountriesofEuropeButit isonethingforJewstobescatteredaboutintowns88orevenforoneortwoJewsto have actually worked in tin mines and quite another to speak of townsreceivingHebrewnamesinCornwallandofdesertedtin-minesbeingcalledtheworkingsoftheJewsToexplainsuchstartlingfactsiffactstheybeakindofJewishexodustoCornwallhadtobeadmittedandwasadmittedaslongassuchnamesasMarazionandAttalSarazinwereacceptedintheirtraditionalmeaningMyownopinionwasthatthesenameshadgivenrisetotheassumedpresenceofJewsinCornwallandnotthatthepresenceofJewsinCornwallhadgivenrisetothesenames

If therefore it could be proved that some Jewish families had been settled inCornwallinveryearlytimesorthatafewJewishslaveshadbeenemployedasminersmytheorywouldnotatallbeaffectedButImustsaythattheattemptsatprovingevensomuchhavebeenfarfromsuccessfulSurelytheoccurrenceofOldTestamentnamesamongthepeopleofCornwallsuchasAbrahamJosephorSolomon (there is aSolomonDukeofCornwall)doesnotprove that theirbearerswereJewsAgainifwereadinthetimeofEdwardIIthatldquoJohnPeverelheldHametethyofRogerleJeurdquowemaybequitecertainthat leJeudoesnotmeanldquotheJewrdquoandthatinthetimeofEdwardIInoJohnPeverelheldlandofaJewAgain if in the timeofEdwardIIIwereadofoneldquoAbraham the tinnerwho employed 300 men in the stream-works of Brodhokrdquo it would requirestrongerproofthanthemerenametomakeusbelievethatthisAbrahamwasaJew

IhadendeavoredtoshowthattherewasnoevidenceastotheEarlofCornwallthebrotherofHenryIIIhavingemployedJewsintheCornishminesandhadpointed out a passage fromRymers ldquoFœderardquowhere it is stated that the Earl

spared them (pepercit) Dr Bannister remarks ldquoThough we are told that hespared them might not this be similar to Josephs brethren sparing himmdashbycommittingtheirbodiesashisslavestoworkinthetin-minesrdquoItmightbesonodoubtbutwedonotknowitAgainDrBannisterremarksldquoJerometellsus[pg 315] that when Titus took Jerusalem an incredible number of Jewsweresold like horses and dispersed over the face of thewhole earth The accountgivenby Josephus is that of those spared after indiscriminate slaughter someweredispersed through theprovinces for theuseof the theatres asgladiatorsothersweresenttotheEgyptianminesandotherssoldasslavesIftheRomansatthistimeworkedtheCornishmineswhymaynotsomehavebeensenthererdquoIcanonlyanswerasbeforetheymayhavebeennodoubtbutwedonotknowit

I hadmyself searched very carefully for any documents thatmight prove thepresenceevenofsingleJewsinCornwallprevioustothetimewhentheywerebanished the realm by Edward I But my inquiries had not proved moresuccessfulthanthoseofmypredecessorsPearceinhisldquoLawsandCustomsofthe Stanariesrdquo published in London 1725 shares the common belief that theJewsworkedintheCornishminesldquoThetinnersrdquohesays(pii)ldquocalltheantientworksbythenameoftheWorkingoftheJewsanditismostmanifestthattherewere Jews inhabiting here until 1291 and this they prove by the names yetenduring vizAttall Sarazin in English The Jews Feastrdquo But in spite of hisstrong belief in the presence of Jews in Cornwall Pearce adds ldquoButwhethertheyhad liberty toworkand search for tindoesnot appearbecause theyhadtheirdwellingschieflyingreatTownsandCitiesandbeinggreatUsurerswereinthatyearbanishedoutofEnglandtothenumberof15060bythemostnoblePrinceEdwardIrdquo

AtlasthoweverwiththekindassistanceofMrMacrayIdiscoveredafewrealJews inCornwall in the thirdyearofKing John1202namelyoneSimon deDenaoneDeudonethesonofSamuelandoneAaronSomeoftheirmonetarytransactions are recorded in the ldquoRotulus Cancellarii vel AntigraphumMagniRotuliPipaeligdetertioannoRegniRegisJohannisrdquo(printedunderthedirectionoftheCommissionersofthePublicRecordsin1863p96)andwehaveherenotonlytheirnamesasevidenceoftheirJewishoriginbuttheyareactuallyspokenofasldquopraeligdictusJudensrdquoTheirtransactionshoweverarepurelyfinancialanddonotleadustosupposethattheJewsinordertomaketincondescendedinthe timeofKingJohnoratanyother time to thedrudgeryofworking in tin-mines

July1867

[pg316]

XVTHEINSULATIONOFSTMICHAELSMOUNT89

StMichaelsMount inCornwall issowellknowntomostpeopleeither fromsightor from report that adescriptionof its peculiar featuresmaybedeemedalmostsuperfluousbutinordertostartfairIshallquoteashortaccountfromthe pen of an eminent geologistMr Pengelly to whom I shall have to referfrequentlyinthecourseofthispaper

ldquoStMichaelsMountinCornwallhesaysldquoisanislandatveryhighwaterandwithrareexceptionsapeninsulaatverylowwaterThedistancefromMarazionCliff the nearest point of themainland to spring-tide high-watermark on itsown strand is about 1680 feet The total isthmus consists of the outcrop ofhighly inclined Devonian slate and associated rocks and in most cases iscoveredwithathinlayerofgravelorsandAtspring-tidesinstillweatheritisathigh-waterabouttwelvefeetbelowandat low-watersixfeetabove thesealevel In fine weather it is dry from four to five hours every tide butoccasionallyduringverystormyweatherandneaptidesitisimpossibletocrossfromthemainlandfortwoorthreedaystogetherrdquo

[pg317]ldquoTheMountisanoutlierofgranitemeasuringatitsbaseaboutfivefurlongsincircumferenceandrisingtotheheightofonehundredandninety-fivefeetabovemeantideAthigh-wateritplungesabruptlyintotheseaexceptonthenorthorlandwardsidewhere thegranitecomes intocontactwithslateHere there isasmallplainoccupiedbyavillageThecountryimmediatelybehindornorthofthetownofMarazionconsistsofDevonianstratatraversedbytrapsandelvansandattainsaconsiderableelevationrdquo

At themeetingof theBritishAssociation in1865MrPengelly inapaperon

ldquoTheInsulationofStMichaelsMountinCornwallrdquomaintainedthatthechangewhichconvertedthatMountfromapromontoryintoanislandmusthavetakenplacenotonlywithinthehumanperiodbutsinceCornwallwasoccupiedbyapeople speaking the Cornish language As a proof of this somewhat startlingassertion he adduced the ancient British name of St Michaels Mountsignifying theHoarrock in thewoodNobodywould thinkofapplyingsuchanametotheMountinitspresentstateandasweknowthatduringthelasttwothousand years the Mount has been as it is now an island at high and apromontoryatlowtideitwouldindeedseemtofollowthatitsnamemusthavebeen framedbefore the destructionof the ancient forest bywhich itwas oncesurroundedandbeforetheseparationoftheMountfromthemainland

SirHenryJamesinaldquoNoteontheBlockofTindredgedinFalmouthHarborrdquoassertsitistruethattherearetreesgrowingontheMountinsufficientnumberstohave justified theancientdescriptivenameofldquotheHoar rock in thewoodrdquobutthoughtherearetracesoftreesvisibleontheengravingspublished[pg318]ahundredyearsagoinDrBorlasesldquoAntiquitiesofCornwallrdquothesearemostlikelyduetoartisticembellishmentonlyAtpresentnowriterwilldiscoverinStMichaels Mount what could fairly be called either trees or a wood even inCornwall

Thatthegeographicalchangefromapromontoryintoarealislanddidnottakeplace during the last two thousand years is proved by the description whichDiodorusSiculusalittlebeforetheChristianeragivesofStMichaelsMountldquoTheinhabitantsof thepromontoryofBeleriumrdquohesays(libvc22)ldquowerehospitable and on account of their intercourse with strangers eminentlycivilizedintheirhabitsThesearethepeoplewhoworkthetinwhichtheymeltintotheformofastragaliandthencarryittoanislandinfrontofBritaincalledIctisThis island is leftdryat low tideand they then transport the tin incartsfrom the shoreHere the traders buy it from the natives and carry it toGaulover which it travels on horseback in about thirty days to the mouths of theRhonerdquoThattheIslandofIctisdescribedbyDiodorusisStMichaelsMountseemstosaytheleastveryprobableandwasatlastadmittedevenbythelateSir G C Lewis In fact the description which Diodorus gives answers socompletely towhat StMichaelsMount is at the present day that fewwoulddenythatiftheMounteverwasaldquoHoarrockinthewoodrdquoitmusthavebeensobefore the time ofwhichDiodorus speaks that is at least before the last twothousandyearsThenineapparent reasonswhyStMichaelsMountcannotbetheIctisofDiodorusandtheirrefutationmaybeseeninMrPengellyspaper

ldquoOntheInsulationofStMichaelsMountrdquop6seq

Mr Pengelly proceeded to show that the geological [pg 319] change whichconvertedthepromontoryintoanislandmaybeduetotwocausesFirstitmayhave taken place in consequence of the encroachment of the sea This woulddemandabelief thatat least20000yearsagoCornwallwas inhabitedbymenwho spokeCornish Secondly this changemayhave taken place by a generalsubsidenceofthelandandthisistheopinionadoptedbyMrPengellyNoexactdatewasassignedtothissubsidencebutMrPengellyfinishedbyexpressinghisdecidedopinionthatsubsequenttoaperiodwhenCornwallwasinhabitedbyarace speaking aCeltic language StMichaelsMountwas ldquoa hoar rock in thewoodrdquoandhassincebecomeinsulatedbypowerfulgeologicalchanges

InamorerecentpaperreadattheRoyalInstitution(April51867)MrPengellyhas somewhat modified his opinion Taking for granted that at some time orotherStMichaelsMountwasapeninsulaandnotyetan islandhecalculatesthat itmust have taken 16800 years before the coast line could have recededfrom the Mount to the present cliffs He arrived at this result by taking theretrocessionofthecliffsattenfeetinacenturythedistancebetweentheMountandthemainlandbeingatpresent1680feet

IfhowevertheseveranceoftheMountfromthemainlandwastheresultnotofretrocession but of the subsidence of the countrymdasha rival theory whichMrPengelly still admits as possiblemdashthe former calculation would fail and theonlymeansoffixingthedateofthisseverancewouldbesuppliedbytheremainsfound in the forests thatwere carrieddownby that subsidence andwhicharesupposed to belong to the mammoth era This mammoth era we are told isanterior to the lake-dwellingsofSwitzerlandandthe[pg320]kitchenmiddensof Denmark for in neither of these have any remains of the mammoth beendiscoveredThemammothinfactdidnotoutlivetheageofbronzeandbeforethe end of that age therefore StMichaelsMountmust be supposed to havebecomeanisland

Inall thesediscussions it is taken forgranted thatStMichaelsMountwasatone timeunquestionablyaldquohoar rock in thewoodrdquoand that the landbetweentheMountandthemainlandwasoncecoveredbyaforestwhichextendedalongthewholeoftheseaboardThattherearesubmergedforestsalongthatseaboardisattestedbysufficientgeologicalevidencebutIhavenotbeenabletodiscoverany proof of the unbroken continuity of that shore-forest still less of the

presence of vegetable remains in the exact localitywhich is of interest to usnamely between the Mount and the mainland It is true that Dr Borlasediscovered the remainsof trunksof treeson the10thof January1757buthetells us that these forest trees were not found round the Mount but midwaybetwixtthepiersofStMichaelsMountandPenzancethatistosayaboutonemiledistantfromtheMountalso thatoneofthemwasawillow-treewiththebarkon it another ahazel-branchwith thebark still fat andglossyTheplacewhere these trees were found was three hundred yards below full-sea markwherethewateristwelvefeetdeepwhenthetideisin

CarewalsoatanearlierdatespeaksofrootsofmightytreesfoundinthesandabouttheMountbutwithoutgivingtheexactplaceLelant(1533-40)knowsofldquoSpereHeddesAxis forWarre andSwerdesofCopperwrappedup in lynistscantperishidrdquothathadbeenfoundoflateyearsnearthe[pg321]MountinStHilarysparishintinworksbutheplacesthelandthathadbeendevouredoftheseabetweenPenzanceandMouseholeiemorethantwomilesdistantfromtheMount

Thevalueofthiskindofgeologicalevidencemustofcoursebedeterminedbygeologists It is quite possible that the remains of trunks of treesmay still befoundontheveryisthmusbetweentheMountandthemainlandbutitistosaytheleastcuriousthatevenintheabsenceofsuchstringentevidencegeologistsshould feel so confident that theMount once stood on themainland and thatexactlythesamepersuasionshouldhavebeensharedbypeoplelongbeforethename of geologywas known There is a powerful spell in popular traditionsagainstwhichevenmenofsciencearenotalwaysproofandisjustpossiblethatifthetraditionoftheldquohoarrockinthewoodrdquohadnotexistednoattemptswouldhavebeenmadetoexplainthecausesthatseveredStMichaelsMountfromthemainland But even then the question remains How was it that people quiteguiltlessofgeologyshouldhaveframedthepopularnameoftheMountandthepopulartraditionofitsformerconnectionwiththemainlandLeavingthereforefor the present all geological evidence out of view it will be an interestinginquirytofindoutifpossiblehowpeoplethatcouldnothavebeenswayedbyanygeologicaltheoriesshouldhavebeenledtobelieveinthegradualinsulationofStMichaelsMount

Theprincipalargumentbroughtforwardbynon-geologicalwritersinsupportoftheformerexistenceofaforestsurroundingtheMountistheCornishnameofStMichaelsMountCaraclowse in cowsewhich inCornish is said tomean

ldquothe hoar rock in the woodrdquo [pg 322] In his paper read before the BritishAssociationatManchesterMrPengellyadducedthatverynameasirrefragableevidencethatCornishieaCelticlanguageanAryanlanguagewasspokenintheextremewestofEuropeabout20000yearsagoInhismorerecentpaperMrPengelly has given up this position and he considers it improbable that anyphilologercouldnowgiveatrustworthytranslationofalanguagespoken20000years ago This may be or not but before we build any hypothesis on thatCornishnamethefirstquestionwhichanhistorianhastoanswerisclearlythismdash

Whatauthority is there for that nameWheredoes it occur for the first timeanddoesitreallymeanwhatitissupposedtomean

Now the first mention of the Cornish name as far as I am aware occurs inRichardCarewsldquoSurveyofCornwallrdquowhichwaspublishedin1602ItistruethatCamdens ldquoBritanniardquo appeared earlier in 1586 and thatCamden (p 72)toomentionsldquotheMonsMichaelisDinsololimutinlibroLandavensihabeturincolisCaregCowse90ierupiscanardquoButitwillbeseenthatheleavesoutthemostimportantpartoftheoldnamenorcantherebemuchdoubtthatCamdenreceived his information about Cornwall direct from Carew before CarewsldquoSurveyofCornwallrdquowaspublished

After speaking of ldquothe countrie of Lionesse which the sea hath ravined fromCornwallbetweenethelandsendandtheIslesofScilleyrdquoCarewcontinues(p3)ldquoMoreover theancientnameofSaintMichaelsMountwasCara-clowse inCowse in English [pg 323] The hoare Rocke in theWood which now is ateverie floud incompassed by the Sea and yet at some low ebbes rootes ofmightie trees are discryed in the sands about it The like overflowing hathhappened in Plymmouth Haven and divers other placesrdquo Now while in thisplace Carew gives the name Cara-clowse in Cowse it is very important toremarkthatonpage154hespeaksofitagainasldquoCaraCowzinClowzethatisthehoarerockinthewoodrdquo

TheoriginalCornishnamewhetheritwasCaraclowseinCowseorCaraCowzinClowzecannotbetracedbackbeyondtheendofthesixteenthcenturyfortheCornishPilchardsonginwhichthenamelikewiseoccursismuchmorerecentat least in that form in which we possess it The tradition however that StMichaelsMount stood in a forest and even theSaxondesignation ldquotheHoarrockinthewoodrdquocanbefolloweduptoanearlierdate

At least one hundred and twenty-five years before Carews time William ofWorcester thoughnotmentioningtheCornishnamenotonlygives theMountthe name of ldquohoar rock of the woodrdquo but states distinctly that St MichaelsMountwasformerlysixmilesdistantfromtheseaandsurroundedbyadenseforest ldquoPREDICTUS LOCUS OPACISSIMA PRIMO CLAUDEBATURSYLVA AB OCEANO MILIARIBUS DISTANS SEXrdquo As William ofWorcester nevermentions theCornishname it is not likely that his statementshouldmerelybederivedfromthesupposedmeaningofCaraCowzinClowzeand it is but fair to admit that he may have drawn from a safer source ofinformationWemust thereforeinquiremorecloselyintothecredibilityof thisimportant witness He is an important witness for if it were not for him Ibelieveweshouldnever[pg324]haveheardof the insulationofStMichaelsMountatallThepassageinquestionoccursinWilliamofWorcestersItinerarytheoriginalMSofwhichispreservedinCorpusChristiCollegeatCambridgeIt was printed at Cambridge by James Nasmith in the year 1778 from theoriginalMSbutasitwouldseemwithoutmuchcareWilliamBotonerorasheiscommonlycalledWilliamofWorcesterwasbornatBristolin1415andeducatedatOxfordabout1434HewasamemberoftheAulaCervinawhichatthattimebelongedtoBalliolCollegeHisldquoItinerariumrdquoisdated1478Ithardlydeserves the grand title which it bears ldquoItinerarium sive liber memorabiliumWillWinviagiodeBristolusqueadmontemStMichaelisrdquoItisnotabookoftravelsinoursenseofthewordanditwashardlydestinedforthepublicintheforminwhichwepossess it It issimplyanotebookinwhichWilliamenteredanythingthatinterestedhimduringhisjourneyanditcontainsnotonlyhisownobservations but all sorts of extracts copies notices thrown togetherwithoutany connecting thread He hardly tells us that he has arrived at StMichaelsMountbeforehebeginstocopyanoticewhichhefoundpostedupinthechurchThisnoticeinformedallcomersthatPopeGregoryhadremittedathirdoftheirpenancestoallwhoshouldvisitthischurchandgivetoitbenefactionsandalmsItcanbefullyprovedthatthisnoticewhichwasintendedtoattractpilgrimsandvisitors repeats ipsissimisverbis thecharterofLeofricBishopofExeterwhoexemptedthechurchandconventfromallepiscopaljurisdictionThiswasintheyear 1088 when St Michaels Mount was handed over by Robert Earl ofMortain half-brother ofWilliam theConqueror to theAbbey of St [pg 325]Michel in Normandy This charter may be seen in Dr Olivers ldquoMonasticonDiocesisExoniensisrdquo1846ThepassagecopiedbyWilliamofWorcesterfromanotice in the church of StMichaelsMount occurs at the end of the originalcharter ldquoEt omnibus illis qui illam ecclesiam suis cum beneficiis elemosinisexpetierintetvisitaverinttertiampartempenitentiarumcondonamusrdquo

ThoughitisnotquitecorrecttosaythatthiscondonationwasgrantedbyPopeGregoryyetitisperfectlytruethatitwasgrantedbytheBishopofExeteratthecommand and exhortation of the Pope ldquoJussione et exhortatione dominireverentissimi Gregoriirdquo The date also given by William 1070 cannot becorrect forGregory occupied the papal throne from 1073-86 It wasGregoryVIInotGregoryVIasprintedbyDrOliver

Immediately after this memorandum inWilliams diary we meet with certainnoteson the apparitionsofStMichaelHedoesnot say fromwhat sourcehetakeshisinformationonthesubjectbutwemaysupposethatheeitherrepeatedwhatheheardfromthemonksinconversationorthathecopiedfromsomeMSintheirlibraryIneithercaseitisstartlingtoreadthattherewasanapparitionoftheArchangelStMichaelinMountTumbaformerlycalledtheHorerockinthewoddStMichaelseemsindeedtohavepaidfrequentvisitstohisworshippersif we may trust the ldquoChronicon apparitionum et gestorum S MichaelisArchangelirdquopublishedbyMichNaveusin1632YethisvisitswerenotmadeatrandomandevenNaveusfindsitdifficulttosubstantiateanyapparitionofStMichaelsofarnorthasCornwallexceptbyinvectivesagainsttheimpudentaetignorantiaofProtestanthereticswhodaredtodoubtsuchoccurrences

[pg326]But this short sentence of William contains one word which is of greatimportance for our purposes He says that ldquothe Hore-rock in the woddrdquo wasformerlycalledTumbaIsthereanyevidenceofthis

ThenameTumbaasfarasweknowbelongedoriginallytoMontStMichelinNormandyThereafamousandfarbetterauthenticatedapparitionofStMichaelis related to have taken place in the year 708which led to the building of achurchandmonasterybyAutbertBishopofAvranchesThechurchwasbuiltinclose imitation of the Church of St Michael in Mount Garganus in Apuliawhichhad been founded as early as 49391 If thereforeWilliamofWorcesterrelatesanapparitionofStMichaelinCornwallataboutthesamedatein710itis clear thatMont StMichel inNormandy has here been confounded by himwithStMichaelsMountinCornwallInordertoexplainthisstrangeconfusionandtheconsequenceswhichitentaileditwillbenecessarytobearinmindthepeculiar relationswhich existed between the two ecclesiastical establishmentsperchedtheoneontheislandrockofStMichelinNormandytheotheronStMichaels Mount in Cornwall In physical structure there is a curiousresemblancebetweenthetwomountsBotharegraniteislandsandbothsonear

thecoastthatatlowwateradrypassageisopentothemfromthemainlandTheMounton theNormancoast is larger andmoredistant from thecoast thanStMichaels Mount yet for all that their general likeness is very striking NowMont St Michel was called Tumba at least as far back as the tenth centuryMabillon inhis ldquoAnnalesBenedictinirdquo (vol ii p 18) quotes froman ancientauthorthefollowingexplanation[pg327]ofthenameldquoNowthisplacetousethe words of an ancient author is called Tumba by the inhabitants becauseemergingas itwere from the sands like ahill it risesupby the spaceof twohundredcubitseverywheresurroundedbytheoceanitissixmilesdistantfromtheshorebetweenthemouthsoftheriversSegiaandSenunasixmilesdistantfromAvrancheslookingwestwardanddividingAvranchesfromBrittanyHeretheseabyitsrecessallowstwiceapassagetothepiouspeoplewhoproceedtothethresholdofStMichaeltheArchangelrdquoldquoHicigiturlocusutverbisantiquiautoris utarTumba vocitatur ab incolis ideo quod inmorem tumuli quasi abarenisemergensadaltumSPATIODUCENTORUMCUBITORUMporrigiturOCEANOUNDIQUECINCTUSSEXMILLIBUSABAEligSTUOCEANIinterostia situs ubi immergunt semari flumina Segia (Seacutee) et Senuna (Selure) abAbrincatensi urbe (Avranches) sex distans millibus oceanum prospectansAbrincatensempagumdirimitaBritanniaIllicmaresuorecessudevotispopulisdesideratumbispraeligbetiterpetentibusliminabeatiMichaelisarchangelirdquo

ThisfixesTumbaas thenameofMontStMichelbefore the tenthcentury fortheancientauthor fromwhomMabillonquoteswrotebefore themiddleof thetenthcenturyandbeforeDukeRichardhadreplacedthepriestsofStMichelbyBenedictine monks Tumba remained in fact the recognized name of theNormanMountandhassurvivedtothepresentdayThechurchandmonasterytherewerecalledldquoinmonteTumbardquoorldquoadduasTumbasrdquotherebeinginrealitytwo islands the principal one called Tumba the smaller Tumbella orTumbellana This name ofTumbellana was afterwards changed into [pg 328]tumbaHelenaeliggivingrisetovariouslegendsaboutElaineoneoftheheroinesof the Arthurian cycle nay the name was cited by learned antiquarians as aproofoftheancientworshipofBelusinthesenorthernlatitudes

ThehistoryofMontStMichelinNormandyiswellauthenticatedparticularlyduring the period which is of importance to us Mabillon quoting from thechroniclerwhowrotebeforethemiddleofthetenthcenturyrelateshowAutberttheBishopofAvrancheshadavisionandafterhavingbeenthriceadmonishedbyStMichaelproceededtobuildonthesummitoftheMountachurchunderthepatronageoftheArchangelThiswasin708orpossiblyafewyearsearlier

ifPagiusisrightinfixingthededicationofthetemplein70792Mabillonpointsout that this chronicler says nothing as yet of the miracles related by laterwriters particularly of the famous hole in the Bishops skull which it wasbelievedStMichaelhadmadewhenonexhortinghimthethirdtimetobuildhischurch he gently touched him with his archangelic finger In doing this thefinger went through the skull and left a hole The perforated skull did notinterferewiththeBishopshealthanditwasshownafterhisdeathasavaluablerelic The new church was dedicated by Autbert himself and the day of thededication(xviiKalendNovemb)wascelebratednotonlyinFrancebutalsoinEnglandas isshownbyadecreeof theSynodheldatOxfordin1222ThefurtherhistoryofthechurchandmonasteryofStMichelmaybereadwithallitsminutedetails inMabillonor in theldquoNeustriaPiardquo (p 371) or in the ldquoGalliaChristianardquo(volixp[pg329]517E870A)WhatisofinteresttousisthatsoonaftertheConquestwhentheecclesiasticalpropertyofEnglandhadfallenintothehandsofherNormanconquerorsRobertEarlofMortainandCornwallthe half-brother of William the Conqueror endowed the Norman with theCornish Mount A priory of Benedictine monks had existed on the CornishMount for some time and had been richly endowed in 1044 by Edward theConfessorNay ifwemay trust thecharterofEdward theConfessor itwouldseemthatevenatthattimetheCornishMountanditsprioryhadbeengrantedbyhimto theNormanAbbeyfor thecharter iswitnessedbyNormanbishopsand its original is preserved in the Abbey of Mont St Michel In that caseWilliamtheConquerororhishalf-brotherRobertwouldonlyhaverestoredtheCornishpriory to its rightfulowners themonksofMontStMichelwhohadwell deserved the gratitude of the Conqueror by supplying him after theConquest with six ships and a number of monks destined to assist in therestoration of ecclesiastical discipline in England After that time the Cornishpriory shared the fate of other so-called alien priories or cells The priorwasbound to visit in person or by proxy themother-house every year and to paysixteenmarksofsilverasanacknowledgmentofdependenceWheneverawarbrokeoutbetweenEnglandandFrancetheforeignpriorieswereseizedthoughsome and among them the priory of StMichaelsMount obtained in time adistinct corporate character and during the reigns of Henry IV andHenryVwereexemptedfromseizureduringwar

Under these circumstances we can well understand how in the minds of themonkswhospent their lives [pg330]partly in themother-house partly in itsdependenciestherewasnoveryclearperceptionofanydifferencebetweenthefoundersbenefactorsandpatronsofthesetwinestablishmentsAmonkbrought

up atMont StMichel would repeat as an oldman the legends he had heardaboutStMichelandBishopAutberteventhoughhewasendinghisdaysintheprioryoftheCornishMountRelicsandbookswouldlikewisetravelfromoneplacetotheotherandacharteroriginallybelongingtotheonemightafterwardsformpartofthearchivesofanotherhouse

After these preliminary remarks let us look again at the memoranda whichWilliamofWorcestermadeatStMichaelsMountanditwillappearthatwhatwe anticipated has actually happened and that a book originally belonging toMont St Michel in Normandy and containing the early history of thatmonasterywastransferred(eitherintheoriginalorinacopy)toCornwallandthere used by William of Worcester in the belief that it contained the earlyhistoryoftheCornishMountandtheCornishpriory

The Memorandum of William of Worcester runs thus ldquoApparicio SanctiMichaelisinmonteTumbaanteavocataleHore-rokinthewoddetfuerunttamboscus quarn prata et terra arabilis inter dictummontem et insulas Syllye etfuerunt140ecclesiasparochialesinteristummontemetSyllysubmersse

ldquoPrimaapparicioSanctiMichaelisinmonteGorgoninregnoApuliaefuitannoChristi 391 Secunda apparicio fuit circa annum domini 710 in Tumba inCornubiajuxtamare

ldquoTertia apparicio Romaelig fuit tempore Gregorii papaelig legitur accidisse namtemporemagnaeligpestilenciaeligetc

[pg331]ldquoQuartaappariciofuitinierarchiisnostrorumangelorum

ldquoSpacium loci mentis Sancti Michaelis est DUCENTORUM CUBITORUMUNDIQUEOCEANOCINCTUM et religiosimonachi dicti loci AbrincensisantistesAubertusnomineutinhonoreSanctiMichaelisconstrueretpredictusLOCUS OPACISSIMA PRIMO CLAUDEBATUR SYLVA AB OCEANOMILIARIBUSDISTANSSEX aptissimam prasbens latebram ferarum in quolocoolimcomperimusMONACHOSdominoservientesrdquo

Thetextissomewhatcorruptandfragmentarybutmaybetranslatedasfollowsmdash

ldquoTheapparitionofStMichael in theMountTumbaformerlycalledtheHore-

rockinthewoddandtherewereaforestandmeadowsandarablelandbetweenthe said mount and the Syllye Isles and there were 140 parochial churchesswallowedbytheseabetweenthatmountandSylly

ldquoThefirstapparitionofStMichaelinMountGorgonintheKingdomofApuliawasintheyear391Thesecondapparitionwasabouttheyear710inTumbainCornwallbythesea

ldquoThe third apparition is said to have happened at Rome in the time of PopeGregoryforatthetimeofthegreatpestilenceetc

ldquoThefourthapparitionwasinthehierarchiesofourangels

ldquoThespaceofStMichaelsMountis200cubitsitiseverywheresurroundedbythe sea and there are religious monks of that place The head of AbrincaAubertus by name that he might erect a church93 in [pg 332] honor of StMichael The aforesaid placewas at first enclosed by a very dense forest sixmiles distant from the ocean furnishing a good retreat for wild animals InwhichplaceweheardthatformerlymonksservingtheLordrdquoetc

The onlyway to explain this jumble is to suppose thatWilliam ofWorcestermadetheseentriesinhisdiarywhilewalkingupanddownintheChurchofStMichaelsMountandlisteningtooneofthemonksreadingtohimfromaMSwhich had been brought from Normandy and referred in reality to the earlyhistoryoftheNormanbutnotoftheCornishMountThefirstlineldquoApparicioSanctiMichaelisinmonteTumbardquowasprobablythetitleortheheadingoftheMS ThenWilliam himself added ldquoantea vocata le Hore-rok in the woddrdquo anamewhichheevidentlyheardonthespotandwhichnodoubtconveyedtohimthe impression that the rock had formerly stood in the midst of a wood ForinsteadofcontinuinghisaccountoftheapparitionsofStMichaelhequotesatradition in supportof the formerexistenceofa forest surrounding theMountOnly strange to say instead of producing the evidence which he producedafterwardsinconfirmationofStMichaelsMounthavingbeensurroundedbyadenseforestheheregivesthetraditionaboutLionessethesunkenlandbetweenthe Lands End and the Scylly Isles This is evidently amistake for no otherwritereversupposed thesunken landofLionesse tohavereachedasfarasStMichaelsMount

ThenfollowstheentryaboutthefourapparitionsofStMichaelHerewemust

readldquoinmonteGarganordquoinsteadofldquoinmonteGorgonrdquoOpinionsvaryastotheexactdateof theapparition inMountGarganus [pg333] in theSouthof Italybut391iscertainlyfartooearlyandhastobechangedinto491or493Inthesecondapparitionall isright ifweleaveoutldquoinCornubiajuxtamarerdquowhichwasaddedeitherbyWilliamorbythemonkwhowasshowinghimthebookItrefers to thewell-knownapparitionofStMichaelatAvranchesThe thirdandfourthapparitionsareofnoconsequencetous

AswereadonwecomenexttoWilliamsownmeasurementsfixingtheextentofStMichaelsMountattwohundredcubitsAfterthatwearemetbyapassagewhichthoughithardlyconstruescanbeunderstoodinonesenseonlynamelyasgivinganaccountoftheAbbeyofStMichelinNormandyIsupposeitisnottoo bold if I recognize inAubertusAutbertus and inAbrincensis antistes theAbrincatensisepiscopusorantistestheBishopofAvranches

Now it iswell known that theMontStMichel inNormandywas believed tohave been originally surrounded by forests andmeadowsDuMoustier in theldquoNeustriaPiardquorelates(p371)ldquoHaeligcrupesantiquitusMonseratcinctussylvisetsaltibusrdquoldquoThisrockwasofoldamountsurroundedbyforestsandmeadowsrdquoButthisisnotallIntheoldchronicleofMontStMichelquotedbyMabillonwhichwaswrittenbefore themiddleof the tenth century the sameaccount isgiven and if we compare that account with the words used by William ofWorcesterwecannolongerdoubtthattheoldchronicleoritmaybeacopyofithadbeenbroughtfromFrancetoEnglandandthatwhatwasintendedforadescriptionoftheNormanabbeyanditsneighborhoodwastakenintentionallyorunintentionallyasadescriptionoftheCornishMountThesearethewordsofthe Norman chronicler as [pg 334] quoted by Mabillon compared with thepassageinWilliamofWorcestermdash

MontStMichel StMichaelsMountldquoAdditidemauctorhunclocumOPACISSIMAOLIMSILVACLAUSUMfuisseetMONACHOSIBIDEMINHABITASSEduasqueadsuumusquetempusexstitisseecclesiasquasilliscilicetmonachiincolebantrdquo

ldquoPredictusLOCUSOPACISSIMAOLIMCLAUDEBATURSylvaaboceanomiliaribusdistanssexaptissimampraeligbenslatebramferaruminquolocoolimcomperimusMONACHOSDOMINOSERVIENTESrdquo

ldquoThe same author adds that this placewas formerly inclosed by a very denseforestandthatmonksdweltthereandthattwochurchesexistedthereuptohisowntimewhichthosemonksinhabitedrdquo

The words CLAUSUM OPACISSIMA SILVA are decisive The phrase ABOCEANOMILIARIBUSDISTANSSEXtoois takenfromanearlierpassageofthesameauthorquotedabovewhichpassagemaylikewisehavesuppliedtheidentical phrases OCEANO UNDIQUE CINCTUS and the SPATIUMDUCENTORUMCUBITORUMwhich are hardly applicable to StMichaelsMountTheldquotwochurchesstillexistinginMontStMichelrdquohadtobeleftoutfortherewasnotraceoftheminStMichaelsMountButthemonkswholivedinthemwereretainedandtogivealittlemorelifethewildbeastswereaddedEventheexpressionofantistesinsteadofepiscopusoccursintheoriginalwherewe read ldquoHaeligc loci facies erat ante sancti Michaelis apparitionem hoc annofactam religiosissimo Autberto Abrincatensi episcopo admonentis se velle utsibi in ejus montis vertice ecclesia sub ipsius patrocinio erigeretur HaeligrentiANTISTITItertioidemintimatumrdquoetc

Thus vanishes the testimony of William of Worcester so often quoted byCornish antiquarians as to the dense forest by which StMichaelsMount inCornwall [pg 335]was once surrounded and all the evidence that remains tosubstantiate the former presence of trees on and around theCornishMount isreduced to the name ldquotheHoar rock in thewoodrdquo given byWilliam and theCornish names ofCara clowse in Cowse orCara Cowz in Clowze given byCarewHowmuchorhowlittledependencecanbeplacedonoldCornishnamesof places and their supposed meaning has been shown before in the case ofMarazionCarewcertainlydidnotunderstandCornishnordidthepeoplewithwhomhehadintercourseandthereisnodoubtthathewrotedowntheCornishnamesasbesthecouldandwithoutanyattemptatdeciphering theirmeaningHewastoldthatldquoCaraclowseinCowserdquomeanttheldquoHoarrockintheWoodrdquoandhehadnoreasontodoubtitEvenaverysmallknowledgeofCornishwouldhaveenabledCareworanybodyelseathistimetofindoutthatcowzmightbemeant for the Cornish word for wood and that careg was rockClowse toomight easily be taken in the sense of gray as gray inCornishwasglosThenwhyshouldwehesitate toacceptCaraclowseincowseas theancientCornishnameoftheMountandwhyobjecttoMrPengellysargumentthatitmusthavebeengivenatatimewhentheMountwassurroundedbyaverydenseforestandthatafortioriatthatdistantperiodCornishmusthavebeenthespokenlanguageofCornwall

Thefirstobjection is that theoldword forldquowoodrdquo inCornishwascuitwith afinaltandthatthechangeofafinaltintozisaphoneticcorruptionwhichtakesplaceonlyinthelaterstageoftheCornishlanguageTheancientCornishcuitldquowoodrdquo occurs in Welsh as coed in Armorican as koat and koad and issupposed to exist in Cornish names of places such as Penquite [pg 336]Kilquite etc Cowz therefore could not have occurred in a Cornish namesupposedtohavebeenformedatleast2000ifnot20000yearsago

This thrustmight no doubt be parried by saying that the nameof theMountwouldnaturallychangewith thegeneral changesof theCornish languageYetthisisnotalwaysthecasewithpropernamesasmaybeseenbythenamesjustquotedPenquiteandKilquiteAt all eventswebegin to seehowuncertain isthegroundonwhichwestand

IfwetakethefactsscantyanduncertainastheyarewemayadmitthatatthetimeofWilliamofWorcestertheMounthadmostlikelyaLatinaCornishandaSaxonappellationIt iscuriousthatWilliamshouldsaynothingofaCornishnamebutonlyquotetheSaxononeHoweverthisSaxonnameldquotheHoarrockin the Woodrdquo sounds decidedly like a translation and is far too long andcumbrousforacurrentnameMichelstow ismentionedbyothersas theSaxonnameof theMount (Naveusp233)TheLatinnamegiven to theMountbutonlyafterithadbecomeadependencyofMontStMichelinNormandywasaswe saw fromWilliam of Worcesters diaryMons Tumba orMons Tumba inCornubia and after his time the name of St Michael in Tumbacirc or inMonteTumbacirc is certainly used promiscuously for theCornish andNormanmounts94Now tumba after [pg 337]meaning hillock became the recognized name fortombandthemediaeligvalLatintumbatoowasalwaysunderstoodinthatsenseIf therefore thenameldquoMons in tumbardquohad toberendered inCornishfor thebenefitof theCornish-speakingmonksof theBenedictinepriory tumbawouldactually be taken in the sense of tomb One form of the Cornish name aspreservedbyCarewisCaracowzinclowzeandthisifinterpretedwithoutanypreconceivedopinionwouldmeaninCornishldquotheoldrockofthetombrdquoCarastands for carak a rock Cowz is meant for coz the modern Cornish andArmorican form corresponding to the ancientCornish coth old95Clowze is amodern and somewhat corrupt form in Cornish corresponding to the Welshclawdh a tombCladh-va in Cornishmeans a burying-place and cluddu toburyhasbeenpreservedasaCornishverbcorrespondingtotheWelshcladhuIn Gaelic too cladh is a tomb or burying-place and in Armorican whichgenerally follows the same phonetic changes as theCornishwe actually find

kleuzandklocirczfortomborinclosure(SeeLeGonidecldquoDictBreton-Franccedilaisrdquos v)The enmight either be theCornish preposition yn or itmay have beenintended for the article in the genitive an The old rock in the tomb ie intumbacirc or the old rock of the tomb Cornish carag goz an cloz would beintelligibleandnaturalrenderingsoftheLatinMonsintumba

But though this would fully account for the origin of the Cornish name aspreservedbyCarewitwouldstillleavetheSaxonappellationtheldquoHorerockinthewoddrdquounexplainedHowcouldWilliamofWorcester[pg338]havegotholdofthisnameLetusrememberthatWilliamdoesnotmentionanyCornishnameoftheMountandthatnothingiseversaidathistimeoftheldquoHorerockinthewoddrdquo being a translation of an old Cornish name All we know is that themonks of theMount used that name and it is hardly likely that so long andcumbrous a name should ever have been used much by the people in theneighborhoodHowthemonksofStMichaelsMountcametocall theirplacetheldquoHorerockinthewoddrdquoatthetimeofWilliamofWorcesterandprobablylongbeforehistimeishowevernotdifficulttoexplainafterwehaveseenhowthey transferred the traditionswhich originally referred toMont StMichel totheirownmonasteryHavingtoldthestoryoftheldquosylvaopacissimardquobywhichtheirmountwasformerlysurroundedtomanyvisitorsastheytoldittoWilliamofWorcester thenameof theldquoHorerock in thewoddrdquomighteasilyspringupamong them andbekeptupwithin thewallsof their prioryNor is there anyevidencethatinthispeculiarformthenameeverspreadbeyondtheirwallsButitispossiblethatheretoolanguagemayhaveplayedsometricksThenumberofpeoplewhousedthesenamesandkeptthemalivecanneverhavebeenlargeand hence theywere exposedmuchmore to accidents arising from ignoranceandindividualcapricethannamesofvillagesortownswhichareinthekeepingofhundredsandthousandsofpeopleThemonksofStMichaelsMountmayintimehaveforgottentheexactpurportofldquoCaracowzinclowzerdquoldquotheoldrockofthe tombrdquo really the ldquoMons in tumbardquo and theirminds being full of the oldforestbywhich theybelieved their island likeMontStMichel tohavebeenformerlysurrounded[pg339]whatwonderifcaracowzinclowzeglidedawayinto cara clowse in cowze and thus came to confirm the old tradition of theforestForcowzwouldatoncebetakenasthemodernCornishwordforwoodcorrespondingtotheoldCornishcuitwhileclowsemightwithalittleeffortbeidentifiedwith theCornishglosgray theArmoricanglacirczCarew it shouldbeobservedsanctionsbothformstheoriginalonecaracowzinclowzeldquotheoldrockof the tombrdquoand theothercaraclowse in cowzemeaningpossiblyldquothegrayrockinthewoodrdquoThesoundofthetwoissolikethatparticularlytothe

peoplenotveryfamiliarwiththelanguagethesubstitutionofonefortheotherwouldcomeverynaturallyandasareasoncouldmoreeasilybegivenforthelatterthanfortheformernameweneednotbesurprisedifinthefewpassageswhere the name occurs after Carews time the secondary name apparentlyconfirming the monkish legend of the dense forest that once surrounded StMichaelsMountshouldhavebeenselectedinpreferencetotheformerwhichbuttoascholarandanantiquariansoundedvagueandmeaningless

If my object had been to establish any new historical fact or to support anynoveltheoryIshouldnothaveindulgedsofreelyinwhattoacertainextentmaybecalledmereconjectureButmyobjectwasonlytopointouttheuncertaintyofthe evidence which Mr Pengelly has adduced in support of a theory whichwould completely revolutionize our received views as to the early history oflanguageandthemigrationsoftheAryanraceAtfirstsighttheargumentusedby Mr Pengelly seems unanswerable Here is St Michaels Mount whichaccordingtogeologicalevidencemayformerlyhavebeenpart[pg340]of themainlandHere is anoldCornishname forStMichaelsMountwhichmeansldquothegray rock in thewoodrdquoSuchaname itmightwell be argued couldnothavebeengiventotheislandafterithadceasedtobeagrayrockinthewoodtherefore it must have been given previous to the date which geologicalchronologyfixesfortheinsulationofStMichaelsMountThatdatevariesfrom16000to20000yearsagoAndasthenameisCornishitfollowsthatCornish-speakingpeoplemusthavelivedinCornwallatthatearlygeologicalperiod

Nothing as I said could sound more plausible but before we yield to theargumentwemust surely ask Is there no otherway of explaining the namesCaracowzinclowzeandCaraclowseincowzeAndherewefindmdash

(1)ThatthelegendofthedenseforestbywhichtheMountwasbelievedtohavebeensurroundedexistedsofarasweknowbeforetheearliestoccurrenceoftheCornish name and that it owes its origin entirely to a mistake which can beaccountedforbydocumentaryevidenceAlegendtoldofMontStMichelhadbeentransferredipsissimisverbistoStMichaelsMountandthemonksofthatprioryrepeatedthestorywhichtheyfoundintheirchronicletoallwhocametovisit their establishment in Cornwall They told the name among others toWilliamofWorcesterandtopreventanyincredulityonhisparttheygavehimchapter and verse from their chronicle which he carefully jotted down in hisdiary96

[pg341](2)WefindthatwhentheCornishnamefirstoccursitlendsitselfinoneformtoaverynaturalinterpretationwhichdoesnotgivethemeaningofldquoHorerockin thewoddrdquobut shows thenameCaracowz in clowze tohavebeena literalrenderingoftheLatinnameldquoMonsintumbardquooriginallythenameofMontStMichelbutatanearlydateappliedincharterstoStMichaelsMount

(3)WefindthatthesecondformoftheCornishnamenamelycaraclowseincowzemayeitherbeamerelymetamorphiccorruptionofcaracowzinclowzereadilysuggestedandsupportedbythenewmeaningwhichityieldedofldquograyrockinthewoodrdquoorevenifweacceptitasanoriginalnamethatitwouldbenomore thananameframedby theCornish-speakingmonksof theMount inordertoembodythesamespurioustraditionwhichhadgivenrisetothenameofldquoHorerockinthewoddrdquo

Ineedhardlyadd that in thusarguingagainstMrPengellysconclusions Idonot venture to touch his geological arguments StMichaelsMountmay havebeenunitedwiththemainlanditmayforallweknowhavebeensurroundedbyadenseforestanditmaybeperfectlypossiblegeologicallytofixthedatewhenthatforestwasdestroyedandtheMountseveredsofarasitisseveredfromtheCornishcoastAllIprotestagainstisthatanyoneofthesefactscouldbeprovedor even supported by theCornish name of theMountwhether cara cowz inclowze or cara clowse in cowze or by the English name communicated byWilliamofWorcesterldquothe[pg342]Hore rock in thewoddrdquoor finallyby thelegend which gave rise to these names and which as can be proved byirrefragable evidence was transplanted by mistake from the Norman to theCornishcoastTheonlyquestionwhichinconclusionIshouldliketoaddresstogeologists isthisAsgeologistsareobligedtoleaveitdoubtfulwhethertheinsulationofStMichaelsMountwasduetothewashingofthesea-shoreortoageneralsubsidenceofthecountrymayitnothavebeenduetoneitherofthesecausesandmaynottheMounthavealwaysbeenthatkindofhalf-islandwhichitcertainlywastwothousandyearsago

[pg343]

XVIBUNSEN97

OursisnodoubtaforgetfulageEverydaybringsneweventsrushinginuponusfromallpartsoftheworldandthehoursofrealrestwhenwemightponderoverthepastrecallpleasantdaysgazeagainonthefacesofthosewhoarenomore are few indeed Men and women disappear from this busy stage andthough for a time they had been the radiating centres of social political orliterarylifetheirplacesaresoontakenbyothersmdashldquotheplacethereofshallknowthem nomorerdquo Few only appear again after a time claiming oncemore ourattentionthroughthememoirsoftheirlivesandtheneitherflittingawayforeveramongtheshadesofthedepartedorassumingafreshapoweroflifeaplaceinhistoryandaninfluenceonthefutureoftenmorepowerfuleventhanthatwhichtheyexercisedon theworldwhile living in itTocall thegreat andgood thusback from thegrave is no easy task it requires not only thepowerof avatessacer but theheartof a loving friendFew [pg344]men live great and goodlivesstillfewercanwritethemnayoftenwhentheyhavebeenlivedandhavebeen written the world passes by unheeding as crowds will pass without aglance by the portraits of a Titian or aVanDykeNow and then however abiographytakesrootandthenactsasalessonasnootherlessoncanactSuchbiographies have all the importance of anEcceHomo showing to the worldwhatmancanbeandpermanentlyraisingtheidealofhumanlifeItwassoinEnglandwiththelifeofDrArnolditwassomorelatelywiththelifeofPrinceAlbertitwillbethesamewiththelifeofBunsen

ItseemsbutyesterdaythatBunsenleftEnglandyetitwasin1854thathishouseinCarltonTerraceceasedtobetherefreshingoasisinLondonlifewhichmanystill remember and that the powerful thoughtful beautiful loving face of thePrussianAmbassadorwasseenforthelasttimeinLondonsocietyBunsenthenretired from public life and after spending six more years in literary workstruggling with death yet reveling in life he died at Bonn on the 28th ofNovember1860Hiswidowhasdevotedtheyearsofhersolitudetothenoble

workof collecting thematerials for a biographyof her husband andwehavenowintwolargevolumesallthatcouldbecollectedoratleastallthatcouldbeconveniently published of the sayings and doings of Bunsen the scholar thestatesmanandaboveallthephilosopherandtheChristianThroughoutthetwovolumes theoutwardeventsaresketchedbythehandof theBaronessBunsenbutthererunsasbetweenwoodedhillsthemainstreamofBunsensmindtheoutpouringsofhisheartwhichweregivensofreelyandfullyinhisletterstohisfriendsWhensuchmaterialsexist therecanbenomoresatisfactory [pg345]kind of biography than that of introducing the man himself speakingunreservedlytohismostintimatefriendsonthegreateventsofhislifeThisisanautobiographyinfactfreefromalldrawbacksHereandtherethatprocessitistrueentailsagreaterfullnessofdetailthanisacceptabletoordinaryreadershowever highly Bunsens own friends may value every line of his familiarletters But general readersmay easily pass over letters addressed to differentpersonsortreatingofsubjectslessinterestingtothemselveswithoutlosingthethreadofthestoryofthewholelifewhileitissometimesofgreatinteresttoseethe same subject discussed byBunsen in letters addressed to different peopleOneseriousdifficultyintheselettersisthattheyarenearlyalltranslationsfromthe German and in the process of translation some of the original charm isinevitably lostThe translationsarevery faithful and theydonot sacrifice thepeculiar turn of German thought to the requirements of strictly idiomaticEnglishEventhenarrativeitselfbetraysoccasionallytheGermanatmosphereinwhich it waswritten but thewhole book brings back all themore vividly tothosewhoknewBunsen the language and thevery expressionsof hisEnglishconversationThetwovolumesaretoobulkyandonesarmsachewhileholdingthemyetoneislothtoputthemdownandtherewillbefewreaderswhodonotregretthatmorecouldnothavebeentoldusofBunsenslife

Allreallygreatandhonestmenmaybesaidtolivethreelivesthereisonelifewhichisseenandacceptedbytheworldatlargeamansoutwardlifethereisasecond lifewhich is seenbyamansmost intimate friendshishousehold lifeandthereisathirdlifeseenonlybythemanhimselfandbyHim[pg346]whosearcheth the heart which maybe called the inner or heavenly life MostbiographersareandmustbesatisfiedwithgivingthetwoformeraspectsoftheirheroslifemdashtheversionoftheworldandthatofhisfriendsBothareimportantbothcontainsometruth thoughneitherof themthewholetruthButthereisathird lifea life led incommunionwithGoda lifeofaspiration rather thanoffulfillmentmdashthatlifewhichweseeforinstanceinStPaulwhenhesaysldquoThegoodthatIwouldIdonotbuttheevilwhichIwouldnotthatIdordquoIt isbut

seldomthatwecatchaglimpseofthosedeepspringsofhumancharacterwhichcannot rise to the surface even in themost confidential intercourse which inevery-daylifearehiddenfromamansownsightbutwhichbreakforthwhenheisalonewithhisGodinsecretprayermdashayeinprayerswithoutwordsHereliesthecharmofBunsenslifeNotonlydoweseethemanthefatherthehusbandthebrother that standsbehind theambassadorbutwe seebehind themanhisangelbeholding thefaceofhisFatherwhich is inheavenHisprayerspouredforth in the criticalmoments of his life have been preserved to us and theyshowuswhat theworldought toknow that our greatestmen can alsobeourbestmenandthatfreedomofthoughtisnotincompatiblewithsincerereligionThosewhoknewBunsenwellknowhowthatdeepreligiousundercurrentofhissoulwasconstantlybubblingupandbreakingforthinhisconversationsstartlingeventhemereworldlingbyanearnestnessthatfrightenedawayeverysmileItwassaidofhimthathecoulddriveoutdevilsandhecertainlycouldwithhissolemnyetlovingvoicesoftenheartsthatwouldyieldtonootherappealandseewithonelookthroughthatmask[pg347]whichmanwearsbuttooofteninthemasqueradeoftheworldHencehisnumerousandenduringfriendshipsofwhich these volumes contain so many sacred relics Hence that confidencereposedinhimbymenandwomenwhohadoncebeenbroughtincontactwithhimTothosewhocanseewiththeireyesonlyandnotwiththeirheartsitmayseemstrangethatSirRobertPeelshortlybeforehisdeathshouldhaveutteredthenameofBunsenTothosewhoknowthatEnglandoncehadprimeministerswho were found praying on their knees before they delivered their greatestspeechesSirRobertPeels recollectionor itmaybedesireofBunsen in thelastmomentsofhislifehasnothingstrangeBunsenslifewasnoordinarylifeandthememoirsofthatlifearemorethananordinarybookThatbookwilltellinEnglandandinGermanyfarmorethanintheMiddleAgesthelifeofanewsaintnoraretheremanysaintswhosereallifeifsiftedasthelifeofBunsenhasbeenwouldbearcomparisonwiththatnoblecharacterofthenineteenthcentury

Bunsenwasbornin1791atCorbachasmall towninthesmallprincipalityofWaldeck His father was poor but a man of independent spirit of moralrectitude and of deep religious convictions Bunsen the son of his old agedistinguishedhimselfatschoolandwassenttotheUniversityofMarburgattheageofseventeenAllhehadthentodependonwasanexhibitionofaboutpound7ayearandasumofpound15whichhisfatherhadsavedforhimtostarthiminlifeThismayseemasmallsumbutifwewanttoknowhowmuchofpaternalloveand self-denial it represented we ought to read an entry in his fathers diaryldquoAccountofcashreceiptsbyGodsmercy[pg348]obtainedfortranscribinglaw

documentsbetween1793and1814mdashsumtotal3020thalers23groschenrdquothatistosayaboutpound22perannumDidanyEnglishDukeevergivehissonamoregenerousallowancemdashmorethantwo-thirdsofhisownannualincomeBunsenbeganbystudyingdivinityandactuallypreacheda sermonatMarburg in theChurchofStElizabethStudentsindivinityarerequiredinGermanytopreachsermonsaspartoftheirregulartheologicaltrainingandbeforetheyareactuallyordainedMarburgwasnotthenaveryefficientuniversityandnotfindingtherewhathewantedBunsenafterayearwenttoGoumlttingenchieflyattractedbythefame of Heyne He soon devoted himself entirely to classical studies and inorder to support himselfmdashfor pound7 per annumwill not support even aGermanstudentmdashheacceptedtheappointmentofassistantteacherofGreekandHebrewat the Goumlttingen gymnasium and also became private tutor to a youngAmerican Mr Astor the son of the rich American merchant He was thuslearningandteachingatthesametimeandheacquiredbyhisdailyintercoursewithhispupilapracticalknowledgeoftheEnglishlanguageWhileatGoumlttingenhe carried off in 1812 a prize for an essay on ldquoThe Athenian Law ofInheritancerdquo which attracted more than usual attention and may in fact belookeduponasoneofthefirstattemptsatComparativeJurisprudenceIn1713hewritesfromGoumlttingenmdash

ldquoPoor and lonely did I arrive in this placeHeyne receivedme guidedme borewithmeencouragedme showedme inhimself theexampleofahighandnobleenergyandindefatigableactivityinacallingwhichwasnotthattowhichhismeritentitled him he might have superintended and administered and maintained anentirekingdomrdquo

[pg349]The following passage from the same letter deserves to be quoted as comingfromthepenofayoungmanoftwenty-twomdash

ldquoLearningannihilatesitselfandthemostperfectisthefirstsubmergedforthenextagescaleswitheasetheheightwhichcosttheprecedingthefullvigorofliferdquo

AfterleavingtheuniversityBunsentravelledinGermanywithyoungAstorandmadetheacquaintanceofFredericSchlegelatViennaofJacobiSchellingandThiersch at Munich He was all that time continuing his own philologicalstudies and we see him at Munich attending lectures on Criminal Law andmakinghisfirstbeginninginthestudyofPersianWhenonthepointofstarting

for Paris with his American pupil the news of the glorious battle of Leipzig(October 1813) disturbed their plans and he resolved to settle again atGoumlttingentillpeaceshouldhavebeenconcludedHerewhilesuperintendingthestudiesofMrAstor heplunged into readingof themostvaried characterHewrites(p51)mdash

ldquoIremainfirmandstriveaftermyearliestpurposeinlifemorefeltperhapsthanalready discernedmdashnamely to bring over into my own knowledge and into myownFatherlandthelanguageandthespiritofthesolemnanddistantEastIwouldfortheaccomplishmentofthisobjectevenquitEuropeinordertodrawoutoftheancientwellthatwhichIfindnotelsewhererdquo

This is the first indication of an important element in Bunsens early life hislonging for theEast and his all but prophetic anticipation of the great resultswhichastudyoftheancientlanguageofIndiawouldonedayyieldandthelightitwould shedon thedarkestpages in the ancienthistoryofGreece Italy andGermany The study of the Athenian law of inheritance seems first to havedrawnhis attention to the ancient codesof Indian law andhewasdeeply [pg350]impressedbythediscoverythatthepeculiarsystemofinheritancewhichinGreeceexistedonly in thepetrified formofaprimitivecustom sanctionedbylawdisclosedinthelawsofManuitsoriginalpurportandnaturalmeaningThisonesparkexcitedinBunsensmindthatconstantyearningafteraknowledgeofEasternandmoreparticularlyofIndianliteraturewhichverynearlydrovehimtoIndiainthesameadventurousspiritasAnquetilDuperronandCzomadeKoumlroumlsWearenowfamiliarwiththegreatresultsthathavebeenobtainedbyastudyofthe ancient languages and religion of the East but in 1813 neither Bopp norGrimmhadbeguntopublishandFredericSchlegelwastheonlyonewhoinhislittlepamphletldquoOntheLanguageandtheWisdomoftheIndiansrdquo(1808)hadventuredtoassertarealintellectualrelationshipbetweenEuropeandIndiaOneof Bunsens earliest friends Wolrad Schumacher related that even at schoolBunsensmindwasturnedtowardsIndialdquoSometimeshewouldletfallawordaboutIndiawhichwasunaccountabletomeasat that timeIconnectedonlyageographicalconceptionwiththatnamerdquo(p17)

While thusengaged inhis studiesatGoumlttingenandworking incompanywithsuchfriendsasBrandisthehistorianofGreekphilosophyLachmanntheeditorof the New Testament Luumlcke the theologian Ernst Schulze the poet andothersmdashBunsen felt the influence of the great events that brought about theregenerationofGermanynorwashethemantostandaloofabsorbedinliterary

workwhileotherswerebusydoingmischiefdifficulttoremedyTheprincesofGermany and their friends though grateful to the people for having at lastshakenoffwithfearfulsacrifices [pg351] theforeignyokeofNapoleonweremostanxioustomaintainfortheirownbenefitthatconvenientsystemofpolicegovernment which for so long had kept the whole of Germany under FrenchcontrolldquoItisbuttoocertainrdquoBunsenwritesldquothateitherforwantofgood-willorofintelligenceoursovereignswillnotgrantusfreedomsuchaswedeserveAndIfearthatasbeforethemuch-enduringGermanwillbecomeanobjectofcontempttoallnationswhoknowhowtovaluenationalspiritrdquoHisfirstpoliticalessays belong to that periodUp toAugust 1814Bunsen continued to act asprivate tutor to Mr Astor though we see him at the same time with hisinsatiable thirst after knowledge attending courses of lectures on astronomymineralogyandothersubjectsapparentlysoforeign to themaincurrentofhismindWhenMrAstorlefthimtoreturntoAmericaBunsenwenttoHollandtoseeasistertowhomhewasdeeplyattachedandwhoseemstohavesharedwithhim the same religious convictions which in youth manhood and old ageformed the foundation of Bunsens life Some of Bunsens detractors haveaccusedhimofprofessingChristianpietyincircleswheresuchprofessionsweresuretobewellreceivedLetthemreadnowtheannalsofhisearlylifeandtheywill find to their shame how boldly the same Bunsen professed his religiousconvictionsamongthestudentsandprofessorsofGoumlttingenwhoeitherscoffedatChristianityor only tolerated it as a kindof harmless superstitionWe shallonlyquoteoneinstancemdash

ldquoBunsen when a young student at Goumlttingen once suddenly quitted a lecture inindignationattheunworthymannerinwhichthemostsacredsubjectsweretreatedbyoneoftheprofessorsTheprofessorpausedattheinterruptionandhazardedtheremark that lsquosome one belonging to theOld Testament [pg352] had possiblyslipped in unrecognizedrsquo That called forth a burst of laughter from the entireaudience all being as well aware as the lecturer himself who it was that hadmortifiedhimrdquo

DuringhisstayinHollandBunsennotonlystudiedthelanguageandliteratureofthatcountrybuthismindwasalsomuchoccupiedinobservingthenationalandreligiouscharacterofthissmallbutinterestingbranchoftheTeutonicraceHewritesmdash

ldquoInallthingstheGermanorifyouwilltheTeutoniccharacterisworkedoutintoforminamannermoredecidedlynational thananywhereelseThisjourneyhas

yetmore confirmedmy decision to become acquaintedwith the entireGermanicrace and then to proceed with the development of my governing ideas (ie thestudyofEasternlanguagesinelucidationofWesternthought)ForthispurposeIamabout to travel with Brandis to Copenhagen to learn Danish and above allIcelandicrdquo

AndsohedidTheyoungstudentasyetwithoutanyprospectsinlifethrewuphispositionatGoumlttingendeclinedtowastehisenergiesasaschoolmasterandstartedwe hardly know how on his journey toDenmark There in companywithBrandishelivedandworkedhardatDanishandthenattackedthestudyofthe ancient Icelandic language and literaturewith a fervor andwith a purposethatshrankfromnodifficultyHewrites(p79)mdash

ldquoThe object of my research requires the acquisition of the whole treasures oflanguage inorder to completemy favorite linguistic theories and to inquire intothepoetryandreligiousconceptionsofGerman-ScandinavianheathenismandtheirhistoricalconnectionwiththeEastrdquo

WhenhisworkinDenmarkwasfinishedandwhenhehadcollectedmaterialssomeofwhichashiscopy takenof theldquoVoumlluspardquoapoemof theEddawerenotpublishedtillfortyyearslaterhestartedwithBrandisforBerlinldquoPrussiardquohewritesonthe[pg353]10thofOctober1815ldquoisthetrueGermanyrdquoThitherhe felt drawn aswell asBrandis and thitherhe invitedhis friends though itmustbeconfessedwithoutsuggestingto themanysettledplanofhowtoearntheirdailybreadHewritesasifhewaseventhenattheheadofaffairsinBerlinthoughhewasonlythefriendofafriendofNiebuhrsNiebuhrhimselfbeingbynomeansallpowerfulinPrussiaevenin1815ThishopefulnesswasatraitinBunsenscharacterthatremainedthroughlifeAplanwasnosoonersuggestedtohim and approved by him than he took it for granted that all obstacles mustvanishandmanyatimedidallobstaclesvanishbeforethejoyousconfidenceofthatmagicianafactthatshouldberememberedbythosewhousedtoblamehimassanguineandvisionaryOneofhisfriendsLuumlckewritestoErnstSchulzethepoetwhomBunsenhadinvitedtoDenmarkandafterwardstoBerlinmdash

ldquoIntheinclosedrichlyfilledletteryouwillrecognizeBunsenspowerandsplendorof mind and you will also not fail to perceive his thoughtlessness in makingprojectsHeandBrandisareapairofmostamiablespeculators fullofaffectionbutonemustmeetthemwiththenequidnimisrdquo

HoweverBunseninhisflightwasnottobescaredbyanywarningorcheckedbycalculatingthechancesofsuccessorfailureWithBrandishewenttoBerlinspentthegloriouswinterfrom1815to1816inthesocietyofmenlikeNiebuhrandSchleiermacherandbecamemoreandmoredeterminedinhisownplanoflifewhichwas to studyOriental languages inParisLondonorCalcutta andthentosettleatBerlinasProfessorofUniversalHistoryAfullstatementofhisliterarylaborsbothforthepastandforthefuturewasdrawnupbyhimtobesubmitted toNiebuhr [pg 354] and it will be read even nowwith interest bythosewhoknewBunsenwhenhe tried to takeupafter fortyyears the threadsthathadslippedfromhishandattheageoffour-and-twenty

InsteadofbeingsenttostudyatParisandLondonbythePrussiangovernmentasheseemstohavewishedhewassuddenlycalledtoParisbyhisoldpupilMrAstorwhoaftertwoyearsabsencehadreturnedtoEuropeandwasanxioustorenewhisrelationswithBunsenBunsensobjectinacceptingAstorsinvitationto Paris was to study Persian and great was his disappointment when onarrivingthereMrAstorwishedhimatoncetostartforItalyThiswastoomuchfor Bunsen to be turned back just as he was going to quench his thirst forOriental literature in the lectures of Sylvestre de Sacy A compromise waseffectedBunsenremainedforthreemonthsinParisandpromisedthentojoinhis friendandpupil in ItalyHowheworkedatPersianandArabicduring theintervalmustbereadinhisownlettersmdash

ldquoIwritefromsixinthemorningtillfourintheafternoononlyinthecourseofthattimehavingawalkinthegardenoftheLuxembourgwhereIalsooftenstudyfromfour to six I dine andwalk from six to seven sleep from seven to elevenworkagainIhaveovertakeninstudysomeoftheFrenchstudentswhohadbegunayearagoGodbethankedforthishelpBeforeIgotobedIreadachapterintheNewTestamentinthemorningonrisingoneintheOldTestamentyesterdayIbeganthePsalmsfromthefirstrdquo

AssoonashefeltthathecouldcontinuehisstudyofPersianwithouttheaidofamaster he left Paris Though immersed in work he had made severalacquaintancesamongothersthatofAlexandervonHumboldtldquowhointendsinafewyearstovisitAsiawhereImayhopetomeethimHehasbeenbeyond[pg355]measurekindtomeandfromhimIshallreceivethebestrecommendationsfor Italy and England as well as from his brother now PrussianMinister inLondon Lastly the winter in Rome may become to me by the presence ofNiebuhr more instructive and fruitful than in any other place Thus has God

ordainedallthingsformeforthebestaccordingtoHiswillnotmineandfarbetterthanIdeserverdquo

Thesewerethefeelingswithwhichtheyoungscholarthentwenty-fouryearsofage started for Italy as yet without any position without having published asingleworkwithoutknowingaswemaysupposewheretoresthisheadAndyethewasfullnotonlyofhopebutofgratitudeandhelittledreamtthatbeforesevenyearshadpassedhewouldbeinNiebuhrsplaceandbeforetwenty-fiveyears had passed in the place of William von Humboldt the PrussianAmbassadorattheCourtofStJames

TheimmediatefutureinfacthadsomeseveredisappointmentsinstoreforhimWhen he arrived at Florence to meet Mr Astor the young American hadreceivedperemptoryorders to return toNewYork and asBunsendeclined tofollow him he found himself really stranded at Florence and all his plansthoroughlyupsetYetthoughatthatverytimefullofcareandanxietyabouthisnearest relationswholookedtohimforsupportwhenhecouldhardlysupporthimself hisGod-trusting spirit did not break downHe remained at Florencecontinuing his Persian studies and making a living by private tuition AMrCathcartseemstohavebeenhisfavoritepupilandthroughhimnewprospectsofeventuallyproceedingtoIndiaseemedtoopenButatthesametimeBunsenbegantofeelthatthecircumstancesofhis[pg356]lifebecamecriticalldquoIfeelrdquohesaysldquothatIamonthepointofsecuringorlosingthefruitofmylaborsforliferdquo Rome andNiebuhr seemed the only haven in sight and thither BunsennowbegantosteerhisfrailbarkHearrivedinRomeonthe14thofNovember1816Niebuhrwhowas PrussianMinister received himwith great kindnessand entered heartily into the literary plans of his young friend BrandisNiebuhrssecretaryrenewedincommonwithhisoldfriendhisstudyofGreekphilosophy A native teacher of Arabic was engaged to help Bunsen in hisOriental studies The necessary supplies seem to have come partly fromMrAstor partly from private lessons for which Bunsen had tomake time in themidst of his varied occupations Plato Firdusi the Koran Dante Isaiah theEddaarementionedbyhimselfashisdailystudy

From an English point of view that young man at Rome without a statuswithout a settled prospect in life would have seemed an amiable dreamerdestinedtowakesuddenlyandnotverypleasantlytothesternrealitiesoflifeIfanythingseemedunlikelyitwasthatanEnglishgentlemanamanofgoodbirthandofindependentfortuneshouldgivehisdaughtertothispooryoungGerman

atRomeYetthiswastheverythingwhichakindProvidencethatProvidenceinwhich Bunsen trusted amid all his troubles and difficulties brought to passBunsen became acquainted with Mr Waddington and was allowed to readGermanwithhisdaughtersInthemosthonorablemannerhebrokeoffhisvisitswhen he became aware of his feelings forMissWaddingtonHewrites to hissistermdash

ldquoHaving at firstbelievedmyselfquite safe (themore soas[pg357] I cannotthinkofmarryingwithoutimpairingmywholeschemeofmentaldevelopmentandleastofallcouldIthinkofpretendingtoagirloffortune)Ithoughttherewasnodangerrdquo

Alittle laterhewrites toMrsWaddington toexplain toher the reason forhisdiscontinuinghisvisitsButthemothermdashandtojudgefromherlettersahigh-mindedmothershemusthavebeenmdashacceptedBunsenontrusthewasallowedtoreturntothehouseandonthe1stofJuly1817theyoungGermanstudentthentwenty-fiveyearsofagewasmarriedatRometoMissWaddingtonWhatatrulyimportanteventthiswasforBunseneventhosewhohadnottheprivilegeofknowing thepartnerofhis lifemay learn from theworkbeforeusThoughlittleissaidinthesememoirsofhiswifethemotherofhischildrenthepartnerof his joys and sorrows it is easy to see how Bunsens whole mode of lifebecamepossible only by the unceasingdevotionof an ardent soul and a clearheadconsecratedtooneobjectmdashtoloveandtocherishforbetterforworseforricherforpoorerinsicknessandinhealthtilldeathusdopartmdashayeandevenafterdeathWith suchawife the soulofBunsencould soaron itswings thesmallcaresoflifewereremovedanindependencewassecuredandthoughtheIndian plans had to be surrendered the highest ambition of Bunsens life aprofessorship in a German university seemed now easy of attainment Weshould have liked a few more pages describing the joyous life of the youngcoupleintheheydayoftheirlifewecouldhavewishedthathehadnotdeclinedthewishofhismother-in-lawtohavehisbustmadebyThorwaldsenatatimewhenhemusthavebeenamodelofmanlybeautyButifweknowlessthanwecouldwishofwhatBunsenthenwasinthe[pg358]eyesof theworldweareallowed an insight into that heavenly life which underlay all the outwardhappiness of that time andwhich showshim to us as but one eye could thenhaveseenhimAfewweeksafterhismarriagehewritesinhisjournalmdash

ldquoEternalomnipresentGodenlightenmewiththyHolySpiritandfillmewiththy

heavenly lightWhat in childhood I felt and yearned after what throughout theyearsofyouthgrewclearerandclearerbeforemysoulIwillnowventuretoholdfast toexamine torepresent therevelationofTheeinmansenergiesandeffortsthyfirmpaththroughthestreamofagesIlongtotraceandrecognizeasfarasmaybepermittedtomeeveninthisbodyofearthThesongofpraisetoTheefromthewholeofhumanityintimesfarandnearmdashthepainsandlamentationsofmenandtheirconsolationsinTheemdashIwishtotakeinclearandunhinderedDoThousendmethySpiritofTruththatImaybeholdthingsearthlyastheyarewithoutveilandwithoutmaskwithouthumantrappingsandemptyadornmentandthatinthesilentpeaceoftruthImayfeelandrecognizeTheeLetmenotfalternorslideawayfromthegreatendofknowingTheeLetnotthejoysorhonorsorvanitiesoftheworldenfeebleanddarkenmyspirit letmeeverfeel thatIcanonlyperceiveandknowTheeinsofarasmineisa livingsoulandlivesandmovesandhas itsbeinginTheerdquo

Herewe seeBunsen as theworld did not see him andwemay observe howthenaseverhisliteraryworkwastohimhallowedbytheobjectsforwhichitwasintendedldquoThefirmpathofGodthroughthestreamofagesrdquoisbutanothertitle for one of his last works ldquoGod in Historyrdquo planned with such youthfulardorandfinishedunderthelengtheningshadowofdeath

The happiness of Bunsens life at Rome may easily be imagined Thoughanxious tobeginhisworkataGermanuniversityhestipulatedfor threemoreyears of freedom and preparationWho could have made the sacrifice of thebrightspringoflifeoftheunclouded[pg359]daysofhappinessatRomewithwifeandchildrenandwithsuchfriendsasNiebuhrandBrandisYetthisstayatRomewasfraughtwithfatalconsequencesItledthestraightcurrentofBunsenslifewhichlaysoclearbeforehimintoanewbedatfirstverytemptingforatime smooth and sunny but alas ending in waste of energy for which nooutward splendor could atone The first false step seemed very natural andharmless When Brandis went to Germany to begin his professorial workBunsentookhisplaceasNiebuhrssecretaryatRomeHewasdeterminedthenthatnothingshouldinducehimtoremaininthediplomaticcareer(p130)butthecurrentofthatmill-streamwastoostrongevenforBunsenHowheremainedasSecretaryofLegation1818howtheKingofPrussiaFrederickWilliamIIIcametovisitRomeandtookafancytotheyoungdiplomatistwhocouldspeaktohimwithamodestyandfranknesslittleknownatcourtshowwhenNiebuhrexchanged his embassy for a professorial chair at Bonn Bunsen remained asChargeacutedAffaireshowhewenttoBerlin1827-28andgainedtheheartsoftheoldKingandofeverybodyelsehowhereturnedtoRomeandwasfascinatedbytheyoungCrownPrinceofPrussiaafterwardsFrederickWilliamIVwhomhehadtoconductthroughtheantiquitiesandthemodernlifeoftheworldcityhow

hebecamePrussianMinisterthefriendofpopesandcardinalsthecentreofthebestandmostbrilliantsocietyhowwhenthedifficultiesbeganbetweenPrussiaandthePapalgovernmentchieflywithregardtomixedmarriagesBunsentriedtomediateandwasatlastdisownedbybothpartiesin1838mdashallthismaynowbereadintheopenmemoirsofhislifeHislettersduringthesetwentyyearsare[pg360]numerousandfullparticularly thoseaddressed tohissister towhomhewasdeeplyattachedTheyarethemosttouchingandelevatingrecordofalifespent in importantofficialbusiness in interestingsocial intercourse in literaryand antiquarian researches in the enjoyment of art and nature and in theblessedness of a prosperous family life and throughout in an unbrokencommunion with God There is hardly a letter without an expression of thatreligionincommonlifethatconstantconsciousnessofaDivinePresencewhichmadehislifealifeinGodTomanyreadersthisfreeoutpouringofaGod-lovingsoulwillseemtoapproachtooneartothatabuseofreligiousphraseologywhichisasignofsuperficialratherthanofdeep-seatedpietyButthoughthroughlifeaswornenemyofeverykindofcantBunsenneverwouldsurrendertheprivilegeof speaking the language of a Christian because that language had beenprofanedbythethoughtlessrepetitionofshallowpietists

BunsenhasfrequentlybeenaccusedofpietismparticularlyinGermanybymenwhocouldnotdistinguishbetweenpietismandpietyjustasinEnglandhewasattackedasafreethinkerbymenwhoneverknewthefreedomofthechildrenofGod ldquoChristianity is ours not theirsrdquo he would frequently say of those whomade religionamereprofessionand imagined theyknewChristbecause theyheldacrosierandworeamitreWecannowwatchthedeepemotionsandfirmconvictionsofthattrue-heartedmaninlettersofundoubtedsincerityaddressedto his sister and his friends andwe can onlywonderwithwhat feelings theyhavebeenperusedbythosewhoinEnglandquestionedhisChristianityorwhoinGermanysuspectedhishonesty

[pg361]From the timeofhis firstmeetingwith theKingofPrussiaatRomeand stillmore after his stay at Berlin in 1827 Bunsens chief interest with regard toPrussiacentred inecclesiasticalmattersTheKingaftereffecting theunionofthe Lutheran and Calvinistic branches of the Protestant Church was deeplyinterestedindrawingupanewLiturgyforhisownnationalorasitwascalledEvangelicalChurchTheintroductionofhisLiturgyorAgendaparticularlyasitwas carried out like everything else in Prussia by royal decree met withconsiderableresistanceBunsenwhohadbeenledindependentlytothestudyof

ancient liturgies and who had devoted much of his time at Rome to thecollectionofancienthymnsandhymntunescouldspeak to theKingon thesefavorite topics from the fullness of his heart TheKing listened to him evenwhenBunsenventuredtoexpresshisdissentfromsomeoftheroyalproposalsandwhenhe theyoungattacheacutedeprecatedanyauthoritative interferencewiththefreedomoftheChurchInPrussiathewholemovementwasunpopularandBunsen though heworked hard to render it less sowas held responsible formuchwhichhehimselfhaddisapprovedOfalltheseturbulenttransactionsthereremainsbutonebrightandpreciousrelicBunsensldquoHymnandPrayerBookrdquo

The Prussian Legation on the Capitol was during Bunsens day not only themeeting-place of all distinguishedGermans but in the absence of anEnglishembassyitalsobecametherecognizedcentreofthemostinterestingportionofEnglishsocietyatRomeAmongtheGermanswhosepresencetoldonBunsenslife either by a continued friendshipor by common interests andpursuitswemeetthenamesofLudwig[pg362]KingofBavariaBaronvonSteinthegreatPrussian statesman Radowitz the less fortunate predecessor of BismarckSchnorr Overbeck and Mendelssohn Among Englishmen whose friendshipwithBunsendatesfromtheCapitolwefindThirlwallPhilipPuseyArnoldandJulius Hare The names of Thorwaldsen too of Leopardi Lord HastingsChampollion Sir Walter Scott Chateaubriand occur again and again in thememoirsofthatRomanlifewhichteemswithinterestingeventsandanecdotesThe only literary productions of that eventful period are Bunsens part inPlatnersldquoDescriptionofRomerdquoand theldquoHymnandPrayerBookrdquoButmuchmaterialforlaterpublicationshadbeenamassedinthemeantimeThestudyofthe Old Testament had been prosecuted at all times and in 1824 the firstbeginning was made by Bunsen in the study of hieroglyphics afterwardscontinued with Champollion and later with Lepsius The ArchaeligologicalInstituteandtheGermanHospitalbothontheCapitolwerethetwopermanentbequeststhatBunsenleftbehindwhenheshookoffthedustofhisfeetandleftRomeonthe29thofApril1838insearchofanewCapitol

AtBerlinBunsenwasthenindisgraceHehadnotactuallybeendismissedtheservicebuthewasprohibitedfromgoingtoBerlintojustifyhimselfandhewasordered to proceed to England on leave of absence To England thereforeBunsennowdirectedhisstepswithhiswifeandchildrenandthereatleasthewascertainofawarmwelcomebothfromhiswifesrelationsandfromhisownvery numerous friends When we read through the letters of that period wehardlymissthenameofasinglemanillustriousatthattimeinEnglandAsifto

makeupfortheinjustice[pg363]donetohiminItalyandfortheingratitudeofhiscountrypeopleofallclassesandof themostoppositeviewsvied indoinghimhonorResthecertainlyfoundnonewhiletravellingaboutfromonetowntoanotherandstayingatfriendshousesattendingmeetingsmakingspeecheswritingarticlesandasusualamassingnewinformationwhereverhecouldfinditHeworkedatEgyptianwithLepsiusatWelshwhilestayingwithLadyHallatEthnologywithDrPrichardHehadtodrawuptwostatepapersmdashoneonthePapalaggressiontheotheronthelawofdivorceHeplungedofcourseatonceinto all the ecclesiastical and theological questions that were then agitatingpeoples minds in England and devoted his few really quiet hours to thepreparation of his own ldquoLife of ChristrdquoWith Lord Ashley he attended BiblemeetingswithMrsFryheexploredtheprisonswithPhilipPuseyheattendedagriculturalassembliesandhespentnightafternightasanadmiringlistenerinthe House of Commons He was presented to the Queen and the Duke ofWellington was made a DCL at Oxford discussed the future with J HNewmanthepastwithBucklandSedgwickandWhewellLordPalmerstonandLord John Russell invited him to political conferences Maurice and KeblelistenedtohisferventaddressesDrArnoldconsultedthefriendofNiebuhronhisownldquoHistoryofRomerdquo and tried to convert him tomore liberal opinionswith regard to Church reform Dr Holland Mrs Austin Ruskin CarlyleMacaulayGaisfordDrHawkinsandmanymoreallgreetedhimalltriedtodohimhonorandmanyofthembecameattachedtohimforlifeThearchitecturalmonumentsofEnglanditscastlesparksandruinspassedquicklythroughhisfieldofvision[pg364]duringthatshortstayButhesooncallsoutldquoIcarenotnowforalltheruinsofEnglanditisherlifethatIlikerdquo

Most touching is his admiration his real loveofGladstoneThirty years havesince passed and theworld at large has found out by this timewhatEnglandpossessesinhimButitwasnotsoin1838andfewmenatthatearlytimecouldhavereadGladstonesheartandmindsotrulyasBunsenHereareafewofhisremarksmdash

ldquoLastnightwhenIcamehomefromtheDukeGladstonesbookwasonmytablethesecondeditionhavingcomeoutat sevenoclock It is thebookof the timeagreat eventmdashthe first book since Burke that goes to the bottom of the vitalquestion far above his party and his time I sat up till after midnight and thismorning Icontinueduntil Ihad read thewholeandalmosteverysheetbearsmymarginal glosses destined for the Prince towhom I have sent the bookwith alldispatchGladstoneisthefirstmaninEnglandastointellectualpowersandhehasheardhighertonesthananyoneelseinthisislandrdquo

Andagain(p493)mdash

ldquoGladstoneisbyfarthefirst livingintellectualpoweronthatsideHehaslefthisschoolmasters far behind him but wemust not wonder if he still walks in theirtrammelshisgeniuswillsoonfreeitselfentirelyandfly towardsheavenwithitsown wings I wonder Gladstone should not have the feeling of moving on aninclinedplaneorthatofsittingdownamongruinsasifheweresettledinawell-storedhouserdquo

OfNewmanwhomhehadmetatOxfordBunsensaysmdash

ldquoThismorningIhavehad twohoursatbreakfastwithNewmanO it issadmdashheandhisfriendsaretrulyintellectualpeoplebuttheyhavelosttheirgroundgoingexactlymywaybutstoppingshort inthemiddleIt is toolateTherehasbeenanamicablechangeof ideasandaChristianunderstandingYesterdayhepreachedabeautifulsermonAnewperiodoflifebeginsformemayGodsblessingbeuponitrdquo

[pg365]OxfordmadeadeepimpressiononBunsensmindHewritesmdash

ldquoIam luxuriating in thedelightsofOxfordTherehasneverbeenenoughsaidofthisqueenofallcitiesrdquo

ButwhatasaGermanheadmiredandenviedmostwasafteralltheHouseofCommonsmdash

ldquoIwish you could form an idea ofwhat I felt I saw for the first timeman themember of a trueGermanicState in his highest his proper place defending thehighest interests of humanity with the wonderful power of speech-wrestling butwiththearmofthespiritboldlygraspingatortenaciouslyholdingfastpowerinthe presence of his fellow-citizens submitting to the public conscience thejudgmentofhiscauseandofhisownuprightnessIsawbeforemetheempireoftheworldgovernedandtherestoftheworldcontrolledandjudgedbythisassemblyIhadthefeelingthathadIbeenborninEnglandIwouldratherbedeadthannotsitamongandspeakamongthemIthoughtofmyowncountryandwasthankfulthatIcouldthankGodforbeingaGermanandbeingmyselfButIfeltalsothatweareallchildrenonthisfieldincomparisonwiththeEnglishhowmuchtheywiththeirdisciplineofmindbodyandheartcaneffectevenwithbutmoderategeniusandevenwith talentalone Idrank ineveryword from the lipsof the speakers eventhoseIdislikedrdquo

MorethanayearwasthusspentinEnglandintheveryfullnessoflifeldquoMystayinEngland in1838-39rdquohewritesata later time the22dofSeptember1841ldquowas thepoetryofmyexistenceasaman this is theproseof itTherewasadewuponthosefifteenmonthswhichthesunhasdriedupandwhichnothingcanrestorerdquoYeteventhenBunsencouldnothavebeenfreefromanxietiesforthefutureHehadalargefamilygrowingupandhewasnowagainattheageof forty-sevenwithout anydefinite prospects in life In spite however of theintriguesofhisenemiesthepersonalfeelingsoftheKingandtheCrownPrinceprevailed at last and he was appointed [pg 366] in July 1839 as PrussianMinister in Switzerland his secret and confidential instructions being ldquoto donothingrdquo These instructions were carefully observed by Bunsen as far aspoliticswereconcernedHepassed twoyearsof restat theHubelnearBernewith his family devoted to his books receiving visits from his friends andwatchingfromadistancethecomingeventsinPrussia

In1840theoldKingdiedanditwasgenerallyexpectedthatBunsenwouldatoncereceiveaninfluentialpositionatBerlinNottillApril1841howeverwashesummonedtothecourtalthoughtojudgefromthecorrespondencebetweenhimand the newKingFrederickWilliam IV fewmen could have enjoyed alargershareofroyalconfidenceandlovethanBunsenTheKingwashungeringandthirstingafterBunsenyetBunsenwasnotinvitedtoBerlinThefactisthatthe young King had many friends and those friends were not the friends ofBunsenTheyweresatisfiedwithhishonoraryexileinSwitzerlandandthoughthim best employed at a distance in doing nothing The King too who knewBunsens character from former years must have known that Berlin was notlarge enough for him andhe therefore left him inhisSwiss retirement till anemploymentworthyofhimcouldbefoundThiswastogoonaspecialmissiontoEnglandwithaviewofestablishingincommonwiththeChurchofEnglanda Protestant bishopric at Jerusalem In Jerusalem theKing hoped that the twoprincipal Protestant churches of Europe would across the grave of theRedeemerreachtoeachothertherighthandoffellowshipBunsenenteredintothis planwith all the energy of hismind and heart Itwas awork thoroughlycongenial[pg367]tohimselfandifitrequireddiplomaticskillcertainlynoonecouldhaveachieveditmoreexpeditiouslyandsuccessfullythanBunsenHewasthenapersonagratawithbishopsandarchbishopsandLordAshleymdashnotyetLordShaftesburymdashgavehimall thesupporthispartycouldcommandEnglishinfluence was then so powerful at Constantinople that all difficulties due toTurkishbigotrywerequicklyremovedAt theendofJune1841hearrivedinLondon on the 6th of August he wrote ldquoAll is settledrdquo and on the 7th ofNovember thenewBishopof Jerusalemwas consecratedSeldomwas amoreimportantandmorecomplicated transactionsettled insoshorta timeHad thediscussions been prolonged had time been given to the leaders of theRomanizingparty to recover from their surprise thebill thathad tobepassedthroughbothhouseswouldcertainlyhavebeendefeatedPeoplehavehardlyyetunderstood therealbearingof thatmeasurenorappreciated thegermwhich itmaystillcontainforthefutureoftheReformedChurchOnemanonlyseemstohaveseenclearlywhatablowthisfirstattemptataunionbetweentheProtestantchurchesofEnglandandGermanywastohisownplansandtotheplansofhisfriends andwe know now fromNewmans ldquoApologiardquo that the bishopric ofJerusalemdrovehimtotheChurchofRomeThismayhavebeenforthetimeagreatlosstotheChurchofEnglanditmarkedatalleventsagreatcrisisinherhistory

In spite however of his great and unexpected success there are traces of

weariness inBunsens lettersof that timewhichshowthathewas longing formorecongenialworkldquoOhowIhateanddetestdiplomaticliferdquohewrotetohiswifeldquoandhow[pg368]littletrueintellectualityisthereinthehighsocietyhereassoonasyouceasetospeakofEnglishnationalsubjectsandinterestsandtheeternal hurricanes whirling urging rushing in thismonster of a town Evenwith you and the children lifewould become oppressive under the diplomaticburden I can pray for our country life but I cannot pray for a London lifealthoughIdarenotprayagainstitifitmustberdquo

BunsensobservationsofcharacteramidstthedistractionsofhisLondonseasonareveryinterestingandstrikingparticularlyatthisdistanceoftimeHewritesmdash

ldquoMr Gladstone has been invited to become one of the trustees of the JerusalemFundHeisbesetwithscrupleshisheartiswithusbuthismindisentangledinanarrow system He awaits salvation from another code and by wholly differentwaysfrommyselfYesterdaymorningIhadaletterfromhimoftwenty-fourpagestowhichIrepliedearlythismorningbyeight

ldquoTheBishopofLondonconstantlyrisesinmyestimationHehasrepliedadmirablytoMrGladstoneclosingwiththewordslsquoMydearsirmyintentionisnottolimitandrestricttheChurchofChristbuttoenlargeitrsquothinsprdquo

AletterfromSirRobertPeeltoomustherebequotedinfullmdash

ldquoWHITEHALLOctober101841

ldquoMYDEARMRBUNSENmdashMynotemerely conveyeda request thatyouwouldbegoodenoughtomeetMrCorneliusatdinneronFridaylast

ldquoIassureyouthatIhavebeenamplyrepaidforanyattentionImayhaveshowntothatdistinguishedartistinthepersonalsatisfactionIhavehadintheopportunityofmakinghisacquaintanceHeisoneofanoblepeopledistinguishedineveryartofwarandpeaceTheunionandpatriotismofthatpeoplespreadover thecentreofEuropewillcontributethesurestguaranteeforthepeaceoftheworldandthemostpowerfulcheckuponthespreadofallperniciousdoctrinesinjurious[pg369]tothecauseofreligionandorderandthatlibertywhichrespectstherightsofothers

ldquoMyearnesthopeisthateverymemberofthisillustriousracewhilehemaycherishthe particular country of his birth as he does his homewill extend his devotion

beyond its narrow limits and exult in the name of aGerman and recognize theclaimofGermanytotheloveandaffectionandpatrioticexertionsofallhersons

ldquoIhope I judge the feelingsofeveryGermanby thosewhichwereexcited inmyown breast (in the breast of a foreigner and a stranger) by a simple ballad thatseemedhowevertoconcentratethewillofamightypeopleandsaidemphaticallymdash

ldquoTheyshallnothavetheRhinerdquo

ldquoTheywillnothaveitandtheRhinewillbeprotectedbyasongifthesentimentswhichthatsongembodiespervadeasIhopeandtrusttheydoeveryGermanheart

ldquoYouwillbegin to think that I amagoodGermanmyself andso Iam ifheartywishesfortheunionandwelfareoftheGermanracecanconstituteone

ldquoBelievememostfaithfullyyours

ldquoROBERTPEELrdquo

WhenBunsenwasonthepointofleavingLondonhereceivedtheunexpectedand unsolicited appointment of Prussian Envoy in England an appointmentwhich he could not bring himself to decline and which again postponed fortwelveyearshischerishedplansofanotiumcumdignitateWhat theworldatlargewouldhavecalledthemostfortunateeventinBunsenslifeprovedindeeda realmisfortune It deprivedBunsen of the last chance of fully realizing theliterary plans of his youth and it deprived the world of services that no onecould have rendered so well in the cause of freedom of thought of practicalreligion and in teaching the weighty lessons of antiquity to the youth of thefuture Itmade himwaste his precious hours inwork that anyPrussian baroncouldhavedoneaswellifnotbetteranddidnotsethimfree[pg370]untilhisbodilystrengthwasunderminedandthejoyfultemperofhismindsaddenedbysadexperiences

Nothing could have been more brilliant than the beginning of BunsensdiplomaticcareerinEnglandFirstcamethevisitoftheKingofPrussiawhomtheQueen had invited to be godfather to the Prince ofWales Soon after thePrinceofPrussiacametoEnglandundertheguidanceofBunsenThenfollowed

thereturnvisitoftheQueenatStolzenfelsontheRhineAllthisnodoubttookupmuchofBunsens timebut itgavehimalso thepleasantest introduction tothehighestsocietyofEnglandforasBaronessBunsenshrewdlyremarksldquothereis nothing like standing within the Bude-light of royalty to make oneconspicuous and sharpen perceptions and recollectionsrdquo (II p 8) Bunsencomplained no doubt now and then about excessive official work yet heseemedonthewholereconciledtohispositionanduptotheyear1847wehearof no attempts to escape from diplomatic bondage In a letter toMrs Fry hesaysmdash

ldquoI can assure you I never passed a more quiet and truly satisfactory evening inLondon than the last in theQueenshouse in themidstof the excitementof theseasonIthinkthisisacircumstanceforwhichoneoughttobethankfulandithasmuch remindedme of hours that I have spent atBerlin andSansSouciwith theKing and theQueen and thePrinceWilliam and I am thankful to addwith thePrincess of Prussiamother of the futureKing It is a striking and consoling andinstructiveproof thatwhat is called theworld thegreatworld is not necessarilyworldlyinitselfbutonlybythatinwardworldlinesswhichasrebellionagainstthespirit creeps into the cottage as well as into the palace and against which nooutward form is any protection Forms and rules may prevent the outbreak ofwrong but cannot regenerate right andmayquench the spirit andpoison inwardtruthTheQueengiveshoursdailytothelaborofexaminingintotheclaimsofthenumberless petitions addressed to her among other duties to which her time ofprivacyisdevotedrdquo

[pg371]TheQueensnameandthatofPrinceAlbertoccurofteninthesememoirsandafew of Bunsens remarks and observations may be of interest though theycontain little that can now be new to the readers of the ldquoLife of the PrinceConsortrdquoandoftheldquoQueensJournalrdquo

First a graphic description from the hand ofBaronessBunsen of theQueenopeningParliamentin1842mdash

ldquoLasttheprocessionoftheQueensentryandherselflookingworthyandfittobetheconvergingpointofsomanyraysofgrandeurIt isself-evidentthatsheisnottallbutweresheever so tall shecouldnothavemoregraceanddignityaheadbettersetathroatmoreroyallyandclassicallyarchingandoneadvantagethereisinhernotbeingtallerthatwhenshecastsaglanceitisofnecessityupwardsandnotdownwardsandthustheeffectoftheeyesisnotthrownawaymdashthebeamandeffluencenotlostThecomposurewithwhichshefilledthethronewhileawaitingtheCommonswasatestofcharactermdashnofidgetandnoapathyThenhervoiceandenunciation could not bemore perfect In short it could not be said that she did

wellbut shewas theQueenmdashshewas and felt herself to be the acknowledgedchiefamonggrandandnationalrealitiesrdquo(VolIIp10)

ThenextisanaccountoftheQueenatWindsorCastleonreceivingthePrincessofPrussiain1842mdash

ldquoTheQueenlookedwellandrayonnantewiththatexpressionthatshealwayshaswhenthoroughlypleasedwithallthatoccupieshermindwhichyouknowIalwaysobserve with delight as fraught with that truth and reality which so essentiallybelong to her character and so strongly distinguish her countenance in all itschangesfromthefixedmaskonlytoocommonintheroyalrankofsocietyrdquo(VolIIp115)

AfterhavingspentsomedaysatWindsorCastleBunsenwritesin1846mdash

ldquoThe Queen often spoke withme about education and in particular of religiousinstructionHerviewsareveryserious[pg372]butatthesametimeliberalandcomprehensiveShe(aswellasPrinceAlbert)hatesallformalismTheQueenreadsagreatdealandhasdonemybookonlsquoTheChurchoftheFuturersquothehonortoreadit so attentively that the other day when at Cashiobury seeing the book on thetableshelookedoutpassageswhichshehadapprovedinordertoreadthemaloudtotheQueen-Dowagerrdquo(VolIIp121)

Andoncemoremdash

ldquoTheQueenisawifeandamotherashappyasthehappiestinherdominionsandnoonecanbemorecarefulofherchargesSheoftenspeakstomeofthegreattaskbeforeherandthePrinceintheeducationoftheroyalchildrenandparticularlyofthePrinceofWalesandthePrincessRoyalrdquo

Beforethetroublesof1847and1848BunsenwasenabledtospendpartofhistimeinthecountryawayfromtheturmoilofLondonandmuchofhisliteraryworkdatesfromthattimeAfterhisldquoChurchoftheFuturerdquothediscoveryofthegenuineEpistlesofIgnatiusbythelateDrCuretonledBunsenbacktothestudyof the earliest literature of the Christian Church and the results of theseresearches were published in his ldquoIgnatiusrdquo Lepsius stay in England and hisexpedition toEgypt inducedBunsen to put his ownmaterials in order and togive to theworldhis long-maturedviewsonldquoThePlaceofEgypt inUniversalHistoryrdquoThe latervolumesof thiswork ledhim intophilological studiesofa

moregeneralcharacterandatthemeetingoftheBritishAssociationatOxfordin 1847 he read before the brilliantly attended ethnological section his paperldquoOn theResults of the recentEgyptianResearches in reference toAsiatic andAfrican Ethnology and the Classification of Languagesrdquo published in theldquoTransactionsrdquo of the Association and separately under the title ldquoThreeLinguisticDissertationsbyChevalierBunsenDrCharlesMeyerandDrMaxMuumlllerrdquoldquoThosethreedaysatOxfordrdquo[pg373]hewritesldquowereatimeofgreatdistinctiontomebothinmypublicandprivatecapacityrdquoEverythingimportantinliteratureandartattractednotonlyhisnoticebuthiswarmestinterestandnoone who wanted encouragement advice or help in literary or historicalresearchesknockedinvainatBunsensdoorHis tableatbreakfastanddinnerwasfilledbyambassadorsandprofessorsbybishopsandmissionariesbydukesand poor scholars and his evening parties offered a kind of neutral groundwherepeoplecouldmeetwhocouldhavemetnowhereelseandwhereEnglishprejudiceshadnojurisdictionThatBunsenholdingthepositionwhichheheldinsocietybutstillmorebeingwhathewasapartfromhissocialpositionshouldhavemadehispresence felt inEnglandwasnot tobewonderedatHewouldspeak outwhenever he felt strongly but hewas the lastman tomeddle or tointrigueHehadnotimeevenifhehadhadtasteforitButthereweremeninEngland who could never forgive him for the Jerusalem bishopric and whoresortedtotheusualtacticsformakingamanunpopularAcrywassoonraisedagainst his supposed influence at court and doubtswere thrown out as to hisorthodoxy Every Liberal bishop that was appointed was said to have beenappointed through Bunsen Dr Hampden was declared to have been hisnomineemdashthefactbeingthatBunsendidnotevenknowofhimbeforehehadbeenmadeabishopAshispracticalChristianitycouldnotwellbequestionedhewas accusedof holdingheretical opinions becausehis chronologydifferedfrom that of Jewish Rabbis and Bishop Usher It is extraordinary how littleBunsenhimselfcaredabouttheseattacksthoughtheycausedacutesufferingtohisfamilyHewasnotsurprised[pg374]thatheshouldbehatedbythosewhosetheologicalopinionsheconsideredunsoundandwhoseecclesiasticalpoliticshehadopenlydeclaredtobefraughtwithdangertothemostsacredinterestsoftheChurch Besides he was the personal friend of such men as Arnold HareThirlwallMaurice Stanley and Jowett He had even a kind word to say forFroudesldquoNemesisofFaithrdquoHecouldsympathizenodoubtwithall thatwasgood and honest whether among theHighChurch or LowChurch party andmanyofhispersonalfriendsbelongedtotheoneaswellastotheotherbuthecouldalsothunderforthwithnouncertainsoundagainsteverythingthatseemedtohimhypocriticalpharisaicalunchristianThushewrites(IIp81)mdash

ldquoI apprehend having given the ill-disposed a pretext for consideringme a semi-Pelagian a contemnerof theSacraments ordenierof theSon aperverterof thedoctrine of justification and therefore a crypto-Catholic theosophist heretic andenthusiastdeservingofallcondemnationIhavewrittenitbecauseIfeltcompelledinconsciencetodosordquo

Again(IIp87)mdash

ldquoInmylettertoMrGladstoneIhavemaintainedthelawfulnessandtheapostoliccharacteroftheGermanProtestantChurchYouwillfindthestylechangedinthisworkbolderandmorefreerdquo

AttacksindeedbecamefrequentandmoreandmorebitterbutBunsenseldomtookanynoticeofthemHewritesmdash

ldquoHare is full of wrath at an attack made upon me in the lsquoChristianRemembrancerrsquomdashin a very Jesuiticalway insinuating that I ought not to have somuchinfluenceallowedmeAnotherarticleexecratesthebishopricofJerusalemasanabominationThiszealsavorsmoreofhatredthanofcharityrdquo

But thoughBunsen felt far too firmlygrounded in [pg375]hisownChristianfaithtobeshakenbysuchattacksuponhimselfhetoocouldberousedtowrathand indignation when the poisoned arrows of theological Fijians were shotagainsthisfriendsWhenspeakingoftheattacksonArnoldhewritesmdash

ldquoTruthisnothinginthisgenerationexceptameansinthebestcasetosomethinggoodbutneverlikevirtueconsideredasgoodasthegoodmdashtheobjectinitselfXdreams away in twilight Y is sliding into Puseyism Z (the Evangelicals) go onthrashing theoldstraw Iwish itwereotherwisebut I loveEnglandwithallherfaultsIwritetoyounowonlytoyouallIthinkAlltheerrorsandblunderswhichmakethePuseyitesastumbling-blocktosomanymdashtherockonwhichtheysplitisno other than what Rome split upon self-righteousness out of want ofunderstanding justification by faith and hovering about the unholy andblasphemous idea of atoning for our sins because they feel not understand notindeedbelievenottheAtonementandthereforeenjoynotthegloriousprivilegesofthechildrenofGodmdashtheblesseddutyofthesacrificeof thanksgivingthroughHim who atoned for them Therefore no sacrificemdashtherefore no Christianpriesthoodmdashno Church By our fathers these ideas were fundamentallyacknowledgedtheywereinabeyanceintheworshipoftheChurchbutnotonthedomestic altar and in the hymns of the spirit With the Puseyites as with theRomanists these ideas are cut off at the rootsOwhenwill theWordofGodbebroughtupagainstthemWhatastatethiscountryisinThelandoflibertyrushingintotheworstslaverytheveriestthralldomrdquo

TomanypeopleitmighthaveseemedasifBunsenduringallthistimewastoomuchabsorbedinEnglishinterestspoliticaltheologicalandsocialthathehadceasedtocareforwhatwaspassinginhisowncountryHislettershowevertelladifferenttaleHisvoluminouscorrespondencewiththeKingofPrussiathoughnotyetpublishedwillonedaybearwitnesstoBunsensdevotiontohiscountryandhisenthusiasticattachmenttothehouseofHohenzollernFromyeartoyearhe was urging on the King and his [pg 376] advisers the wisdom of liberalconcessionsand theabsolutenecessityofactionHewasworkingatplans forconstitutional reforms he went to Berlin to rouse the King to shame hisministerstoinsistinseasonandoutofseasononthedutyofactingbeforeitwastoolateHisfaithintheKingismosttouchingWhenhegoestoBerlinin1844heseeseverywherehowunpopulartheKingishowevenhisbestintentionsaremisunderstoodandmisrepresentedYethegoesonworkingandhopingandhesacrificeshisownpopularityrather thanopposeopenlythesuicidalpolicythatmighthaveruinedPrussiaifPrussiacouldhavebeenruinedThushewritesinAugust1845mdash

ldquoToactasastatesmanatthehelmintheFatherlandIconsidernottobeintheleastmycallingwhatIbelievetobemycallingistobemountedhighbeforethemasttoobservewhatlandwhatbreakerswhatsignsofcomingstormtheremaybeandthen to announce them to thewise and practical steersman It is the same tomewhethermyownnationshallknowinmylife-timeoraftermydeathhowfaithfullyIhavetakentoheartitswealandwoebeitinChurchorStateandborneitonmyheart asmynearest interest as long as life lasted I give up the point ofmakingmyselfunderstoodinthepresentgenerationHere(inLondon)Iconsidermyselftobe upon the right spot I seek to preserve peace and unity and to removedissatisfactionwhereveritispossiblerdquo

NothinghoweverwasdoneYearafteryearwasthrownawaylikeaSibyllineleafandthepenaltyfortheopportunitiesthathadbeenlostbecameheavierandheavier TheKing particularlywhen hewas under the influences ofBunsensgood geniuswas ready for any sacrifice ldquoThecommotionrdquo he exclaimed in1845ldquocanonlybemetandovercomebyfreedomabsolutefreedomrdquoButwhenBunsen wanted measures not words the King himself seemed [pg 377]powerless Surrounded as hewas bymen of themost opposite characters andinterests and quite capable of gauging them allmdashfor his intellect was of nocommonstampmdashhecouldagreewithallof them toacertainpointbutcouldneverbringhimselftogothewholelengthwithanyoneofthemBunsenwritesfromBerlinldquoMystaywillcertainlynotbea longone theKingsheart is likethatofabrothertowardmebutourwaysdivergeThedieiscastandhereads

inmycountenancethatIdeplorethethrowHetoofulfillshisfateandwewithhimrdquo

Whenatlastin1847aConstitutionwasgrantedbytheKingitwastoolateSirRobertPeelseemstohavebeenhopefulandinaletteroftwenty-twopagestoBunsenheexpressedanopinion that thePrussiangovernmentmightstillbeabletomaintaintheConstitutionifonlysincereindesiringitsduedevelopmentand prepared inmind for that development To theKing however and to thepartyatcourttheConstitutionifnotactuallyhatefulwasamereplaythingandthe idea of surrendering one particle of his independence never entered theKings mind Besides 1848 was at the door and Bunsen certainly saw thecomingstormfromadistancethoughhecouldnotsucceedinopeningtheeyesof thosewho stood at the helm in Prussia Shortly before the hurricane brokelooseBunsenhadoncemoredetermined to throwuphisofficialpositionandretire toBonnButwith 1848 all these hopes and planswere scattered to thewindsBunsenslifebecamemorerestlessthaneverandhisbodywasgraduallygivingwayundertheconstanttensionofhismindldquoIfeelrdquohewritesin1848toArchdeaconHareldquothatIhaveenteredintoanewperiodoflife[pg378]Ihavegiven up all private concerns all studies and researches ofmy own and liveentirelyforthepresentpoliticalemergenciesofmycountrytostandortofallbyandwithitrdquo

With his love forEngland he deeply felt thewant of sympathy on the part ofEngland for Prussia in her struggle to unite and regenerate the whole ofGermanyldquoItisquiteentertainingrdquohewriteswithatouchofironyveryunusualinhislettersldquotoseethestiffunbeliefoftheEnglishinthefutureofGermanyLordJohnismerelyuninformedPeelhassomewhatstaggeredthemindoftheexcellentPrince byhis unbelief yet he has a statesmanlike good-will towardstheGermanicnationsandevenfortheGermannationAberdeenisthegreatestsinnerHebelievesinGodandtheEmperorNicholasrdquoTheSchleswig-Holsteinquestion embittered his feelings still more and in absence of all determinedconvictionsatBerlinthewantofmoralcourageandpoliticalfaithamongthoseinwhosehandsthedestiniesofGermanyhadbeenplacedrousedhimtowrathandfurythoughhecouldneverbedriventodespairofthefutureofPrussiaFora time indeed he seemed to hesitate between Frankfort then the seat of theGermanParliamentandBerlinandhewouldhaveacceptedthePremiershipatFrankfort if his friend Baron Stockmar had accepted theMinistry of ForeignAffairs But very soon he perceived that however paralyzed for themomentPrussiawastheonlypossiblecentreoflifeforaregenerationofGermanythat

Prussia could not be merged in Germany but that Germany had to beresuscitatedand reinvigorated throughPrussiaHispatrioticnominalism ifwemaysocallhisyouthful[pg379]dreamsofaunitedGermanyhad toyield tothe force of that political realism which sacrifices names to things poetry toprose the ideal to the possibleWhat made his decision easier than it wouldotherwisehavebeentoaheartsofullofenthusiasmwashispersonalattachmenttotheKingandtothePrinceofPrussiaForatimeindeedthoughforashorttimeonlyBunsenafterhisinterviewwiththeKinginJanuary1849believedthat his hopes might still be realized and he seems actually to have had theKings promise that hewould accept the crownof aUnitedGermanywithoutAustriaButassoonasBunsenhadleftBerlinnewinfluencesbegantoworkontheKings brain andwhenBunsen returned full of hope hewas told by theKing himself that he had never repented in such a degree of any step as thatwhich Bunsen had advised him to take that the course entered upon was awrongtoAustriathathewouldhavenothingtodowithsuchanabominablelineof politics but would leave that to the Ministry at Frankfort Whenever thepersonalquestionshouldbeaddressedtohimthenwouldhereplyasoneoftheHohenzollernandthusliveanddieasanhonestmanBunsenthoughmourningoverthedisappointedhopesthathadoncecentredinFrederickWilliamIVandfreely expressing the divergence of opinion that separated him from hissovereignremainedthroughoutafaithfulservantandaloyalfriendHisbuoyantspirit confident that nothing could ruin Prussia was looking forward to thefuture undismayed by the unbroken succession of blunders and failures ofPrussian statesmenmdashnay enjoyingwith a prophetic fervor at the time of thedeepest degradation of Prussia at Olmuumltz the final [pg 380] and inevitabletriumphofthatcausewhichcountedamongitsheroesandmartyrssuchnamesasSteinGneisenauNiebuhrArndtandwemaynowaddBunsen

Afterthereactionof1849BunsenspoliticalinfluenceceasedaltogetherandasMinisterinEnglandhehadalmostalwaystocarryoutinstructionsofwhichhedisapprovedMore andmore he longed for rest and freedom for ldquoleisure forreflectionontheDivinewhichsubsistsinthingshumanandforwritingifGodenablesmetodosoIliveasonelamedthepinionsthatmighthavefurtheredmyprogressareboundmdashyetnotbrokenrdquoYethewouldnotgiveuphisplaceaslongashis enemiesatBerlindidall theycould toousthimHewouldnotbebeatenbythemnordidhealtogetherdespairofbetterdaysHisopinionofthePrinceofPrussia(thepresentKing)hadbeenraisedveryhighsincehehadcometoknowhimmoreintimatelyandheexpectedmuchinthehourofneedfromhissoldier-likedecisionandsenseofhonorThenegotiationsabouttheSchleswig-

HolsteinquestionsoonrousedagainallhisGermansympathiesandheexertedhimself to the utmost to defend the just cause of the Schleswig-Holsteinerswhich had been so shamefullymisrepresented by unscrupulous partisans ThehistoryofthesenegotiationscannotyetbewrittenbutitwillsomedaysurprisethestudentofhistorywhenhefindsoutinwhatwaypublicopinioninEnglandwasdosedandstupefiedonthatsimplequestionHefoundhimselfisolatedandopposedbynearlyallhisEnglishfriendsOnestatesmanonlybutthegreatestofEnglish statesmen saw clearlywhere the right andwhere thewrongwas butevenhecouldonlydaretobesilentOnthe31stofJuly1850Bunsenwritesmdash

[pg381]

ldquoPalmerstonhadyieldedwheninascrapefirsttoRussiathentoFrancetheprizehasbeentheprotocolthevictimGermanyTheyshallneverhavemysignaturetosuchapieceofiniquityandfollyrdquo

However on the 8th of May 1852 Bunsen had to sign that very piece ofiniquityItwasdonemachinelikeat theKingscommandyet ifBunsenhadfollowed his own better judgment he would not have signed but sent in hisresignation ldquoThe first cannon-shot in Europerdquo he used to say ldquowill tear thisPragmaticSanctiontotattersrdquoandsoitwasbutalashedidnotlivetoseetheNemesis of that iniquity One thing however is certain that the humiliationinflictedonPrussiaby thatprotocolwasnever forgottenbyonebrave soldierwho though not allowed at that time to draw his royal sword has ever sincebeenworking at the reform of Prussias army till on the field of Sadowa thedisgrace of the London protocol and the disgrace of Olmuumltz were wiped outtogetherandGermanquestionscannolongerbesettledbytheGreatPowersofEuropeldquowithorwithouttheconsentofPrussiardquo

BunsenremainedinEnglandtwoyearslongerfullofliteraryworkdelightedbythe success of Prince Alberts Great Exhibition entering heartily into all thatinterestedandagitatedEnglishsocietybutneverthelesscarryinginhisbreastaheavyheartPrussiaandGermanywerenotwhathewishedthemtobeAtlastthe complications that led to the Crimean War held out to his mind a lastprospectofrescuingPrussiafromherRussian thralldomIfPrussiacouldhavebeenbroughtover to joinEnglandandFrance theunityofNorthernGermanymight have been her reward as the unity of Italywas the reward ofCavoursalliance with theWestern Powers Bunsen used all his influence [pg 382] tobringthisaboutbutheusedit invainandinApril1854hesuccumbedand

hisresignationwasaccepted

NowatlastBunsenwasfreeHewritestoasonmdash

ldquoYouknowhowIstruggledalmostdesperatelytoretirefrompublicemploymentin1850NowthecordisbrokenandthebirdisfreeTheLordbepraisedrdquo

But sixty-two years of his life were gone The foundations of literary workwhichhehadlaidasayoungmanweredifficulttorecoverandifanythingwasto be finished it had to be finished in haste Bunsen retired to Heidelberghoping there to realize the ideal of his life and realizing it too in a certaindegreemdashie as long as he was able to forget his sixty-two years his shakenhealthandhisblastedhopesHisneweditionofldquoHippolytusrdquounderthetitleofldquoChristianityandMankindrdquohadbeenfinishedinsevenvolumesbeforehe leftEnglandAtHeidelberghisprincipalworkwasthenewtranslationoftheBibleandhisldquoLifeofChristrdquo anenormousundertaking enough to fill amans lifeyetwithBunsenbynomeanstheonlyworktowhichhedevotedhisremainingpowers Egyptian studies continued to interest him while superintending theEnglishtranslationofhisldquoEgyptrdquoHisangeratthemachinationsoftheJesuitsinChurchandStatewouldrousehimsuddenlytoaddresstheGermannationinhisldquoSigns of the Timesrdquo And the prayer of his early youth ldquoto be allowed torecognize and trace the firm path of God through the stream of agesrdquo wasfulfilledinhislastworkldquoGodinHistoryrdquoThereweremanyblessingsinhislifeat Heidelberg and no one could have [pg 383] acknowledged them moregratefullythanBunsenldquoYetrdquohewritesmdash

ldquoImissJohnBullthesealsquoTheTimesrsquointhemorningandbesidessomedozensof fellow-creatures The learned class has greatly sunk in Germanymore than IsupposedallbehindhandNothingappearsofanyimportancethemostwretchedtriflesarecrieduprdquo

Thoughhehadbidadieu topoliticsyethecouldnotkeepentirelyaloofThePrinceofPrussiaandthenoblePrincessofPrussiaconsultedhimfrequentlyandeven from Berlin baits were held out from time to time to catch the escapedeagleIndeedonceagainwasBunsenenticedbythevoiceofthecharmerandapressinginvitationoftheKingbroughthimtoBerlintopresideatthemeetingoftheEvangelicalAllianceinSeptember1857HishopesrevivedoncemoreandhisplansofaliberalpolicyinChurchandStatewereoncemorepressedonthe

Kingmdashinvain as everyoneknewbeforehand exceptBunsen alonewithhislovingtrustingheartHoweverBunsenshopestooweresoontobedestroyedandhepartedfromtheKingthebrokenidolofallhisyouthfuldreamsmdashnotinangerbutinloveldquoasIwishandpraytodepartfromthisearthasonthecalmstilleveningofalongbeautifulsummersdayrdquoThiswaswrittenonthe1stofOctoberonthe3dtheKingsmindgavewaythoughhisbodilysufferinglastedlongerthanthatofBunsenLittlemoreistobesaidofthelastyearsofBunsenslife The difficulty of breathing from which he suffered became often verydistressing and he was obliged to seek relief by travel in Switzerland or byspendingthewinteratCannesHerecoveredfromtimetotimesoastobeabletoworkhardattheldquoBibleworkrdquoandeventomakeshortexcursionsto[pg384]ParisorBerlinInthelastyearofhislifeheexecutedtheplanthathadpassedbeforehismindasthefairestdreamofhisyouthhetookahouseatBonnandhe was not without hope that he might still like Niebuhr lecture in theuniversity and give to the youngmen the fruits of his studies and the advicefoundedontheexperienceofhislifeThishoweverwasnottobeandallwhowatchedhimwith lovingeyesknewbut toowell that itcouldnotbeThe lastchapter of his life is painful beyond expression as a chronicle of his bodilysufferingsbut it ischeerfulalsobeyondexpressionas the recordofa triumphoverdeathinhopeinfaithmdashnayonemightalmostsayinsightmdashsuchashasseldombeenwitnessedbyhumaneyesHediedonthe28thofNovember1860andwasburiedonthe1stofDecemberinthesamechurchyardatBonnwherereststhebodyofhisfriendandteacherNiebuhr

Thoughtscrowdinthickuponuswhenwegazeatthatmonumentandfeelagainthepresenceof that spirit aswe sooften felt it in thehoursof sweet counselWhenwe think of the literaryworks inwhich later in life and almost in thepresence of death he hurriedly gathered up the results of his studies andmeditationswefeelashefelthimselfwhenonlytwenty-twoyearsofagethatldquolearningannihilates itself and themostperfect is the first submerged for thenextagescaleswithease theheightwhichcost thepreceding the fullvigorofliferdquo It has been so and always will be so Bunsens work particularly inEgyptianphilologyandinthephilosophyoflanguagewastoagreatextenttheworkofapioneeranditwillbeeasyforotherstoadvanceontheroadswhichhehasopenedand toapproachnearer to thegoalwhich [pg385]hehaspointedout Some of his works however will hold their place in the history ofscholarship and particularly of theological scholarship The question of thegenuinenessoftheoriginalEpistlesofIgnatiuscanhardlybeopenedagainafterBunsenstreatiseandhisdiscoverythatthebookonldquoAlltheHeresiesrdquoascribed

toOrigencouldnotbetheworkofthatwriterandthatmostprobablyitwastheworkofHippolytuswillalwaysmarkanepochin thestudyofearlyChristianliteratureEitherofthoseworkswouldhavebeenenoughtomakethereputationofaGermanprofessoror to found the fortuneofanEnglishbishopLet itberemembered that theywere theoutcomeof the leisurehoursofahard-workedPrussiandiplomatistwhoduringtheLondonseasoncouldgetupatfiveinthemorning light his own fire and thus secure four hours of undisturbed workbeforebreakfast

AnotherreasonwhysomeofBunsensworkswillprovemoremortalthanothersis their comprehensive character Bunsen never worked for works sake butalways for somehigherpurposeSpecial researcheswithhimwereameans aladder tobe thrownawayassoonashehad reachedhispointThe thoughtofexhibiting his ladders never entered hismind Occasionally however Bunsenwould take a jump and being bent on general results he would sometimesneglecttheobjectionsthatwereurgedagainsthimIthasbeeneasyevenduringhislife-timetopointoutweakpointsinhisargumentsandscholarswhohavespent thewholeof their livesononeGreekclassichavefoundnodifficulty inshowingtotheworldthattheyknowmoreofthatparticularauthorthanBunsenBut even thosewho fully appreciate the real importance [pg386] of Bunsenslaborsmdashlabors thatweremore likeashowerof rain fertilizing largeacres thanliketheartificialirrigationwhichsupportsonegreenhouseplantmdashwillbefirsttomourn over the precious time that was lost to the world by Bunsens officialavocationsIfhecoulddowhathedidinhisfewhoursofrestwhatwouldhehave achieved if he had carried out the original plan of his life It is almostincredible that a man with his clear perception of his calling in life so fullyexpressedinhisearliestlettersshouldhaveallowedhimselftobedrawnawayby the sirenvoiceofdiplomatic lifeHis successnodoubtwasgreat at firstand the kindness shown him by men like Niebuhr the King and the CrownPrinceofPrussiawasenoughtoturnaheadthatsatonthestrongestshouldersItshouldberememberedtoothatinGermanythediplomaticservicehasalwayshad far greater charms than in England and that the higher members of thatserviceenjoyoftenthesamepoliticalinfluenceasmembersoftheCabinetIfwereadofthebrilliantreceptionaccordedtotheyoungdiplomatistduringhisfirststay at Berlin the favors showered upon him by the oldKing the friendshipofferedhimbytheCrownPrincehisfutureKingthehopesofusefulnessinhisownheartandtheencouragementgivenhimbyallhisfriendsweshallbelesssurprised at his preferring in the days of his youth the brilliant career of adiplomatisttotheobscurelotofaprofessorAndyetwhatwouldBunsenhave

givenlaterinlifeifhehadremainedtruetohisfirstloveAgainandagainhisbetterselfburstsforthincomplaintsaboutawastedlifeandagainandagainheis carried along against his will During his first stay in England he writes(November181838)mdash

[pg387]

ldquoIcarenomoreaboutmyexternalpositionthanaboutthemountainsinthemoonIknowGodswillwillbedoneinspiteofthemallandtomygreatestbenefitWhatthat is He alone knows Only one thing I think I see clearly My whole life iswithout sense and lasting use if I squander it in affairs of the day brilliant andimportantastheymayberdquo

ThelongerheremainedinthatenchantedgardenthemoredifficultitbecametofindawayoutevenafterhehaddiscoveredbysadexperiencehowlittlehewasfittedforcourtlifeorevenforpubliclifeinPrussiaWhenhefirstappearedatthe court ofBerlin he carried everythingby stormbut thatvery triumphwasnever forgivenhimandhisenemieswerebentonldquoshowing thisyoungdoctorhis proper placerdquoBunsenhadno ideahowhewas envied for the lesson thatsuccessbreedsenvyisonethatmenofrealmodestyseldomlearnuntilitistoolate And he was hated not only by chamberlains but as he discovered withdeepest grief even by those whom he considered his truest friends who hadbeenworkinginsecretconclavetounderminehisinfluencewithhisroyalfriendandmasterWheneverhe returned toBerlin later in lifehecouldnotbreathefreelyinthevitiatedairofthecourtandthewingsofhissoulhungdownlamedifnotbrokenBunsenwasnotacourtierAwayfromBerlinamongtheruinsofRomeandinthefreshairofEnglishlifehecouldspeaktokingsandprincesasfewmenhavespokentothemandpourouthisinmostconvictionsbeforethosewhomhereveredandlovedButatBerlinthoughhemighthavelearnttobowand to smile and to use Byzantine phraseology his voice faltered and wasdrownedbynoisydeclaimers thediamondwasburiedinaheapofbeadsandhisrayscouldnotshineforthwheretherewasnoheavenlysunlighttocallthemout

[pg388]KingFrederickWilliamIVwasnoordinaryKing thatonecanseeevenfromthe scanty extracts fromhis lettersgiven in ldquoBunsensMemoirsrdquoNorwas hisloveofBunsenamerepassingwhimHe loved themanand thosewhoknewtherefreshingandsatisfyinginfluenceofBunsenssocietywilleasilyunderstandwhattheKingmeantwhenhesaidldquoIamhungryandthirstyforBunsenrdquoButwhat constitution can resist the daily doses of hyperbolical flattery that are

poured into the ears of royalty and how canwewonder that at last amodestexpression of genuine respect does sound like rudeness to royal ears and tospeak the truth becomes synonymous with insolence In the trickeries andmimicries of court life Bunsen was no adept and nothing was easier than tooutbidhiminthepricethatispaidforroyalfavorsButifmuchhasthusbeenlost of a life far too precious to be squandered among royal servants andmessengers this prophet among the Sauls has taught the world some lessonswhich he could not have taught in the lecture-room of a German universityPeople who would scarcely have listened to the arguments of a Germanprofessor sat humbly at the feet of an ambassador andof amanof theworldThataprofessorshouldbelearnedandthatabishopshouldbeorthodoxwasamatterofcoursebutthatanambassadorshouldholdforthonhieroglyphicsandthe antiquity ofman rather thanon thechroniquescandaleuse of Paris that aPrussian statesman should spend his mornings on the Ignatian Epistles ratherthaninwritinggossipingletterstoladiesinwaitingatBerlinandPotsdamthatthislearnedmanldquowhooughttoknowrdquoshouldprofessthesimplefaithofachildand the boldest freedom of a philosopher was enough to startle society bothhigh [pg 389] and low How Bunsen inspired those who knew him withconfidence howhewas consulted and howhewas lovedmay be seen fromsomeofthelettersaddressedtohimthoughfewonlyofsuchlettershavebeenpublishedinhisldquoMemoirsrdquoThathis influencewasgreat inEnglandweknowfromtheconcurrenttestimonybothofhisenemiesandhisfriendsandtheseedthathehassowninthemindsandheartsofmenhavebornefruitandwillstillbear richer fruit both in England and inGermanyNor should it be forgottenhow excellent a use hemade of his personal influence in helping youngmenwhowanted advice and encouragementHis sympathy his condescension hisfaith when brought in contact with men of promise were extraordinary theywerenotshakenthoughtheyhavebeenabusedmorethanonceInallwholovedBunsen his spirit will live on imperceptibly it may be to themselvesimperceptibly to the world but not the less really It is not the chief duty offriendstohonorthedepartedbyidlegriefbuttoremembertheirdesignsandtocarryouttheirmandates(TacAnnII71)

[pg393]

LETTERSFROMBUNSENTOMAXMUumlLLERINTHEYEARS1848TO185998

AfterhesitatingforalongtimeandafterconsultingboththosewhohadarighttobeconsultedandthosewhoseindependentjudgmentIcouldtrustIhaveatlastdecidedonpublishingthefollowinglettersofBaronBunsenasanappendixtomyarticleontheMemoirsofhisLifeTheywillIbelieveshowtotheworldonesideofhischaracterwhichintheMemoirscouldappearbutincidentallymdashhis ardent love of the higher studies from which his official duties wereconstantlytearinghimawayandhiskindnesshissympathyhiscondescensioninhisintercoursewithyoungerscholarswhowerepursuingdifferentbranchesofthatworktowhichhehimselfwouldgladlyhavededicatedthewholeenergyofhismindBunsenwasbynatureascholarthoughnotexactlywhatinEnglandismeantbyaGermanscholarScholarshipwithhimwasalwaysameansneverinitselfanobjectand thestudyof the languages the laws thephilosophiesandreligions of antiquity was in his eyes but a necessary preparation beforeapproachingtheproblemofallproblemsIsthereaProvidenceintheworldoristherenotldquoTotracethefirmpathofGodthroughthestreamofagesrdquothiswasthedreamofhisyouthandthetoilofhisoldageandduringallhislifewhetherhewasstudyingthelawsofRomeorthehieroglyphicinscriptionsofEgyptthehymnsoftheVedaorthePsalmsoftheOldTestamenthewasalwayscollectingmaterials for thatgreat templewhich inhismind toweredhighaboveallothertemples the temple of God in history He was an architect but he wantedbuilders his plans were settled but there was no time to carry them out HethereforenaturallylookedoutforyoungermenwhoweretotakesomeshareofhisworkHeencouragedthemhehelpedthemheleftthemnoresttilltheworkwhichhewantedwasdoneandhethusexercisedthemostsalutaryinfluenceona [pg 394] number of young scholars both in Rome in London and inHeidelberg

WhenIfirstcametoknowBunsenhewasfifty-sixItwenty-fouryearsofage

hewasPrussianambassadorIwasnobodyButfromtheverybeginningofourintercoursehewastomelikeafriendandfellow-studentandwhenstandingbyhissideatthedeskinhislibraryIneversawtheambassadorbutonlythehard-workingscholarreadytoguidewillingtofollowbutalwayspressingforwardtoadefinitegoalHewouldpatientlylistentoeveryobjectionandenterreadilyintothemostcomplicatedquestionsofminutecriticalscholarshipbuthealwayswantedtoseedaylighthecouldnotbearmeregropingforgropingssakeWhenhe suspected any scholar of shallowness pettiness or professorial conceit hewouldsometimesburstforthintorageanduselanguagetheseverityofwhichhewas himself the first to regret But he would never presume on his age hispositionorhisauthorityInthatrespectfewmenremainedsoyoungremainedso entirely themselves through life as Bunsen It is one of the saddestexperiences in life to seemen lose themselveswhen theybecomeministersorjudges or bishops or professorsBunsen never became ambassador he alwaysremainedBunsenIthasbeenmygoodfortuneinlifetohaveknownmanymenwhom theworld calls greatmdashphilosophers statesmen scholars artists poetsbuttakeitallinalltakethefullhumanityofthemanIhaveneverseenandIshallneverseehislikeagain

The rule followed in editing these letters has been a very simple one I havegiven them as theywere even though I felt thatmany could be of interest toscholarsonlyortoBunsenspersonalfriendsbutIhaveleftoutwhatevercouldbesupposedtowoundthefeelingsofanyoneUnlessthisruleismostcarefullyobserved thepublicationof lettersafter thedeathof theirwritersseems tomesimplydishonorableWhenBunsenspeaksofpublicmeasuresandpublicmenofpartiesinChurchandStatewhetherinEnglandorinGermanytherewasnonecessityforsuppressinghisremarks forhehadspokenhismindasfreelyonthem elsewhere as in these lettersBut any personal reflectionswritten on thespur of the moment in confidence or in jest have been struck out howeverstrongthetemptationsometimesofleavingthemManyexpressionstooofhiskind feelings towardsme have been omitted If somehave been left I hope Imaybeforgivenforapridenotaltogetherillegitimate

[pg395]

LONDONThursdayDecember718489oclockMYDEARMmdashIhavethismomentreceivedyouraffectionatenoteofyesterdayand feel as if Imust respond to it directly asonewould respond to a friendsshakeofthehandTheinformationwasquitenewtomeandthesuccesswhollyunexpectedYouhavegivenahometoafriendwhowashomelessintheworldmayyoualsohaveinspiredhimwiththatenergyandstabilitythewantofwhichsoevidentlydepresseshimTheideaaboutPauliisexcellentbuthemustdecidequicklyandsendmewordthatImaygainoverWilliamHamiltonandhisson(thePresident)TheplaceismuchsoughtafterPauliwouldcertainlybethemanforitHewouldnotbecomeaPhilisterhereasmostdo

AndnowmyverydearMIcongratulateyouonthecourageousframeofmindwhichthiseventcausesyoutoevinceItisexactlythatwhichasafriendIwishforyouforthewholeoflifeandwhichIperceivedandlovedinyoufromthevery first moment It delights me especially at this time when yourcontemporariesareevenmoredarkandconfusedthanminearesluggishandold-fashionedTherealityof lifeasweenter theperiodoffullmanhooddestroysthefirstdreamofyouthbutwithmoralearnestnessandgenuinefaithineternalprovidence and in the sacredness of humandestiny in that government of theworld which exists for all human souls that honestly seek after goodmdashwiththesefeelingsthedreamofyouthismorethanrealized

Youhaveundertaken agreatwork andhavebeen rescued from thewhirlpoolandlandedonthispeacefulislandthatyoumightcarryitonundisturbedwhichyoucouldnothavedoneintheFatherlandThisisthefirstconsiderationbutnotlesshighlydoIratethecircumstanceswhichhavekeptyouhere[pg396]andhavegivenyouanopportunityofseeingEnglishlifeinitsrealstrengthwiththeconsistency and stability and with all the energy and simplicity that are itsdistinguishing features I haveknownwhat it is to receive this complementofGerman life in the years of my training and apprenticeship When rightlyestimatedthisknowledgeandloveoftheEnglishelementonlystrengthenstheloveoftheGermanFatherlandthehomeofgeniusandpoetry

Iwillonlyadd that Iamlonging toseeyouamongstusyoumustcometousbefore longMeanwhile think ofmewith asmuch affection as I shall alwaysthink of you Lepsius has sentme his splendidwork ldquoOn the Foundations ofEgyptianChronologyrdquowithastoundinginvestigations

AstoGermanymygreatesthopesarebasedonthismdashthattheKingandHenry

vonGagernhavemetandbecomerealfriends

SundayMorningFebruary181849MydearMmdashHavingreturnedhomelastnightIshouldliketoseeyouquietlyto-day before the turmoil begins again to-morrow Can you and Mr Trithencometometo-dayatfiveoclockIwillaskElzetodinnerbutIshouldfirstliketo read toyou twomy treatiseldquoOn theClassificationofLanguagesrdquowhich isentirelyrewrittenandhasbecomemyfifthbookinnuce

I will at once tell you that I am convinced that the Lycians were the truePelasgiansandIshallnotgiveyouanyresttillyouhavediscoveredthePelasgiclanguagefromthemonumentsexistinghereItisasurediscoveryItmustbeanolderformofGreekmuchastheOscanortheCarmenSaliarewereofLatinorevenperhapsmoreso

TOTTERIDGEPARKMondayMorningFebruary191849I landed yesterday and took refuge here till this afternoon and my firstemployment is to thankyouforyouraffectionateandfaithful letterandto tellyouthatIamnotonlytobehereashithertobutthatwiththepermissionoftheKing I am to fill the post of confidential accredited minister of theReichsverweser formerly held by Baron Andrian Duringmy stay here be itlongorshortitwillalwaysbeapleasureandrefreshment[pg397]tometoseeyou as often as you can come to usYouknowourwayof livingwhichwillremainthesameexceptnowandthenwhenPalmerstonmayfixhisconferencesforaSunday

Pertz is quite ready to agree to the proposal of a regular completion of theChambers collection the best thing would be for you to offer to make thecatalogue He is waiting your proposal The dark clouds of civil war are

loweringoverourdearandmightyFatherlandPrussiawillgoon itsownwayquietlyasamediatingpower

CARLTONTERRACEApril221849Yesterday evening and night and this morning early I have been readingFroudesldquoNemesisofFaithrdquoandamsomovedbyitthatImustwriteyouafewlinesIcannotdescribethepowerofattractionexerciseduponmebythisdeeplysearchingnoble spirit I feel the tragicnatureofhisposition and longhave Iforeseen that such tragical combinations await the soulsofmen in this island-worldArnoldandCarlyleeachinhisownwayhadseenthislongbeforemeInthegeneralworldnoonecanunderstandsuchastateofmindexceptsofarastobeenabledtomisconstrueit

In the shortcoming of the English mind in judging of this book its greatalienation from the philosophy of Art is revealed This book is notcomprehendedasaworkofArtclaimingassuchdueproportionsandrelativesignificance of parts otherwise many individuals would at least have beenmovedtoamoresparingjudgmentuponitandinthefirstplacetheywouldtakeintheimportofthetitle

This book shows the fatal result of the renunciation of the Church system ofbelief The subject of the tale simply experiences moral annihilation but theobjectofhisaffectionwhosemindhehadbeenthemeansofunsettlinginherfaith burst through the boundarieswhich humanity has placed and themoralorderoftheworldimposestheyperishbothmdasheachatoddswithselfwithGodand with human society only for him there yet remains room for furtherdevelopmentThen thecurtain fallsmdashthat is rightaccording toartistic ruleofcomposition true andnecessary according to theviewsof thosewhohold thefaithof theChurchofEnglandandfroma theologicalpointofviewnoothersolutioncouldbeexpectedfromthebookthanthatwhichithasgiven

[pg398]Butheretheauthorhasdisclosedtheinwarddiseasethefearfulhollownessthespiritual death of the nations philosophical and theological forms with

resistlesseloquenceandliketheJewsofoldtheywillexclaimldquoThatmanisacriminalstonehimrdquo

IwishyoucouldlethimknowhowdeeplyIfeelforhimwithouteverhavingseenhimandhowIdesiretoadmonishhimtoacceptandendurethisfatalityasinthenatureofthingshemustsurelyhaveanticipateditandashehaspointedout and defended the freedomof the spirit somust he now (and I believe hewill) show in himself andmakemanifest to theworld the courage active indeedcheerfulinpowerofthatfreespirit

Itispresumptuoustointrudeintothefateandmysteryoflifeinthecaseofanyman and more especially of a man so remarkable but the consciousness ofcommunityofspiritsofknowingandendeavoringafterwhatismorallygoodand trueandperfectandof theyearningafterevery realdiscipleof the innerreligionofChristians impelsme to suggest toyou to tellhim fromme that Ibelieve the spasm of his spiritual efforts would sooner be calmed and thesolutionofthegreatproblemwouldsoonerbefoundifheweretoliveforatimeamongusImeanifheresidedforatimeinoneoftheGermanuniversitiesWeGermans have been for seventy years working as thinkers inquirers poetsseersalsoasmenofactiontopulldowntheoldandtoerectthenewZioneachgreatmanwithushascontributedhismaterialstowardsthesanctuaryinvisiblebutfirmlyfixedinGermanheartsthewholenationhasneglectedandsacrificedpolitical individual existence and common freedommdashto pursue in faith thesearchaftertruthFromussomethingmaybelearntbyeveryspiritofthisageHewillexperiencehowtrulythedivinePlatospokewhenhesaidldquoSevenyearsofsilentinquirywereneedfulforamantolearnthetruthbutfourteeninordertolearnhowtomakeitknowntohisfellow-menrdquo

FroudemustknowSchleiermachersldquoDiscoursesonReligionrdquoandperhapsalsohisldquoDogmaticsrdquoInthisseriesofdevelopmentsthisisperhapsasfarastheformis concerned themost satisfactoryworkwhich immediately concerns religionand its reconciliation with philosophy on the basis of more liberal Christianinvestigation But at all events we have not striven and suffered in vain ourphilosophy research and poetry show [pg 399] this Butmen not books areneeded by such amind in order to become conscious of the truthwhich (toquoteSpinoza)ldquoremotoerrorenudaremanetrdquoHehasstillmuchtolearnandheshouldlearnitasamanfrommanIshouldliketoproposetohimfirsttogotoBonn He would there find that most deeply thoughtful and most original ofspeculativemindsamongourlivingtheologianstheHamannofthiscenturymy

dearfriendRRothealsoanoblephilosopherandteacherofethicsBrandisanhonest master of exegesis Bleek and young minds would soon attachthemselves to him In Halle he would find Erdmann almost the onlydistinguished speculative follower of Hegel and Tholuck who has advancedmuch farther in the philosophical treatment of Christianity than is generallythought I will gladly give him introductions to all of these They would allwillingly admit him into theirworldof thought and enterwith sympathy intohisItwouldbesuretosuithimThefreeatmosphereofthoughtwoulddohimgood as formerly the atmosphereof freeEnglandwasgood forGermans stillstruggling for political liberty He certainly needs physical change andinvigorating For this the lovelyRhine is decidedly to be recommendedWithpound100hecouldlivethereasaprinceWhygoofftoVanDiemensLandIshouldalwaysbegladtobeoftheleastservicetohimstillmoretomakehispersonalacquaintanceAndnowmydearMyoucanifyouwishreadouttohimwhatIhavewrittenbutdonotgivetheletteroutofyourownhands

9CARLTONTERRACEMondayMay221849IthankyoufortwolettersIcannottellhowthefirstdelightedandrejoicedmeThestateofthingsinEnglandisreallyasyoudescribeitAstowhatconcernsthesecondyouwillbythistimeknowthatIhaveseenFroudetwiceWithMtoopersonalacquaintancehasbeenmadeandthepointastomoneyistouchedonImustseehimagainalonebeforeIgivemyopinionAtalleventsheisamanofgeniusandGermany(especiallyBonn)thecountryforhim

I can well imagine the terrible scenes your dear mother has witnessed inDresdenHoweverIbelievewehaveintheverymidstofthestormreachedtheharborEveninFrankforteveryonebelievesinthecompletesuccessofPrussiasnegotiationswiththefourCourtsWeshallhavethewholeconstitution[pg400]oftheempireandnowwithallnecessaryimprovementsAstomattersofformtheymustbearrangedasbetweenequalsGagernandhisfriendsarereadyforthisTheconstitution is tobedeclaredatBerlinon the25thThedisturbanceswillthenbequietedasbymagicGeorgeisauxangesoverthisunexpectedturnofaffairsAtalleventsIhopesoontoseeyou

LONDONWednesdayJuly141849ldquoHurrahforMuumlllerrdquomdashsowritesGeorgeandasananswerIsendyouhisnotefromFrankfortHekschersproposalisquitereasonableIhavesincethenbrokenoff all negotiations with the Danes Youwill soon read the documents in thenewspapers

If the proposal of the parliamentary committee on the directory of the Bundpasseswhichadmitsof littledoubt thequestionof tobeornot tobemustbeimmediatelydecided

IdonotintendgoingtoFrankfortforthissopraycomehereIamaloneherewithCharles

9CARLTONTERRACEFridayMorning99MY DEAR MmdashI did not thank you immediately for your delightful andinstructive letter because thereweremany points onwhich Iwished towritefully The last decisive crisis of the German-European business has at lengtharrived and I have had the opportunity of doingmyduty in thematterBut Ihave been doing nothing else since last Saturday nothing Chinese even IrecommendtheinclosedtoyouTheyoungmanisagoodandhighlyinformedGermanbooksellerHe has of coursewritten justwhat I did not tell him andomittedwhatheought tohavesaidldquothathehadbeenhere for fiveyearswiththefirstbooksellersandbeforethatwastrainedunderhisfatherinBonnthatheunderstandsEnglishGermanFrench ItalianandSpanishrdquo IhaveonlyheardwhatisgoodofhimHowgratefulIfeel toyouforhavingbeguntheIndexofEgyptian words at once We wanted one here for a special purpose so ourtrouble has not been thrown away I now perceive how impossible it is tounderstand the Egyptian language and history thoroughly without Chinese Inthechronologythereisstillmuchtobedone

[pg401]

WehaveasyetheldourowninLondonandWarsawasagainstViennaButintheSchleswig-Holsteinquestionwehavethewholeworldandunfortunatelyourown peace of July 2d against us Radowitz has worked most devotedly andhonestlyWhenshallweseeyouagain

PRUSSIANLEGATIONMay151850ByreturnofpostthanksandgreetingstomydearMYourproposalastoSchuumltzisexcellentLetmeknowifIamtowritetoHumboldtIdrawatotallydifferentlessonfromyournewsofthelossoftheVedaMSWaittillagoodcopyarrivesand in themean timepursueyourphilological studies in someotherdirectionandgetonwithyourIntroductionYoucanworkmoreinonedayinEuropethaninaweekinIndiaunlessyouwishtokillyourselfwhichIcouldnotallowSocomewithbagandbaggagehereto9CarltonTerracetoonewholongstoseeyou

Fmust havegonemad or havebeen farmore sopolitically than I imaginedThe ldquoLeaderrdquo edited by him and N is (asMills says) red and raw and inaddition badly written It is a pity for prophets and poets to meddle withrealitiesinsteadofdevotingthemselvestofuturityandpoetryGeorgeishappyin the intellectualwealth ofParis life and quite perplexed at the perversenessandfolliesofthepoliticalcliquesHepromisestowriteabouttheacquaintanceof Lamenais and George Sand I am well but fully use the right of aconvalescentandhardlygoanywhere

FriendStockmarsendsareportfromErfurtwheretheParliamentmeetsonthe26th to receive the oaths of the Directory and the Ministers of the UnionUsedom Pertz and Co are quite mad in their enthusiasm for the Black andWhiteasIhaveopenlywrittentothem

CARLTONTERRACEJuly101850Mr Eastwick the translator ofBoppsGrammar tellsme that he andMurraywishforanarticleonthisworkintheldquoQuarterlyReviewrdquoforJanuary1851soitmustbesentininNovemberWilsonrefusesasheistoobusyIbelieveyoucould bestwrite such a review of about sixteen pages [pg 402] (pound16) If youagreetothiswritealinetomeordirecttoEastwickwhowouldthengetaletterfromLockhartwiththecommissionforyouGodhelpSchleswig-Holstein

LONDONOctober101850YouhavegivenmethegreatestpleasuremydearMbyyourbeautifulpresentAlreadylastnightIreadthenewldquoGreekSongsrdquoandothers thatwerenewtomewiththegreatestdelightWehaveatalleventsderivedonebenefitfromthegreatstormmdashthatthefettershavebeentakenoffthepressItisaverycharmingeditionandabeautifulmemorial

As to Fmdashmdash it seems tome contra rei naturam to arrange anythingwith theldquoQuarterlyReviewrdquoThechannelforsuchthingsisnowreallytheldquoEdinburghrdquoin the ldquoQuarterlyrdquo everything not English must be run down at all events inappearance if it is tobeappreciatedAndnowldquoModernGermanPoetryandFmdashmdashrdquoandLiberalpoliticsIcannotunderstandhowFmdashmdashcouldthinkofsuchathingIwillwillinglytakechargeofitfortheldquoEdinburghReviewrdquoTheeditorismy political theological personal friend and sympathizeswithme in suchthingsasIconsiderFmdashmdashsbeautifulreviewwillbeIhaveforyearswishedforsuch a one epic-lyric poetry hasmademuch greater advances sinceGoethestime than people in Germany (with the one exception of Platen) seem toperceiveItseemstomethoughthatoneshouldbeginwiththeflowersoftheRomantic school of poetry with Schenkendorf and Koumlrnermdashthat is with thewhole romanticGermannational epochwhich foundGoethe already a retiredphilosopherThewholedevelopmentfromthat timetillnowappearstomeasoneintimatelyunitedwholeevenincludingthepresentdayEven1848to1850havefurnishedtheircontribution(Arndtstwoinspiredsongsforinstance)andin1843-44Geibel shinesasa starof the firstmagnitudeHeine isdifficult totreatInfactIdonotthinkthatFmdashmdashhasreadenoughofthesepoetsHespoketomelatelyofanhistoricalworkthathehadinviewandwhichhewishedto

talkoverwithmehemeanttocomeuptomefromthecountrybuthasnotyetappeared He is always welcome for he is decidedly a man of genius and Iwouldwillinglyhelphim

Now to something different My Chinese work is tolerably [pg 403] faradvancedIhavearrangedthe214keysalphabeticallyandhaveexaminedabout100 of them historicallymdashthat is I have separated the oldest (entirelyhieroglyphicandideographic)signsandasfaraspossiblefixedtherelationshipof identical or similarly sounding roots Then I laid aside the work and firstbegan a complete list of all those pronominal adverbial and particle stemsarrangedfirstalphabeticallyandthenaccordingtomatter inwhichIfoundtherecognizablecorpsesoftheoldestChinesewordsTheresultrepaysmeevenfarmorethanIexpectedIhopetohavefinishedbothworksbeforeChristmasandatlasttoothealphabeticalexaminationofthe450words(ofwhichabout150arehiddeninthe214keysthe64othersaresimilarlysoundingroots)Naturallyall this is only in reference to ancient Chinese which is at least as different(grammatically)frommodernChineseasEgyptianisfromCoptic

At the same time I am reading the translation of the three ldquoKingsrdquo andtransliterate some passagesAnd now Imust ask you to examine the inclosedsystem of transliteration I have devised it according tomy best powers afteryoursandLepsius systemSecondly Iwantyou to tellmewhether Iought tobuytheLeipzigtranslationofEichhoffsldquoParallegraveledesLanguesSanscritesrdquoMyowncopyoftheFrencheditionhasdisappearedPauliworksatanIndexoftheEgyptianhieroglyphicsandwordswhichIcansendyoubyandby

ldquoThedaysandtimesarehardrdquosaysanoldsong

TOTTERIDGEPARKTuesdayMorningOctober161850MYDEAR FRIENDmdashSo it seems that I am really not to seeyou this time I amtrulysorryandcountallthemoreonyourcallingonyourreturnifIamstillinEnglandIshouldliketohavethankedyouatonceforyouraffectionateletterformybirthdayButyouknow ifyoualtogether trustme thata lifelong love foryouliesdeepinmyheart

I had expected more from the great programme of New Oxford It is nothowevermuchmoreunsatisfactorythanthearticleonPlatothewriterofwhichnowavowshimselfItisonlypossibletoexcusethemilk-and-waterytreatmentofthesubjectthroughthegeneralmentalcowardiceandignoranceinintellectualmatterswhichissopredominantinthiscountryIfind[pg404]acomfortinthehopethatthisarticleistheprologuetoableexegeticalworkscombinedwithaconcretestatementoftheabsurditytheuntruthanduntenablenessofthepresentEnglishconceptionofinspirationDonotcallmetoaccounttoosharplyforthishopeoritislikelytoevaporatesimplyinpiouswishesMoralearnestnessistheonlythingthatpleasesmeinthismattertheimportantthingnowistoproveitinoppositiontoinvincibleprejudicesYourplanofpublishingyourIntroductionafter you have talked it over with Lassen and Burnouf and drawn in freshbreathandjustinJanuarytoopleasesmeverymuchIfImayallinthedarkgiveyousomegoodadvicetrytomakeyourselfclearontwopointsFirstastotheproperlimitsoflanguagefortheinvestigationofpastandprehistorictimesAsyet noonehasknownhow tohandle thesegiganticmaterialswhat JacobGrimmhaslatelyattemptedwiththemischildsplayItisnolongerofanyuseasaTitaninintentionbutconfusedastoaimanduncertaininmethodmdashitisnolongerofanyusetoputdowndazzlingexampleswhichdemonstratenothingoratmost only that something ought to be there to be demonstratedWhat youhavetoldmeentitlesonetothehighesthopesandthesewillberealizedifyouintheFrenchnottheTeutonicmannerarriveatfullunderstandingofwhatisatpresentamereinstinctiveintuitionandthusarriveattherightmethodYoucandoitOnlyIhavesomeanxietyas to thesecondpoint thehistoricalproofsofthe beginnings of nations That is theweak side first of all etymologists andword-mastersandthenespeciallyofallldquoIndologuesrdquoandof thewholeIndianpast itselfThere isanenormousdifferencebetweenwhatcan havebeennayaccordingtocertainabstracttheoreticviewsmusthavebeenandwhathasbeenThathowever isthedistinctiveproblemforhistoricalinvestigationAndhereaboveallmuchdependsonphilologicalknowledgeandsagacitybutstillmoreonthathistoricaltactwhichunderstandshowinferencesshouldbedrawnThisdemands much acquaintance with what is real and with purely historicalmaterial much practice and as regards character much self-denial In thisjudiciumsubactumof thehistorian lies thedifferencebetweenNiebuhrandOMuumlllerTosatisfythesedemandsitisonlynecessarywithyourgiftsandyourcharacterthatyoushouldwishtodosoearnestlyandperseveringlywishitOfcourse you will not separate the inquiry as to the oldest seat of the Sanskritlanguage from the [pg 405] surrounding problems I am perhaps too stronglyprejudicedagainsttheideathatthefamilyofwhichwearespeakingmusthave

wanderedfromthebanksoftheUpperIndustowardsBactriaandfromthencefoundedMediaandPersiaButIhaveforthepresentgoodgroundsforthisandviewswhichhavelongbeentestedbymeIcanwellimagineamigrationofthisfamilytoandfrofromthenortherntothesouthernslopesoftheHindu-KushandbackagaininEgyptoneseesmostplainlyhowtheSemiticorthefamilywhichinclinestowardsSemitismmigratedfrequentlyfromtheMediterraneanandtheEuphratestotheRedSeaandbackagainBut thisaltersnothingin the theoryontheonehandthatitisoneandthesamefamilyhistoricallyandontheotherhand that it isnotoriginallyAfricanbutAsiaticYouwillcertainlynotadoptNiebuhrs autochthonic theory where such facts lie before you But enoughOnlyreceive theseremarksasaproofofmy lively interest inyour researchesandinyourselfandmayMinervabeyourguideIrejoiceintheprizeyouhavegainedattheFrenchAcademyinParisbothforyouandtheFatherland

TheKinghassubscribedfortwentycopiesofyourVedaandyouhavereceived500 thalers of it beforehand The rest you will receive according to theagreement thenmade andwhichwas communicated toyou as certainlyafterthe revolution and constitution asbefore Icannot have said awordwith anyothermeaningImayhaverecommendedyounottodemandfutureprepaymenttheremighthavebeendifficultiesExamine then thecommunicationmade toyoutaketwentycopiesofyourfirstvolumeinyourpocketorratherintheshipand hand them in writing in any case to Humboldt and beside him to theminister concerned therefore to theMinisterofPublic InstructionAs towhatconcerns the King personally ask Humboldt what you have to do The thingitselfisasclearandsettledamatterofbusinessasanythingcanwellbeonthisveryaccountIhavecompletelyforgottentheparticulars

AndnowGodblessyoumydearfriendGreetallfriendlymindsandsoulsandfirst ldquothough I have not the pleasure of her acquaintancerdquo your mother andthenHumboldtandLepsiusbeforeanyoneelse

LONDONNovember41850Imusttellyoubyreturnofpostthatyourletterhasfrightenedmebywhatyoutellme respecting your strong impulse to [pg406] go toBenares or toBonn

ThisistheveryworstmomentforBonnandtheverybestforyourpublicationoftheIntroductiontotheVedasThecrisisinourcountrydisturbseverythingitwill soon be over and as I have good reason to believewithout dishonor orbloodshedTheywould do everything tomake your stay inBonn pleasant assoon as theyhave recoveredbreathStill youmust print thatEnglish book inEnglandandIshouldaddbeforeyousettleacrosstheChannelOrdoyouonlyintendtopayLassenavisitYouknewthatsometimeagoLassenlongedtoseeyoumorethananyothermanItwouldbeagoodideaifyousettletomakeanexcursion to Germany You are one of those who always arrange things bestpersonallyAtalleventsyoumustcometousthedayafterto-morrowandstaytillthe9thWeshallhaveahousefullofvisitorsthatday(evening)buttillthenbequitealoneOnthe7thyouwillgiveyourpresencetoGeorgeasabirthdaygiftaproofofgreataffectionOfFroudeIhaveheardandseennothing

EmpsonhasbeenheretwicewithoutleavinghisaddressIhaveadvancedasfarintheastronomyandchronologyoftheChineseasIcanwithoutanastronomerTheyhavebegunwiththebeginningoftheChaldeansWiththelanguagetooIhave reached firm soil and ground through the 120 words which becomeparticlesMorebywordofmouth

The struggle is overOpen conferenceswill be held atViennawhere Prussiawillrepresentandsecurelymaintaintheprincipleoffreeopinion

The8000BavarianswillreturnhomeagainThenewconstitutionoftheBundwill include all Austria (except Italy) and will have a diet which has nolegislativepowerininternalGermanaffairsWillRadowitzstaySendalineinanswer

LONDONDecember111850Inspiteofthecourierwhogoesto-dayImustwriteafewwordsinanswertoyourfriendlyinquiries

I am more and more convinced that you stake everything if you begin theimportant affair inBonnwithout going there yourself and on the other hand

thatthebusinesscannot fail ifyougo there lastly thatyoushouldgo thereatonce that Lassen and the government may not hit on something else OncebegunthethingwillIhopegoexactlyasyouwishButI[pg407]shouldbevery sorry if you were to leave Oxford before finishing the printing of theIntroductionThatisyourfarewelltoEnglandyourgreetingtotheprofessoriateinGermanybothworthyandsuitedtoyou

TheLecturesatOxfordappearbythesideofthisasasecondaryconsiderationIcannothoweverrestrainthewishthatyoushouldnotrefusethethingItisnotexpected that a deputy-professor should spendmore time than is necessaryonthe charge committed to him I should think you could arrange such a courseverypleasantlyandfeelcertainofsuccessifyouonlybearinmindLockhartsadvice to write as for ladiesmdashldquoSpartam quam nactus es ornardquo as NiebuhralwaystoldmeandIhavealwaysfounditagoodmaximIawaitthesendinginofyourarticlefortheldquoEdinburghrdquoinordertomakeallpreparationsatonceIhope you will be back from Bonn by Christmas Eve or else wait till afterChristmasbeforeyougo

As a friend of many years standing you will forgive me if I say that if thejourney toBonn is not financially convenient to you just now Idepend uponyourthinkingofme

9CARLTONTERRACEJanuary21851MostheartilydoIwishyousuccessandhappinessinthenewyearStanleywillhavetoldyouofournegotiationsastoyourbeautifularticleHewillhavelaidbeforeyouthesketchofagenuineEnglishprologueandepiloguepromisedbyhim and forwhich I gavehima few ideasYoucan thenchoosebetween theldquoQuarterlyrdquoandldquoEdinburghReviewrdquo

Pertzhasauthorizedmetopayyoupound20onthe1stofJanuaryasyouwishedSosend your receipt that I may at once send you the pound20 (in four bank-notes)unless you will fetch them yourself If you can be here onMonday you areinvitedtodinnerwithMacaulayMahonandGeneralRadowitzotherwiseanyotherday

P S (Wednesday) No my dear M I will not send your article but take itmyselfLetmehaveitsoon

LONDONMarch131851Itissuchadelighttobeableatlasttowritetoyoutotellyouthatfeweventsthis year have givenme such great pleasure as your noble success inOxfordTheEnglishhaveshown[pg408]howgladlytheywilllistentosomethinggoodand new if any one will lay it before them in their own halls and in theirldquogownrdquo Morier has faithfully reported everything and my whole familysympathizeinyourtriumphasifitconcernedourselves

IhaveheardfromEmpsonthathewillletyourarticleappearinthethirdquarter(1stJuly)Allspaceforthe1stofAprilhadbeenpromisedsinceDecemberHewillhaveitprintedveryearlythatwemayhavetimetoreaditcomfortablyandsee if it reallywantsaldquoheadand tailrdquoHe seems to think it isnotwantedSomuchthebetterIansweredhim

George writes diligentlyDe Nili fontibus and revels in the scientific life ofBonn He is coming at Easter for four weeks and intends immediately afterWhitsuntidetotakehisdegreecumhonore

YouhaveseenthatLachmannwasobligedtohavehisfootamputatedasitwasmortifyingTheoperationwasverywellperformedbutthequestioniswhethertheevilmaynotstillspreadHauptwritesingreatanxietyhehurriedofftohisfriendtonursehim

Theodore comes as early as the 7th ofApril and goes to theUniversity afterEaster

WehaveallhadsomethingofinfluenzabutnotsothatwewereobligedtogiveupourTuesdayeveningswhichareverywellattendedasmanyas300peoplewhoamusethemselvesanduswellWhenareyoucomingtous

IhavecometotheendofthethirdvolumeinworkingoverldquoEgyptrdquoandhavealreadybesidesathirdofthefourthvolumereadyforpressBythe1stofMay

thefourthvolumemustbesenttoGotha

CARLTONTERRACETuesdayMorningMay1318517oclock(OlympIII)accordingtonewGermanChronologySeetablesforldquoEgyptrdquo

ImustatlasttakemyearlymorninghourtowritetoyouinsteadofwritingorratherpreparingachapterofmyfifthvolumeForIfindthefloodofbusinesswhichbeginswithbreakfastsubsidesnowonlyaftermidnightandIhavemanythingsImustsaytoyouFirstmythanksandgoodwishesforthesketchofyourlectures You have rightly understood the importance of epic poetry in itshistoricalbearing and for the [pg409] first time connected itwith the earliesttimes of the epic nations namely the primitive period of their community oflanguage

Thishasgivenmeindescribablepleasureanddailyrousedalongingtoseeyouagainverysoonandtoreadtoyousomechaptersoutofmyfifthvolume thewriting of which has continued to be an excessive delight to me I haveattemptedtherestorationofthetimesofthepatriarchsinthefullbeliefintheirreal existence and in my own method and have been surprised at the greatresultsAfterIhadfinishedthissectionIfeltinspiritedtoaddtheIntroductiontothe Prefacewritten at Easter ldquoTheHistory andMethod of the Philosophy ofHistoryrdquo and then as by a stroke ofmagic I foundmyself again in the lostParadiseofthedeepestphilosophicalandhistoricalconvictionsofallmylifeonthestrengthofwhichIconsecratedmydimanticipationstodefinitevowsintheholyvigilsof1810-13andwrote themdownin the lastweeksofmyGermanlife (January 1816) inBerlin in order to explainmyself toNiebuhrThe littlebookwhich I thenwrote comesback again after the lapseof quite thirty-fiveyearsintomythoughtsThejourneytoIndiahasturnedoutajourneytoEgyptandthejourneyoflifehastenstowardsitscloseButthoughIsince1816neverfoundthemeansandopportunitytofixmyeyesonthefirstyouthfulidealafterIhaddedicatedmylifetoinvestigatetothinkandtoliveforitandthoughallthegrandandelevatedviewshadbeenhiddenfrommeinthenarrowvalleysoflife

and of special research except some blessedmoments of intuition I am nowagainraisedbythefloodofEgyptianresearchafteraquarterofacenturyontothe heights of the same Ararat from whence in the battle of life I had todescendIonlywishedtogiveanintroductorysurveyofthemanneroftreatingtheworldshistoryandtomyastonishmentsomethingelseappears towhichIyieldmyselfwithfearaswellasdelightwiththeoldyouthfulardorIbelieveIowesomethingofmygoodfortunethistimealsotomyenemiesandenviersForitisquitetrueasthenewspapersaidthatmyremovalorrecallwasdemandedfromtheKingnotonlybyourCamarillaanditstooltheministrybutbymorethan ldquoflesh and bloodrdquo that high demoniacal power which would willinglycrush Prussia andGermany in its unholy embrace It has come to an avowedstruggleAsyet theKinghasheld fast tomeaskingand friendSuchattacksalwaysfillmewithcourageousindignationandindignantcourageandGodhasgraciouslyfilledmyheart[pg410]withthiscourageeversinceIonthedayofthenewsofourcompletedefeat(November10)determinedtofinishldquoEgyptrdquoNeversinceIprojectedthefivebooksonEgyptwhenbesiegedontheCapitolby thePope andhis followers and abandonedby theministry atBerlin fromJanuary6thtillEasterSunday1838mdashneverhaveIworkedwithsuchsuccessEven theGreat Exhibition and the visit of the Prince and Princess of Prussiahavenot hinderedmeVolume IVwas finishedonSunday eveningApril 27and Tuesday morning the 29th I wrote at Dover the first chapter of theldquoTraditionsofPrehistoricTimesrdquoafterEasterSundayhadpresentedmewiththeabove-mentionedPrefaceOnthe27thofMayallthatisentailedbythePrincesvisitceasesagainonthebeachatDoverandonthe1stJuneIhopetobeabletobeginwith theldquoMethodologyrdquo IhavenowarrivedatLeibnitz in thehistoricalsurvey which is to close with Schelling andHegel Goethe and Schiller andwhichbeganwithAbrahamDontbefrighteneditwillpleaseyou

But now ifOxford and the gods of theVeda allow it you should comehereGeorgewillbeforehereturnstoBonnsailupthewatersoftheNilewithmehehaswrittenthefirstsketchofthedissertationandcangetthrougheverythinginBonninsixweeksIbelievehereturnsattheendofthefirstweek

ThinkthisoverIdosowishforhimtoseeyoubeforeheleavesMeanwhileImaytellyousubrosa thatonSaturdaymorninghewithColonelFischerandthecharmingPrinceFriedrichWilhelmwillgotoOxfordfromBirmingham(12oclock) and in strictest incognito show theBenares of Europe to the futureKing of Prussia who is enthusiastic about England He will write to youbeforehand he is now asleep resting himself after running about all day

yesterdaywiththePrinceandstayingataballtillmorning

ButenoughoftheoutpouringsofmyheartIhastentobusiness

FirstEmpsonhassentme theproof-sheetsofyourarticle Imeanyourarticlefor the ldquoEdinburghReviewrdquo Early thismorning I read it through at last andjoyfully and heartily utter myMacte virtute You have worked up the articlesinceIfirstreaditinMSfarmorethanIexpectedandcertainlywithgoodandpracticalresultsYourexamplesandparticularlyyournoteswillhelpandpleasetheEnglishreaderverymuchTheintroductionisasexcellent(adhominemandyet[pg411]dignified)astheendManythanksforitGodwillblessitTo-nightI shall readout the article tomywife children andNeukomm as I long agopromised and to-morrow I will send it to the printer (with a few correctedmisprints)andwillwritetoEmpsonldquowhatIthinkaboutitrdquoSofarsogood

SecondlyIfindIcannotwithhonorshrinkfromsomesortofcomparisonofmyEgyptianformsandrootswiththeSemiticandIranianformsandrootsThefactsaresoenormouslygreatthatitdoesnotintheleastmatterwhethertheproofcanbe thoroughly given in all its details I have therefore inmy need thought ofRoumldigerandhavesenta letter tohimofwhichI incloseacopyYouwillseefromitthatIholdfasttoyourfriendlypromisetostandbymeinthematterofIran What I said on the certainty and satisfactory completeness of the toolscontainedinmyEnglisheditionisIamfirmlyconvincednottoostrongStillIdonotmean to say that a comparisonwith rich resultsmightnotbe institutedbetweensuchCopticroots(Idonotadmititofthegrammaticalforms)ashavenotyetbeenrediscoveredamongthehieroglyphicsandtheancientAsiaticsomeof themmaybefoundagaininancientEgyptianalmostunformedandnotyetgrounddownbutthatismerepedantryinmostcasesWehaveenoughinwhatlies before us in the oldest form in attested documents to show us the rightformulafortheequation

Andnowforafewwordsaboutmyfamilywhichissotrulyattachedtoyouandwatchesyoursuccesswith realaffectionButno Ihavesomethingelse tosayfirstontheNiebelungenYourdelightfulletterawokeathoughtwhichhasoftencrossedmymindnamely that itdoesnotappear tome that thehistoricalandearlynationalelementwhichisbutthinlyveiledunderthepoeticalmatterhaseverbeensufficientlysearchedoutanddistinguishedGrimmhatesthehistoricalelementswhichliebeyondhisldquoBeginningsofNationsrdquoandmylatedearfriendLachmannoccupiedhimselfwiththemmostunwillinglyWhenin1825Iwrote

that little treatise in French for Chateaubriand which he printed in hisldquoMeacutelangesrdquoIwentoverwhathadbeensaidonthispointasfarasitconcernedmeandIwassurprisedtoseehowlittlehadbeendoneinitSincethattimeIhaveheardofno investigationsof thekindButwhocannowbelieve that thementionofGuntherandtheBurgundiansistheoneisolatedhistoricalfactinthepoemIsitnotevidentforinstancethatthemythofthecontemporaneousnessofAttila and the great [pg412] Theodoric of theOstrogoths has its historicalroot in thefact thatTheodoricKingof theVisigoths fell in thegreatbattleofChalons 451 fighting against Attila but his son Thorismund to revenge hisfathersdeathdefeatedthebarbariansinalastassaultandgainedthevictoryonwhichtheFrankspursuedtheHunsevenacrosstheRhineFromthisarosetheconnectionofAttilawithTheodoricthegreatKingoftheOstrogothswholivedforty years later and was intimately connected with the royal family of theVisigothsandwiththekingdomoftheVisigothsbutofcoursecouldneverhavehadanydealingswithAttila

If one neglects such intimations one arrives at last at theGoumlrres andGrimmclairvoyancewherenotonlyeverythingiseverythingbutalsoeverythingagainisnothingEtzelthoughisnotreallyAttilatoGrimmbutthefairynatureofthelegendallowsofnocertainconclusionsBut I find thateverywherewhere thetools are not wanting the fermentation and decomposition process of thehistorical element can be proved from which organically and by a processexactlyanalogous to thatof the formationof languages in the firstagesof theworld the epic legend arises which the genius of the epic poet lays hold ofwhenthetimecomeswithaconsciousnessofanhistoricaldestinyasthetragicpoetdoesinlatertimes

Ifyouhavetimefollowupthis ideaThis is theweaksideofyourgenerationand guild The whole national element has been kept too much in thebackground in the conceit and high-stiltedness not to saywoodenness of ourcritical researches Instead of saying with the humorists of the eighteenthcentury ldquoSince Hermans death nothing new has happened in Germanyrdquo oneoughttosayldquosinceSiegfriedsdeathrdquoThegeniusofthenationwhichmournedoverHermansfallandmurderwasthesamethatinitssorrowgaveshapetothelegendofSigurdMustnottheheartsofourancestorswhosebloodflowsinourveinshavefeltaswedoinlikecircumstancesTheprincesandtheirrelativeshavebetrayedandsoldandmurderedthetrueprinceoftheGermanpeopleevento this day And yet were there now but a Siegfried-Herman ldquoExsurgetaliquandoistisexossibusultorrdquo

I take this opportunity of calling your attention to a pamphlet by Bethman-HollwegwhichhasjustappearedldquoTheAncientGermansbeforetheMigrationofNationsrdquoIsendittoyouto-dayandyoumustbringitbackwhenyoucomeSendmewordbyGeorgewhenyoucanandwillcome

[pg413]TheExhibitionisandwillcontinuetobethepoeticalandhistoricaleventoftheperiod ldquoLes Anglais ont fait de la poeacutesie sans sen douterrdquo as that excellentJourdainsaidofhisproseComeandseeitandusassoonasyoucan

ThursdayMay1518517AMGeorgeinthehurryofhisjourneybegsyouthroughmetobesokindastobeattheOxfordstationwhentheBirminghamtrainarrivesSaturday(thedayafterto-morrow)at12oclockandthenkindlytohelphiminshowingOxfordtotheprincepsjuventutisTheyleaveagainat8oclockintheeveningThepartywillofcoursewantsomeroomsinthebesthoteltorestthemselvesSoitmightbewelltobespeaksomeroomsforthetravellersasapiedagraveterreThepartytravelunderthenameofColonelFischerorGeorgeBunsen

ItalkedoverthewholeplanoftheformsandrootswiththatgoodSteinschneideryesterdayandrequestedhimtoaskyoufurtheraboutitHewillinglyundertookto do thework in the course of the summer Thuswe have certainly got oneperhapstwofortheSemiticworkIhavegivenhimacopyofmyldquoEgyptrdquoHeseemstobegettingtame

LONDONFebruary31852I have exactly a quarter of an hour before Imustmakemyself grand for theopeningofParliamentandIwillspenditinchattingwithyou

IwillwritetoPocockenotwithstandingIcannothelpbelievingthattheGermanmethodofetymologyasappliedtohistorybySchlegelLassenandHumboldtandofwhichIhaveendeavoredtosketchtheoutlineistheonlysafeone

You have opened my eyes to the danger of their laying such dry and cheapravingstoouraccountunlessweldquoasGermansrdquoprotestagainstit

IamrejoicedatyourdelightwiththeldquoChurchPoetryrdquoButPaulineversentyouwhat I intended Iwanted to sendyou the first editionofmyHymnBook (nolonger tobehadat thebooksellers)because ithashistoricalandbiographicalnotices about the composers and contains in the Preface and Introduction thefirst attempt to render the features of continuity and the epochs moreconspicuous (It ismyonlycopy so [pg414]please for this reason takegreatcare of it) Also I wish to draw your attention to two translations from mycollectionFirstbyMissCox(daughteroftheBedellinOxford)c1840small8vo Second byArnold (Rugby) not Dr Arnold This last I can send you ItcontainsonetranslationbythegreatArnoldfirstpartYouwillobserveamongother points that the most animated hymns of praise and thanksgiving werecomposedamid thesufferingsof theThirtyYearsWarMyattentionhasbeendirected toHillebrands ldquoHistory ofGermanLiteraturerdquo threevolumes as thebestworkandtoVilmarsdittoonevolumeasthemostpopularImyselfonlypossessGelzersthoughtfulldquoLecturesrdquo(fromLessingtoGoethe)abookwhichIprefer to Gervinus as far as a just appreciation of the national character andsentiment is concerned (Withmany extracts) I rejoice at your cheerful spiritButnowbesatisfiedandmakemoreuseoftheRomancelanguagesTutiusibisYou have already sufficientmaterialsWe can andwill benefit this hospitablelandevenwithout theirdesiring itbutcautiouslyYouwill laughat this andforgivemebutIknowwhatIamaboutNextSaturdayVolumeIIreadyboundwill lie on my table The plan of the doctrine of the Trinity critical andreconstructiveisaboldundertakingtherestorationofthegenuinesubstanceoftheApostolicalconstitutionsandcanons(inthesecondhalfofVolumeII)willprobablyhaveatpresentmoresuccessButVolumeIIITheReconstructionandtheReformldquoThetwotext-booksoftheEarlyChurchTheChurchandHouse-Book and The Law-Bookrdquo in biblical phraseology and orthography chieflyderivedfromdocumentsneveryetmadeknownismypiegravecedereacutesistance thesauceforitintheIntroductioncontainsthreechapters(ThePictureTheMirrorThe PracticalReconstruction) for each section (Baptism SchoolConstitutionWorshipLife)

SofarIhadwritteneverythinginEnglishtantbienquemalwithouthesitatingamoment for thoughts orwordsBut here theMuse refusedmdashnot a single ideawouldflowintomypenAfterthreedaysIdiscoveredthatthespiritwouldandcould speakGermanSo I thenhastilyadded the firsthalfof the IntroductionandIhopethat thefirstcastof thewholewillbereadythisweekandaweeklaterCottrellwillhaveitfortranslationwhilstthetext-book(about140pages)isbeingprinted inslips Iamafraid theEnglisheditionwillnotappearbeforetheendofMarchof thesecondIhavealreadyreceived[pg415]VolumeII Ithink youwill approve of the offspringMayApollo and theMuses enlightenpeopleaboutBernaysImightthenhopethathewouldagaincomeheretomeinthesummer

GeorgehasnotyetannouncedhisdissertationasldquosentintothefacultyrdquotillthenheiswiselysilentHeappearstometobetoomuchthereinthefashionandinsocietyMaythedevilcarryoffallfashionablewomen

JohncallsGodblessyou

WednesdaymdashVivat Muumlller I am just writing my congratulations to BernaysVivatDean

PaulisbookappearsinEnglishwithouthisdoinganythingtoit

You may recommend in Oxford even to the most refined ladies and mostChristian evangelicals ldquoSpiritual Wordsrdquo from Goethe by Lancizolle 120pages12mo(3sbeautifullybound)ThatisaGermanBible

You know Wackernagels ldquoAnthologyrdquo It is useful but gives too much ofsecond rate Iwillmakemy daughters copy outArndtsGerman song for hiseighty-thirdbirthdayforyouAdieu

SaturdayMarch131852What inall theworld is thisundertaking towhichVauxasksmyaid theneweditionofHerbelotsldquoBibliotheacutequeOrientalerdquoItmightbemadeagoodworkalthough I hate the form but everything depends on the management It is

otherwise a mere booksellers speculation or Jesuits trick I have answeredprovisionally that in case biblical literature is to be taken up (which is highlynecessary) Ewald Freytag Bernays Roumldiger Hengstenberg and BernsteinshouldbesummonedtohelpIdontquitetrustthethingbutifitispossibletointroducethepeopletogoodideasIamreadytoaid

WhenareyoucomingIhavesentthelastMSto-daytothepressorrathertothetranslatorIhaveonlynowreachedthepointonwhichIcanreallyspeakinapracticaltoneVolumeIIIwillcontain600pages

LONDONNovember131852ThoughlateIsendyoumyheartygreetingsonyourreturntoEnglandIheardfromWilsonthatyouwerewellandthatyouhadleftyourmotherwellforthewinter

[pg416]HippolytusliesherereadyforyouonpurposethatyoumayfetchitIhopeyouwilldosoonthe18thforwhichyouhavealreadyreceivedtheinvitationYouwill find Morier also here Is not that furious and ridiculous article in theldquoMorningChroniclerdquo on the second volume (the first article as yetwithout acontinuation) by the same man (of Jesus College) on whose article in theldquoEcclesiasticrdquo on Hippolytus book I have thrown some degree of light TheleadingthoughtisexactlythesameinboththeaccountofCalixtusknaveryisinterpolated(byNovatianus)saysthewriterintheldquoChroniclerdquoThisisaproofthat nothing can be said against my argument requiring a serious answerGladstone felt ashamedof the review It has helped thebook but itwouldbereadevenwithoutthisandtherecommendationoftheldquoGuardianrdquomdashsoLongmansaysOnecirculatinglibraryherehastakentwenty-fivecopiesandwantsmoreSothebookcannotbeignoredandthatisallIfirstofallwishedforaculeumreliquiAsthepeopleofthiscountrywithafewexceptionsthatonecancountupononesfingersdonotunderstandthebooknoteventhetitleandhaveneverhadaconceptionofwhatitmeanstoreproducethespiritofacenturyofwhichmen as yet with the exception of Irenaeligus Tertullian ClemensAlexandrinusandOrigenknowonlythenamesandenigmas(ofwhichlatterHippolytuswas

one)theirfault-findingwiththecompositionofthebookdoesnotaffectmeatall In spite of the timidity of nearly all English theologians inter murosacademicosetextra Ihave receivedverymanyheartyandmanly letters fromnumerousanddistinguishedpeopleTheKinghasonmyrecommendationsentDrBoettichertospendtwoyearshereandinParisinordertobringtolighttheSyriactreasureswhichhavenotbeenlaidclaimtobyCuretonIseethatIhavenotbeenmistakeninhiminspiteofhissporadicmany-sidednessIamfreefromthe2dofDecemberThereisaletterofminejustprintingtoMissWinkworthldquoOnNiebuhrsPoliticalCharacterrdquowithextractsfromletters

PRUSSIANLEGATIONTuesdayNovember301852GeneralvonScharnhorsttheworthyandhighlyeducatedsonofhisgreatfatherintends going to Oxford the day after tomorrow Thursday by the morningexpressperhaps tostayover thenight Iwillgivehima lineforyoubeggingyouto[pg417]sethima littleonhiswayAs to thecollectionsgeographicalchartswillbethemostinterestingtohimhehimselfpossessesthelargestknowncollection(40000)

AssoonasthisinfernalgameisplayedoutinParisIhopetohavealittleleisureagainIhavewrittenawarningtoBernaysheisverymuchoutofspiritsandstill far behindhand says he only received the proper appointment (fromGaisford)inFebruaryandwithoutmentionofanyfixedtimeHewillwritetoyouandinclosewhatisdoneasaspecimenIamdelightedtohearfromLassenthat Aufrecht is coming to England Tell him to call on meCura ut valeasRawlinsonhasbeenpreferredtoLuynesandWilsonbytheBerlinAcademy

WednesdayDecember151852TellAufrecht Iwill try and arrange the affair for himwithout his paying anyduty and so at all events therewill be a reduction Iwas excessively pleased

withAufrechtYourparcelsforPertzwillgosafelyandquicklyiftheyarehereonthe1stor15thofthemonth

PSAufrechtmustbecourageousandkeepingoodspiritsHauptiscalledtoBerlin which rather surprises me Read the ldquoJournal des Deacutebatsrdquo SundayDecember12onHippolytusDoyouknowLaboulaye

PRUSSIANLEGATIONFebruary191853PleasetellmeatleisurehowAmestris(Herodix109)istobeexplainedasthewife of Xerxes I am convinced that Esther is hidden here which nameaccordingtothetestimonyoftheBookofEstherwasherPersiannameasshewas first calledMyrtle asher JewishmaidennameThereforeAmmustmeanldquoqueenrdquoldquomistressrdquoldquoladyrdquoorwhatyoumaydiscover I find that the ideahadoccurredtooneandtheotherevenabout100yearsagobutwasgivenuppartlyon account of its ldquogodlessnessrdquo partly on account of the uncertainty whetherAhasueruswasreallyXerxesasScaligerdeclaredTheSuabiansimpletons(fortheyare so inhistoricalmatters) are theonlypeoplewhonowdoubt this andthat the book is historicalmdashabookwith a history onwhich depends the onlygreatJewishfeastestablishedsincethedaysofMoses(tillthePurificationoftheTemple after the fall ofEpiphanes) Somy dear [pg418]M send it tomeTherecanhavebeenatthatsametimeinPersiabutonewomansovindictiveand clever as Esther is The first volume of my Prophets (from Abraham toGoethe) is readywithapopularexplanationof theageof theso-calledldquoGreatUnknownrdquo(Isaiah)ofDanielandallthePsalmsetc IwriteonlyGerman forthisbutonlyfortheEnglishandyetwithoutanyreserve

ThemostremarkableofthethirteenarticleswhichIhaveseenonHippolytusisbyTaylor(aUnitarianinManchester)intheldquoProspectiveReviewrdquo(February)He confesses that I have made the principle of the Trinity and the nationalblessingoftheEpiscopacyandtheLiturgycleartohimIhaveneverseenhimbutheseemstomeadeepthinkerIamagainincorrespondencewithBernayswhopromisestoworkatLucretiuswithalldiligenceIthinkhehasmoreleisureandhishealthisbetter

To-morrow the new African expedition sets sailmdashDr Vogel the botanicalastronomerandhisarmytwovolunteersfromthesappersandminersIamfullyoccupiedwith thisandbut formycuriosityaboutEstheryouwouldnothavehadalinefrommebeforeMonday

PRUSSIANLEGATIONMondayMybestthanksAllhailtotheldquoGreatEstherrdquoShewasreallycalledMyrtleforHadascha is inHebrew themyrtlemdasha name analogous to Susannah (the lily)That Esther is ἁστῆρ has long been generally admitted also that Xerxes isAhasverusTheanalogyofAchasveroshandKshayarshahasalsobeenprovedFinally the chronology is equally decisive The only thing still wanting isAmestrisWhat it is still important to know is whetherAma ldquogreatrdquo was acommondesignationofexaltedpersonagesorspeciallyofqueens(inoppositiontothePallakai)orwhetherthenameistobeconsideredasanadjectivetostarmagna Stella The first interpretation would make the Jewish statement moreclearIthinkdecidedlyitisthemostnaturalItisconceivablethatUncleOtaneslike loncledeMadame lImpeacuteratrice shouldhave takenadistinguishednamejustastheHebrewmyrtlehadbeenchangedintoaPersianstarButthereisnottheleasthurryaboutallthis

I rejoice extremely over your extemporary lecturesYou are now on the openseaandldquowillgoonswimminglyrdquoAlways[pg419]keeptheyoungmenwellinmindandarrangeyourlecturesentirelyforthemIshouldthinkthatthehistoryof Greek literature (with glances backwards and forwards) after O MuumlllersldquoHistoryofGreekLiteraturerdquowouldbeafinesubjectMuresbookgivesmanyanimpulseforfurtherthoughtInwhatconcernstheLatininscriptionsyoumustrelyonGrutersldquoThesaurusrdquoafterhimonMorelliofthemorerecentonlyonBorghese and Sarti and on the little done by my dear Kellermann There isnothingmorerarethanthepowerofcopyingaccurately

Bepatientwithmdashmdash ifhehasanhonestmind I can fancy that suchamindhavingbeentornwrongedandbotheredhasbecomeverycross-grainedOnlypatienceandlovecanovercomethis

OverweghasfallenavictimtohisnoblezealheliesburiedintheLakeofTsadVogelishappilyalreadyonthewaytoMaltaandTripoli

PRUSSIANLEGATIONMarch211853MrsMalcolmandLongmanareasdelightedasIamthatDrThomsonwillhavethegreatkindnesstowriteaprefacetotheldquoTheologiaGermanicardquoandtolookthrough the last proof-sheets Longman has informedme thismorning that hemakesoverhalf the net profits toMrsMalcolm and leaves to her the futurearrangementswithDrThomsonMrsMalcolmwishesfornothingforherselfbutwillhandovertheprofitstosomereligiousinstitutionWillyouarrangethematterwithDrThomsonLongmanwishestobeginonthe15thofMayorevenearlier if everything is ready for press Of course Dr Thomson knows thebeautiful(thoughnotexhaustiveforitisunfinished)treatmentofthehistoryofthisschoolinthelastvolumeofNeandersldquoChurchHistoryrdquopublishedafterhisdeathinwhichthatdelightfullittlebookbyDrCSchmidtldquoJohannesTaulerrdquo(Heidelberg1841)ismadeuseofYouknowthattheauthorhasprovedthatthefamousstoryof theconversionofTaulerbya laymanisrealhistoryThemanwascalledNicholasofBasleandwasinsecretoneoftheWaldensesandwasafterwardsburntassuchinFranceIcanlendthis littlebooktoyourexcellentfriendaswellasMartensensldquoMasterEckhardtrdquo(1842)andtheauthenticcopyoftherediscoveredSouth-GermanMSoftheldquoTheologiaGermanicardquo

[pg420]MasterEckhardtwasthedeepestthinkerofhisschoolDoesDrThomsonevercometoLondonGodblessyou

April81853mdashmdashs attempt on ldquoSt Hippolytusrdquo is a new proof that he no longer evenunderstandsGreek The critical conjecture about the spuriousness of the tenth

bookisworthyofthechampionofthefalseIgnatiusasagainstCuretonManythanks for your news about Dr Thomson which I have imparted to MrsMalcolm

LONDONMay121853I amgoing to-day to 77Marina St Leonards-on-Sea (nearHastings) till the21stor23danddonotseewhyyoucannotpaymeavisitthereOurhoststheWagnerswouldbedelightedtogiveyouaroomandmdashtheseaabath

Itakerefugethereinordertowriteanewhalf-volumefortheso-calledsecondeditionofHippolytusThewholewillhowever reallybeanewwork in threeseparateworksandsixvolumes

I hear that mdashmdash has lost his father In future when you send such a shyEnglishmantomeletmeknowbeforehandthathecomestotalkoversomethingwith me I had the greatest wish and leisure too to do all he wanted butdiscoveredonlyafterhewasgonethathecametoaskmesomething

Ayoung friendDrArnolds son has translatedWieses bookon schools andwishestoknowwhetherthetranslationaboutwhichyouhavewrittentoWiesehasbeenorwillbereallyprintedotherwisehewillpublishhisOrhasanyotheralready appeared I have been turning tables with Brewster It is purelymechanical the involuntarymotionof themusclesof thehand to rightor leftjust like the ringona threadwithwhichonecanstrike thehourEveryone ismadaboutithereCherazzadigente

Nowcomesanurgentprivate requestBekkerwishes topublishagrandworkthrough the Clarendon Press in return for a proper honorariummdasha definitiveeditionofHomerwitheverypossiblecommentarythatcouldbewishedThisisa great work worthy of the University and of Bekker I should like to learnthrough you what would be the Deans opinion who is I think favorablyinclinedtoBekkerItappears to[pg421]me tobeespeciallyneedful toguardagainsttheworkappearingasarechauffeacuteofWolfaparty-workforwhichthesanction of theUniversity is desired The proposal is ldquoTo publish a definitive

edition of Homer with Scholia and Commentary making it as complete andabsolutum as is wishedrdquo Please take the first good opportunity I wanted tospeak to theexcellentmanmyselfwhenhewas inLondonbutcame too lateHeartygreetingstoAufrechtBoumltticherworksfamously

STLEONARDSSaturdayMay221853I think incessantlyofyou though Icannot fancy thatyouare inanydanger IhavewrittentomybrotherlyfriendPhilipPuseytohelpyouifneedfulIfyouwish for good advice about the different parties combined with perfectacquaintancewiththeplaceandpeoplegotohimIknowfewmensoabletogivegoodadviceBesidesheisverymuchattachedtoyou

The inclosed has just reached me through George I will write to BekkeraccordingtoyouradviceThatyourintercoursewithAhasbecomesodelightfuland comfortable fulfills a hope I have cherished ever since I first saw him IthinkthatyouhavegivenhiminallrespectsadelightfulpositionTheGermancannoteasilygetovertheideathatGodsprovidenceshowsitselffarlessintheeternalgovernmentoftheworldandinthecaretakenofeverysoulthaninanappointmenttothecivilserviceTherearefewsuchplacesinEnglandformenofgeniusButhecannotfailwithusinGermanyifhedistinguisheshimselfinEnglandonlyheshouldintimeundertakesomeimportantandgreatwork

TheColognechoirsingherefromthe7thtothe21stofJuneEightyvoicesItwillbeagreattreatArrangesoastohearsomethingofitCarlisSecretaryofLegationandChargeacutedAffairesatTurinGeorgetillsthegroundbutnotyethisown but that will come some day like the kingdom of heaven Henry ispreparing tocollate theldquoCodexClaromontanusrdquo and has alreadyworkedwellon the imperfect text Ernst arranges his garden and house and has made abowling-green for me I am now translating my Hippolytus into historicallanguage inwhat I call a secondeditionWrite soon as tohow it is arrangedaboutyourprofessorship

[pg422]

CARLTONTERRACEDerbyDayI receivedyour letter hereyesterday fromStLeonards andwrote at once toPuseyIthinkitwillallgorightInyourplaceIwouldgoatoncetoPuseyafterannouncingmyselfthepreviousday

TellmewhycannotyouhelpthatgoodAtothepound250forthebesttreatiseontheSankhya philosophy I believe he has the right stuff in him for opposingPantheismwhichiswhatisdesired

NowforarequestIamwritingthesecondofmyfiveworkswhichhavebeencalledintoexistencebyHippolytus

SketchesonthePhilosophyoftheHistoryofMankindmdash

AOnthePhilosophyofLanguageBOnthePhilosophyofReligion

AisareproductionandimprovedarrangementofthelectureinOxfordwhichnowliesburiedintheldquoTransactionsrdquoInworkingoverthehistoricalpartIhaveputasideachapterldquoThePrimitiveLanguages in Indiardquobut findout justas Iintended tomakeyou theheroseponymus that you only dealt in your lecturewithBengalitheSanskritaffinityofwhichrequirestobedemonstratedonlytosuchwrong-headedmenastheBuddhistsareCouldyounotwritealittlearticleon this formybookTheoriginal language in IndiamusthavebeenTuraniannotSemiticbutweareboundinhonortoproveit

MondayMay30mdashMyletterhasbeenleftunsentIhavejustreceivedyoursLetme repeatwhat Iwrote and underlined on the first page It is a great trial ofpatiencebutbepatientthatiswiseOnemustneverallowthetoilsomelaborofyearsofquietreflectionandofutmostexertionfortheattainmentofonesaimtobedestroyedbyanunpropitiouseventItismostprobableandalsothebestforyouthattheaffairshouldnotnowbehurriedthroughYourclaimsarestrongerevery quarter and will certainly become more so in the eyes of the English

through good temper and patience under trying circumstances I dont for amomentdoubtthatyouwillbeelectedGermanywouldsuityounowaslittleasit wouldme andwe both should not suitGermanySpartam quam nactus esorna your good genius cries to you So patiencemy dear friend andwith agoodwill

Boumltticher is on the eve of bringing to a successful issue his thesis ldquoThat thetriliteralrootshavebecomebiliteralaccording[pg423]toanorganiclawrdquoHehasadvancedverymuchincriticalresearchIshallwriteareductioadabsurdumreviewontheRevmdashmdashmdashmdashItisreallyabookwritteninvitaMinerva

WritesoonagaintomeWithheartysympathyandtruefriendship

CanyoudoanythingforthegoodmaninNaumburg

LONDONJuly11853GoodmorningmydearMYouweresogoodastopromisemeachapterformyldquoSketchof theHistoryof thePhilosophyofLanguagerdquonamely the resultsofthelatestinvestigationsconcerningtheunityandTuraniancharacterofthenon-Sanskrit languagesof IndiaTheprintingofmy threevolumesgoeson so fastthatIamalreadyrevisingtheCelticportionofwhichMeyeristheHeros

If inyourresearchesontherelationshipoftheVediclanguagewithZendyouhave hit on new formulas please gather these results together into a separatechapterOnlyone requestmdashwithoutanydelay for theprintingpresses I hopeyouaresatisfiedaboutyourfutureinOxfordGreetyourfriendandcompanionwhomwe all liked verymuch Again four newmen fromDessau among thearrivals One is a famous actor from Berlin and has brought a letter fromLepsiusLucienBonaparte(brotherofCanino)isnowwritingabookhereldquoSurlOriginedesLanguesrdquoNowar

MondayJuly51853AwordofexplanationwithmybestthanksIdonotwanttheEgyptian-Iranianwork before September I am just printing the treatise on the ldquoOrigin ofLanguagesrdquoasapartofmyphilosophicalwork and in it Iwouldgladlyhavesomethingonyouandfromyouonthenon-SanskriticlanguagesBothchapterscanbequite shortonlydefiniteYoumusthelpmeover these twochapters Ishallsoonsendyouasaremindertheproof-sheetsofwhatgoesbeforethatyoumayseehowIamdrivenforitSowriteawayregardlessofconsequencesYouareby instinct far toocautious forme to feel the leasthesitationabout saying

[pg424]Iamgoingonrapidlywiththeprintingofmyfourvolumesandwriteconamoreattheeighth(HippolytusI)Thecourtgoesonthe12thforaweektoDublinAllrightNowaronlyupliftedfists

LONDONFridayEveningJuly91853Here follow thesheetswhich Ihave just looked throughandwhere Iwish tohavetwoshortchaptersinterpolatedWehaveonepageforeachasthelastleafremains blank Besides this there is room for many additions to the otherchapters which I commend to your critical and sympathizing attention YourBreslaufriendhasnevercalledonmeHemayhavebeenattheofficewhilstIwasoutHewouldbewelcomeYouropinionaboutSidneyPuseyhassetmeateaseGosoontoPuseystoseetheoldmanhimself

LONDONTuesdayMorningJuly131853ldquoWhat one desired in youth one obtains in old agerdquo I felt this as I read yourchapteryesterdayevening It isexactlywhat I firstwished toknowmyself inordertotellittomyreadersYouhavedoneitaftermyownheartmdashonlyalittletoobriefly foraconcludingsentenceon theconnectionof the languageof theAchaeligmenianInscriptionswithZend iswantingPraywrite formeatonce justsuchaTuranianchapterIhaveintroducedthatchapterthismorningascomingfromyouandhaveplacedyourname in the listof investigatorsmentioned inthe titlewhere it belongs For the Turanian part however youmust yourselfwritemesuchanIntroductionasIshallonlyneedtoprefacebyalineImeanyoushouldgivewhatyousendmeastheresultofaportionoftheinvestigationswithwhichyouhavebusiedyourself inyourOxfordLectures andwhichyouintend to publish in your ldquoVestigesrdquoNevermind space it will all fit inYou

havejusthittherighttoneandmeasureandhavewrittenthelittlechapterjustaftermyownheart thoughIfirstlearntthematterfromwhatyoutoldmeDoyouwishtoseethelistofexamplestoldquoGrimmsLawrdquoagainwhichyoumadeoutformylectureandwhichIshallgiveinmyAppendixinordertomakeanyadditionsIhaveasmuchspaceasyouwishevenfornewAppendicesifyou[pg 425] will only give me some This will be a pet book of mine and aforerunnerofmyldquoPhilosophyofHistoryrdquoIdonotdoubtbutthatitwillbereadinEnglandandindeedbeforeallmyotherworksonHippolytusforIgiveitasaphilosophicalkeytoHippolytusI findthat thoughatfirstdespised ithas inthelastfewmonthsbecomethefavoritepartofmyHippolytusWritemealinetosayhowyouareandwhatyouareaboutAgainmydearMmybestthanks

PSIsthereanythingtobesaidinthetextorAppendixorinbothabouttherealresultsofAufrechtsinvestigationsontheItalianlanguagesIshouldliketotaketheopportunityofbringinghisnamebeforetheEnglishpublic

WednesdayJuly141853This will do my dearM To-morrow early I will send you the fifth chapterprintedforcorrectionandexpectyourotherchapterConcerningAitisclearyoumustwritethatchapterforAcandoitaslittleasISoletmehavethattooIntheCatalogueoftheexamplesforldquoGrimmsLawrdquogeteverythingreadyandIwillthensendyouthesheetthatyoumayentertheadditionsandcorrectionsmdashor better still you can sendme the additions and corrections first and IwillhavetheminsertedatoncePleasedothis

LONDONJuly151853YourMSmydearfriendisjustdispatchedtotheprinterwiththeordertosendthe proof of the whole chapter direct to you at Oxford Send the Mongolianchapteras soonasyouconvenientlycanbutnot sooner thereforewhenyour

headismorefreeTheprintinggoesonanditcannotbepagedtillyourchaptersarereadyandalsoIhopetheItalianonefromAufrechttowhomIamwritingaboutitto-dayHecansendittomeinGermanYoumustgivehimsomehelpasto the length and form It is best for him if Ipersonally introducehim to theEnglishpublic amidstwhichhenow lives and towhichhemust look for thepresent So I hope to receive a real masterpiece from the OxfordMission ofGermanScience

ValeCurautvaleasTotustuus

[pg426]

TuesdayJuly20185310oclockldquoAstothelanguageoftheAchaeligmeniansrepresentedtousbythePersiantextsof the Cuneiform inscriptionsrdquomdashso I began this morning determined tointerpolateaparagraphwhichiswantinginyourbeautifulchapternamely therelationship of the language of the inscriptions to that of the Zend booksincludingthehistoryofthedecipheringwithGrotefendinthebackgroundatthesame time avoiding the sunken rocks of personal quarrels (Burnouf contraLassen) My young house-pundit gives the credit to Burnouf (as he firstinformedLassenoftheideaaboutthesatrapies)HoweveritseemstomeonlynaturalthatyoushouldwritetheconclusionofthischapteryourselfIshallalsowriteashortchapteronBabylonforwhichIhavestilltoreadHincksonlyanuncomfortableauthorashehasnomethodorclearnessprobablyalsothereforenoprinciples

NowletusmakethislittlebookasattractiveandusefultotheEnglishaswecanforthatisreallyourmission

BoumlticherasksifyoudonotwishtosaysomethingonthetwodialectsofZenddiscoveredbySpiegelmdashaninquirywhichdelightsmeasBoumltticherandSpiegelareatwarandinGermanfashionhaveabusedeachother

CARLTONTERRACEFridayMorningJuly231853AnythingsoimportantsonewandsoexcellentaswhatyousendmecanneverbetoolongYourtableisalreadygonetotheprinterWithregardtothegeneralarrangementIwouldaskyoutokeeptheplaninmind

1 That all references (as for instance the table of the forty-eight languages)belongtotheAppendixorAppendices

2Thearrangementoftheleadingideasandfactstothetext(ChapterX)

3Nothingmustbewantingthatisnecessaryfortheestablishinganewopinion

Your tact will in all cases show you what is right The justification of thoseprinciples youwill assuredly findwithme in the arrangement of all the otherchaptersandofthewholeworkasalsointheaiminviewnamelytoattractalleducated [pg 427] Englishmen to these inquiries and show themwhat emptystrawtheyhavehithertobeenthreshing

GreetAufrechtandthankhimforhisparcelIcannotarrangeChapterIVtillIhavehiswholeMSbeforemeIcangivehimtillTuesdaymorning

Theseparatechapters (twelve) Ihavearrangedaccording to thechronologyofthefoundersof theschoolsWhatisstill inembryocomesasasupplementasKoelles sixty-seven African Languages and Dietrich and BoumlttichersInvestigation of Semitic Roots If your treatise is not somuch a statement ofSchottCastreacutenandCoasyourownnewworkyoushallhavethelastchapterforyourself

And now last but not least pray send me a transliteration table in usumDelphiniIwillhaveitprintedattheendofthePrefacethateverybodymayfindhiswayandIshallturninfuturetoitandseethatalltransliterationsinthebookaccordwith it Imust ask for it therefore by returnYou understandwhatwewantldquoAtransliterationalphabetforexplainingthesignsemployedrdquowouldbeagoodprecursortoyoursandLepsiusscientificworkWeshalldowelltoemployinthetextasfewtechnicallettersaspossible

To-dayIamgoingtoseetheldquoBrideofMessinardquoforthefirsttimeinmylifeIhavenoideathatthepiececanpossiblyproduceanyeffectandIamafraidthatitmayfailButDevrientisofgoodcourage

CARLTONTERRACEJuly291853ldquoWhatislongdelayedmustbegoodwhenitcomesrdquoSoIwouldbepatienttillyou had really caught your Tartar did I not fear that my dear friend wassufferingagainfromhiswretchedheadachesMeanwhileIworkeduptheItalicaandthesummaryofthesixty-sevenAfricanlanguagesisgettingintoshapeandtheprinters devils are runoff their legs Itwouldbedelightful ifmydearMweretosendmesoonthechapterontheMongolsonlyhemustnotworkupaheadacheYouwillhavereceivedmySchottlastweekbybookpost

IhavenotbeenwellTheodorahashadgastricfeverbut isquiteon themendsincethismorning

AtlastIhavereceivedLassenIII(2)withthemap

[pg428]

CARLTONTERRACETuesdayAugust21853Half-pastelevenoclockMycourieroccupiedmetillnineSincethenIhavereadthroughyourletterwithintensedelightandnowinaquarterofanhourImustgo to therailwayforacountry partywithGrote I hasten to thank you for this beautiful gem formyIntroductionandformywholebookYoushallhavethelastwordYourtreatiseistheonlyoneinthecollectionwhichextendsbeyondisolatedtypesofspeechand families although it preserves throughout the scientific method of Indo-Germanic philology It was a double refreshment to me as out of

conscientiousness I had looked at and skimmed through Ls perverse booksWhatdeterminedimpudencethereisinthatman

Whilst I am looking overmymaterials amongwhichAufrechts contributionlooksverywellIfeelverystronglythewantofareportofthelastresultsoftheCaucasian languages My two lines on Rosen look too miserable also newworkshaveappearedonthesubjectSamielhelp

IamentirelyofyouropinionconcerningthetransliterationbutImaintainthatyoumustsendmeatable(key)toyourowntransliterationForyourtableoftheforty-eight isotherwisenoteasy formygoodEnglish readersorevenformeandtomostitisunintelligibleWiththeothersIshallsoonfindmyway

IintendtoinsertachapterondefiniteterminologyIthinkitmustbesettledfromtheonlytenablehypothesisnamelythespreadingabroadfromonecentralpointin mid-Asiamdashthat is from the great district which (originally) was boundedtowardsthenorthbytheopenPolarSeawiththeUralIslandorPeninsulatothewest by theCaucasus andArarat east by theAltai andAltanMountains andsouthbythecontinuationoftheTaurusMountainswhichstretchintheinteriorfromwesteastasfarastheHindu-Kush

ThereforeforTuranian==Ural-Altaicorthenortheasternbranch

ForSemitic==ArameanfromAramtheMesopotamianhighland

ForJaphetic==Easternhighlandorsoutheasternbranch

WhatdoyouthinkofthisImustgetfreefromSemitie[pg429]etcbecauseChamiticappearstobeprimitiveSemiticjustasTuranianleanstowardsIranian

ThecarriageisthereBestthankstoAufrecht

YouareindulginginabeautifuldreamifyouimaginethatIhaveDietrichhereIhavestudiedhistwovolumesIwishIcouldsummonhimtohelpmeHewasmostanxioustocometoEnglandIamafraidofayoungscholarwhomIdonotknowpersonally

August41853Only awordmy dear friend to express to youmy delight and admiration atyourTuranianarticleIwassocarriedawaybyitthatIwasoccupiedwithittillfarintothenightItisexhaustiveconvincingandsuccinct

WhatdoyoufeelaboutthepresentstateoftheinvestigationsontheBasqueIhave convincedmyself bymy extracts from the grammar and dictionary thatBasqueisTuranianbutIhavenothingfitforprintingIhaveneverseenRasksworkDoyouknowitandcanyoumakeanythingoutofit

There isonlyonepointonwhichIdonotagreewithyouYousaythere isnopurelymonosyllabic languageButeven thatwretchedmodernChinesehasnodissyllabicwordasthatwouldentailalossoftheaccentOrdoyoudenythisIhavecoveredthebaldnessofourGermanvulgarismldquothiefrdquoldquoliarrdquoinBoumlhtlingkversusSchottandsaidldquoWithananimositymoreGermanthanAtticrdquoDoesthatpleaseyouGreetingstoAufrecht

ABBEYLODGEAugust221853(Continuation of our conversation) Before anything else finish the IranianChapterIIIformeacopyofwhichIgaveyouthatistobeprintedatonceastheItalicChapterII isprintedandneedsonlyrevisingYouwillshakethisatonceoutofyourconjuringbagwontyou

HIGHWOODFridayAugust261853ItstrikesmemydearestMthatweshouldbemorecorrectinchristeningyouressayArianinsteadofIranianIhavealwaysusedIranianassynonymouswithIndo-Germanic(which[pg430]expressestoomuchandtoolittle)or(whichisreallyasenselessname)Indo-EuropeanArianforthelanguagesofAriainthewidersenseforwhichBactriamaywellhavebeenthestarting-pointDontyou

thinkwemayuseArianwhenyouconfineyourselftoSanskritZendandParsi

IgetmoreandmoreangryatLsperversenessindoubtingthatthePersiansareAryansOnecannot traceforeignwordsinPersianandjust theseitmusthavecarriedoffasastigmaiftherewereanytruthinthethingOneseesitinPehleviButthenwhatSemiticformshasPersianThecuriouspositionofthewordsinthestatusconstructusisverystrikingYetyouhaveexplainedthatWherethenaretheAramœismsintheAchaeligmenianInscriptionswhichsurelyarePersianinthe strictest sense Earlier the Persians may have been tormented by theTuraniansandevensubjugatedbuttheBabylonianruleofShemitesoverPersiacannot be of old date About 2200 B C on the contrary the BactriansconqueredBabylonandkeptitforalongtimeButwouldnottotallydifferentcorruptionshaveappearedinPersianiftheyhadallowedtheirlanguagetobesoentirely ruinedAcorruption and thena laterpurification through theMedessoundsQuixoticWillyounotprovethispoint

IfyoucangivesomechronologicallandmarksfortheepochoftheVedadialectpraydosoThereissomuchinLassenthatonelearnsnothingIfanciedtheageof theMahacircbhacircrataandRacircmacircyanaepochwas tolerablysettledandthat thusafirmfootinghadbeengainedasthelanguageisthatofthesamepeopleandthesame religion If you can say anything in the language-chapter about thegenealogy of the mythological ideas it would be delightful for you to takepossessionof itwithoutencroachingonyourownfutureexplanationsAndsogoodlucktoyou

HIGHWOODFridayMorningAugust261853YourheartyandaffectionatewordsformybirthdayaddedtothehappinessofthedaywhichIspenthereinthequietofthecountrywithmyfamilyIhavelonglookedonyouasoneofusandwhenIlookforwardintothefutureIseeyourform as one of the bright points which there present themselves to me Yougroannowundertheburdenofaveryheavymountain[pg431]whichyouhavetaken on your shoulders as others would take a block only the further youadvancethemorewillyoubesatisfiedthatitisapartoftheedificewhichyouwillyetfindtimetofinishandatthesametimeitwillstandbyitselfasaκτῆμα

ἐςἀεί

Georgeiswellandwillbewithusto-morrowweekTheodoraaweeklater

PlaceyouressaywhereyouwillIfindtheconnectionwiththeGothicbymeansof ldquoGrimms Lawrdquo most natural The foundation of my arrangement was thepurelyexternal ideaofprogressionfromthenearer to themoreremotemdashfromtheknowntotheunknownIhopethatnexttimeAufrechtsmusewillgiveusanintermediate chapteron theHellenesPelasgiansThraciansAEligoliansDoriansand Ionians it is curious enough that these are entirely passed over I do notknow though what positive facts have resulted up to now from comparativephilologyasregardstheHellenicelementAnhistorical insightisneededheresuchasOttfriedMuumlllerhad justbegun toacquirewhendeathrobbedusofhisnoblemindButMuumlllerreallyunderstoodnothingofcomparativephilologyastheIntroductiontohisEtruscansprovesThePelasgiansmusthavebeenanearlyconnected people the Thracianswere certainly so But from the north comesHellas and from Hellas the Ionian Asia Minor However the history of thelanguagefallsinfinitelyearlierthanthepresentnarrowchronologistsfancyTheTrojanWarthatisthestruggleoftheAEligoliansettlerswiththePelasgiansonandaroundthesea-coastliesnearer2000than1000BCThesynchronismsrequireitItisjustthesamewithCreteandMinoswheretheearlyPhœnicianperiodisout of all proportion older than people imagine Had we but monuments ofGreek like theFratresArvales inLatinHomer is somoderneven thoughhecertainlybelongstothetenthoreleventhcenturyThatwasatimeinwhichtheHellenicmindsangthehistoryofthecreationinthedeepmythofPrometheusthe son of Iapetos with his three brothers the emblem of humanity a poemwhichHomernolongerunderstood

NowcheerupmydearestfriendThebookmustcomeout

Trulyandcheerfullyyours

Mywifesendsherheartygreetings

[pg432]

LONDONSeptember21853MygoodwishesfollowyoutoWaleswithoutknowingyouraddresssoformyletterImustapplytoAufrechtIhopeyouwillspeedilysendmethelinguisticproofthatthenobleVedichymnyousentusbelongstoatleast1000yearsmdashnotBCbutbefore the languageof theepicpoetsStill this cannot reallybe theoldestforitalreadycontainsaperfectreflectionoftheoldpoeticage

HarethinksthetranslationexcellentasIdoonlyoneexpressionldquoPoetsintheirheartsdiscernedrdquowe can understand only ifwemake it ldquohave discernedrdquo (orseen)mdashforotherwiseitisonlyacontinuationofthenarrativewhichcannotbethemeaningSendittomeinGermanforSchelling

It iscoldand rainyhere sodont find faultwithWales ifyouarehavingbadweatherthereCurautvaleasAlltheMusesbewithyou

LONDONFridayMorningSeptember241853YouhavesentmethemostbeautifulthingyouhaveyetwrittenIreadyourVedaessay yesterday first tomyself and then tomy family circle (including LadyRafflesyourgreatfriendinpetto)andwewereallenchantedwithbothmatterandformIthenpackedupthetreasureatonceatnineitgoestotheprintersIthinkthatthetranslationofthehymnisreallyimproveditisnotyetquitecleartomewhetherinsteadofldquopoetsdiscernedrdquoitshouldnotbeldquopoetsdiscernrdquoorldquohavediscernedrdquowhichisatalleventsthemeaningAndnowIhopethesamefatheroftheMuseswiththeirmotherMnemosynewillaccompanyyouintotheTuranianwildernessandgiveyoucouragetoadoptthepoorMalaysthatinthenext separate edition of this sketch asMithridates wemay already have thelinks for joining on Australia and East Africa We go on printing valiantlyDietrich has at once accepted my proposal with true German good-naturealthoughhehasonlybeenmarried forsevenmonths toayoungandcharmingwifeHisgoodmother-in-lawtried toshorten thesixmonthswhichheat firstofferedbutthatwouldneithersuitmenorhimsoIhavewrittentohimtocome

awayatoncemdashtoarriveherethe16thofOctoberinsteadofinNovemberthatImaydismisshimwithmyblessingearlyinApril

[pg433]JMohl ishereandRosenBothgoonMonday Igive themonSaturday (to-morrow) an evening party of literati to which I have invitedWilson NorrisLoftusBirchetcetcMohlaswellasRosenwouldliketoseeyouCouldnotyoubyastrokeofgeniusflyhererestyourselfSundayandthinkonMondayifyoureallyneedgobackagainTheodore ishereandGeorge isexpectedMyhouseholdallsharemywishtoseeyouGreetingstoAufrecht

Boumltticher has discovered a fragment of Livy (palimpsest) and the Greektranslation of Diocles who 120 B C wrote the ldquoFounding of Romerdquo(fragment)

AnotherideahasjuststruckmeCouldonenotperhapsmaketheoriginalunityof Aryans and Europeans clear if one furnished the hymn written in Latinletterswithan interlinear translation justasyouoncegavemean intuitionofthe first lineswhich I have never forgotten The translationwould be best inLatinwithreferencestotheotherlanguagesaccordingastheoneortheotherofthemcontainscertainradicalswith thesamemeaningas inSanskrit Ifyoudonot like this you must prepare for me a Vedic Paternoster just as Lepsiusdevisedformeapyramido-PharaonicandnowpreparesaNubian

Ihaveannouncedyouasamemberof theAssyrianSocietyandsosavedyouthreeguineas It is arranged thatwhoever pays twoguineas should receive allreportstransactionsetcIhavethereforeinsertedyournamewithtwoguineasandpaidit

LordClarendonhasonmyrecommendationattachedLoftustotheembassyatConstantinoplesothathehasapositionatBagdadandMosulHeleavesonthe1st of October and we give him a parting entertainment on the 28th of thismonthTheplanisasecretbutwehopegreatthingsfromitIhopetosecurethebestduplicatesfortheBerlinMuseum

ACheruscancountrymanpersonallyunknowntomeSchuumltzfromBielefeldtheSanskritisthasaskedwithantiqueconfidenceforabedforhisyoungdaughteronherwaytoLiverpoolasagovernesswhichwehavepromisedhimwithrealpleasureThishasagainshownmehowfullGermanyisofmenofresearchand

mind O my poor and yet wealthy Fatherland sacrificed to the Gogym(heathen)

[pg434]

CARLTONTERRACEMondayOctober17185310oclockI have already admonished the printer most seriously You have revised thetables once but they had to be fresh printed on account of the innumerablealterationsButthatisnoreasonwhyyoushouldnotgetthemYouwouldhavehadthemlongagohadIhadanideaofitIamimpatientlyawaitingyoursandAufrechts revision of Chapters II III and IVwhich I sent youmyself lastweekThispressesverymuchYouhavenotmuchtodotothemIwilllookafterthecorrectEnglishherewithCottrellbutalltherestAufrechtcanshakeoutofhisbagInyourletteryousaynothingofhavingreceivedthemTheyweretakentothebook-postonMondayeveningthe16thaweekagoandsentoff

MiraccomandaSignorDottoreperilmanuscrittoIwillarrangetheprintingasmuch as possible according to your wishesMuch depends on themanner inwhichyouorganize thewholeWith short chapters easily looked through thewholecanbebroughtforwardasatreatiseintendedforall readersIhavenothoweverbeensofortunatewithmySemiticessayIhaveprintedagooddealofit in small print partly to save space (for the volume on the ldquoPhilosophy ofReligionrdquomustreallynotbeevenhalfasthickasthefirst)partlyonaccountofthelegibility

IamsosorrytohearfromPertzthatyouhavebeensufferingfromheadacheIhopeyouarequitewellandbriskagain

CARLTONTERRACESaturdayMorningOctober22185310oclockAllrightmydearfriendIhavealreadysenteverythingoff totheprinterIt iscertainlybetter soWherepracticableyoushouldhave two chapters instead ofone

Ffoulkesbookshallbe takencareofeitheronthe1stor15thThesamewiththeldquoBamptonLecturesrdquoifitiswishedIshallreceiveMrThomsonsummocumhonore

ButnowmydearfriendwheredoesthegreatTuranianessayhideitselfPrayletmesoonreceivesomethingnot later thanMondayorTuesdaysend itasaparcelbyparcelsdeliveryorwhichisthecheapestandquickestbybook-postwhichtakesMS(notletters)aswellasprintedmatterandforwardsbothfor6dthelb

[pg435]IhavesentmymostdifficulttasktotheprintersldquoOriginoftheThreeGospelsaspartof theSecondAge66-100rdquo Iamlongingfor thepromisedaddendafromAufrecht on the Haruspex The printing is stopped for it also for the answerabout a hieroglyphic which is unintelligible in London instead of the honestamacirc==motherwhichisnotgoodenoughforhim

CARLTONTERRACEMondayEveningOctober241853

ldquoIthaslightenedmdashontheDanuberdquo

It is of too much importance to me to have my dear Turanians thoughtsaccordingtohisownbestwayandformformenottobereadytowaittilltheendofNovemberTheentirework insevenvolumesmustcomeout togetherandIcankeepbacktillthenthefirstpartoftheldquoPhilosophyrdquowhichisentirelyprintedinslipsuptoyourchapterandgoonwiththesecondJustlookonceatthatbookbytheScotchmissionaryldquoTheKarensorMemoirofKo-tha-byardquobyKincaid on the Karens in Pegu He maintains the unity of the Karens andKakhyans another form of the same and of all the scattered branches of the

same race starting fromThibet (fivemillions altogether) as the remnant of aonceverypowerfulpeopleTojudgefromtherepresentationstheracemustbeveryhandsomeFrauvonHelfertoldmethesameandsheknowsthemThereare extracts given in the ldquoChurch Missionary Intelligencerdquo October 1853PrichardsayslittleaboutitandhasnospecimensofthelanguageIhavenotgotLathamathandHaruspexisprintingitwaitsfortheconclusionIhavereceivedThomsons ldquoBampton Lecturesrdquo Where does rife come frommdashAnglo-SaxonryfeItmeansprevalentabundant

FridayMorningOctober281853HereistheprintersexcuseItisuselesstothinkofprintingatOxfordYouhadbetternowkeepthetablesincaseyoumakemorealterationstillyouhavequitefinished your work that nothing more may require alteration but what youchangeduringyourworkIwillsendyouKincaidifitisinLondonPerhapsbyasmilefromtheMusesyoucangetthefirstpartreadyinNovemberIstheDeanbackGood-by

[pg436]

CARLTONTERRACEMondayNovember11853Please sendme the letter forHumboldt Iwill inclose itWrite him (andme)wordinEnglishwhatarethenameandobjectoftheTaylorInstitutionandthenameoftheofficeYouwillreceiveKincaidfrommeIwillseeafterthetablesSocourage

CARLTONTERRACETuesdayEveningNovember21853IhavewrittentoHumboldttoannounceyourletterandrequestsowriteatoncedirecttohimIhavetoldPertztosendmethetreatiseofSchottbythecourieronthe 15th So you will receive it on the 20th of this month I have againadmonishedtheprinterGodblessyou

LONDONWednesdayFebruary81854My heartiest congratulations on your well-earned success (TaylorianProfessorship)Yourpositionin lifenowrestsonafirmfoundationandafinesphereofworkliesbeforeyouandthatinthisheaven-blestsecurefreeislandand at amomentwhen it is hard to saywhether the thrones of princes or thefreedomofnationsisingreatestdangerIsendyouthepapersastheyareThereishopethatthewarmayyetberenderedimpossible

Withtrueaffectionyours

ThanksforyourSchleswigcommunication

CARLTONTERRACEApril141854DEARESTFRIENDmdashSoitisMyfatherhasnotuptothismomentreceivedarecallandprobablywillnotinspiteoftheeffortsoftheRussianswithinandwithoutBerlinOntheotherhandweexpectto-morrowthereplytoananswersentbymy father in opposition to a renewed and very impetuous offer of leave ofabsenceInthisanswer(ofthe4thofthismonth)myfathermadehisacceptingleaveofabsencedependentonthefulfillmentofcertainconditionsguaranteeinghispoliticalhonorIfthereplyexpectedto-morrowfromBerlindoesnotcontainthose conditions nothing remains but for my father to [pg 437] send in his

resignation and leave the Prussianmock negotiations to be fought through byanother Prussian ambassador If they are accorded to him hewill go on longleave of absence But in either case he will certainly remain provisionally inEngland More I cannot tell but this is enough to give you informationconfidentially

Dietrichisgoneandbeggedmetotellyouthatinspiteofconstantworkatitherehecouldnot finishyourcommissionHewillhave leisure inMarburg tomakeitallclearforyouandwillsendthepacketherebythenextcourierIwillsendyoualineto-morrowastotheeventsofthedayMyfatherdoesnotgointothecountrybeforeTuesday

GEORGEBUNSEN

CARLTONTERRACEMaundyThursdayApril1854MYDEARFRIENDmdashThebearerHerrvonFennenbergfromMarburghasbroughtmegreetingsandalittlebookfromThierschandwishestobeintroducedtoyouHe is a philologist in particular a Sanskritist He wishes to have a place oremploymentthatwouldmakeitpossibleforhimtostayinEnglandIknownoonewhocouldbetteradvisehim thanyouBeforeyou receive these linesyouwillhearfromGeorgeaboutmeIamdeterminedtofightthroughthecrisisandamquitecalm

CARLTONTERRACEWednesdayMay101854DEAR FRIENDmdashOf course Dietrich has sent nothing The affair presses Mysummary of the Semitic alphabet (lithographed) gives the summary of thesystemoftransliterationusedinthisworkandisalsointhepressSetasidethenwhatisstillwantingandhurryonthematterformeMyjourneytoHeidelbergwithmy familywho at all events goon the20th dependson theworkbeingfinished To-day I take refuge at St Leonards-on-Sea 77 Marina till thetelegraphcallsmetoLondontoreceivemylettersofrecallIdependthereforeonyour friendlyhelp inoneof themost importantpartsof thebookAll rightherethehouseisdesertedbuttheheartrejoicesandthesoulalreadyspreadsitswingsTrulyyours

JuststartingDearMpraysendtheMSSpottiswoodelayseverythingonyou

[pg438]

77MARINASTLEONARDSMondayMorningMay151854YourdespairingletterofThursdayhasalarmedmeverymuchYouhadofferedme the alternative of leaving out the Semitic tables ifDietrich does not sendthembythecourierIdidnotwritetohimastheomissionofthatlistreallydidnotseemtomeagreatmisfortuneButnowyousaysomethingquitenewtomeandmostdreadfulthatyoucannotmakethecorrectionswithouthavingwhatIamunable toprocure for you Imust own I cannotmake this outTrusting toyour goodwill to do theutmost Iwrote to Petermann to send you at once animpression of the Semitic paraphrase put together by me and Boumltticher ThecouriercomesonFridayonlyIhavegivenupalldependenceonDietrichsincehecouldtakeawaythelistswithhimHeneversaidawordtomeaboutit

Imust go to Germany on the 16th of June Yesterday I sent all the rest toSpottiswoode and at the same time complained about Watts Only what canthey andwhat can I do if you do not enable us to finish themost importantbook of the three works I hope you have not worked yourself to death forTrevelyan and that you will reserve a free hour for London to say good-bySince last night I am at work at my German ldquoEgyptrdquo to my inexpressibledelightFridayIreturntotownandstayprobably(atErnests)tillmythingsaresoldCurautvaleas

Whatistheoriginalmeaningofglaubentobelieve

STLEONARDSWednesdayMay241854YouhavedonewondersandIhopeyouwillrestyourselfAthousandthanksIhave at once sounded an alarm I go to-day to town Fanny and her twodaughterswillembarkonSundaymorningwehavetakenahousefromthe1stofJulyontheNeckarIhopeyouwillsoonmakeyourappearancethereGeorgegoesintothecountryto-morrowonbusinessIstaywithErnesttillHippolytusisout

ThesnareisbrokenandthebirdisfreeforwhichletusblesstheLordAstheyonceletmeoutofmycagetheyshallnotcatchmeagainMyfifthbookisreadyfor printing down to the general philosophical article Johannes Brandis theAssyrianchronologist arranges forme the synchronistic tables fromMenes toAlexander

[pg439]GreetingstoAufrechtIhavenotyetreceivedtheimpressionofthetextwhichherestoredfromtheCodex

ABBEYLODGEREGENTSPARKFridayJune91854Your letter came just when wanted my dearest friendMywife and childrenleave the house to-morrow and I follow them a week later on account ofSpottiswoode Come here then to-morrow morning and stay at least tillMonday so my daughter-in-law Elizabeth begs who herself goes to UptonGeorgeBrandisandIhelpErnesttokeephousethisweek

I have to-day sent to press the ldquoResolutions and Statements on theAlphabetrdquowhichyouwrotewithLepsiussnotldquoamendmentsrdquobutcertainexplanationsonhis part and my now English ldquorecapitulationsrdquo I shall receive the firstimpression to-morroweveningLepsiushassenta longEssayofwhichIonlyprinttheldquoExpositionoftheSystemrdquowithsomeldquospecimensofapplicationrdquo

You should rejoice as I do over ldquoHippolytusVIIChristianity andMankindtheir Beginnings and Prospectsrdquo in seven volumes (also as three separateworks)

I shall easily finish it Also ldquoEgypt IIrdquo is publishing I have written a newPreface to itTheldquoTheologiaGermanicardquo iswaiting foryouonecopy formydearM andone forDrThomsonwhoseaddress IdontknowSpottiswoodehasvowedtohaveallreadynextweekIfyoucouldstayhereandreviseyoursheetsatonceImightbelievethevow

We have secured a beautiful house in Heidelberg (Heidt-weiler) on the right

bankoppositetheCastle

ThursdayMorningJune1518549oclockImmediatelysawaboutVennwroteurgentlytohimtosendtheorderdirect toSpottiswoodeandmarkedthisonthesheetIcannotsendLepsiusbecausethesheetsarebeingprintedrefertheprintertoitYoudeceiverthehymniswithoutthe interlineal version for the non-Iranians Just as if you were a Germanprofessor I personally beg earnestly for it formyself and for those who areequallybenightedIhaveeverythingnowatpressexceptsomeLatinabuseforMYourvisitrefreshedmeverymuchFannyhadanexceedinglygoodjourneyandwillbeto-morrowinHeidelberg

[pg440]

ThursdayJune151854DEARESTFRIENDmdashAllreadyforthejourneyYourslipscomeinThirty-twomenare day and night printing composing correcting etc I am ready Venn willprintnothingofyoursandwillnotevensendLepsiusEssaytothemissionariesthattheymaynotbedrivenmad

I do not knowwhat books youhave ofmine if I can have thembySaturdaymorning 9 oclock goodmdashif not youmust bring themyourselfGeorge goeswithmeinsteadofErnest

HEIDELBERGJune231854DEARMAXMmdashAllowmethroughthisnotetorecommendtoyouinmyownnameaswellas in thenameof theDukeofCoburgandBaronStockmar thebearer of this Dr Wilhelm Pertsch who is going to England on Sanskritbusiness and needs kind advice and a little assistance in his undertakingBunsenwhosendsyouhisheartiestgreetingshadatfirstofferedtogivehimalettertoWilsonbutthoughtafterwardsawordfromyouwasworthmorewithWilsonthanaletterfromanyoneelse

TheBunsenshavequitedecidednowtosettleatHeidelbergforat leastayearand are already hoping for a speedy visit from you by which I hope also toprofitHeisstudyingupstairswithgreatdelightyourofficialandscientificvademecum on the Turanian languages Yesterday by means of a breakfast IintroducedhimtomostofthescientificandliterarycelebritiesheremdashsuchasHGagern Mohl Dusch Harper Jolly etc etc George came with them andhelpedinarrangingthingsbutreturnsto-morrow

AthousandgoodwishesAndalwayskeepinfriendlyremembrance

Yourtruefriend

KMEYER

HEIDELBERGCHARLOTTENBERGJune291854IcannotletGeorgewhotookcareofmeherereturnwithoutatokenforyouofmybeingaliveIreadyourbookfortheEnglishofficerspartlyontheroadandpartly herewith real delight and sincere admirationWhat an advance fromaldquoGuideInterprecircterdquooraldquoTableauStatistiquerdquotosuchanintroduction[pg441]to languages and nationalities The map too is excellent The excellentPetermannmustmakeusseveraljustofthiskindforourunbornMithridates

IshouldliketoscoldyourEnglishreviserforseveralGallicismsforwhichIfeelcertainyouarenottoblameRawlinsonsbarbaricdeacutebrisinsteadofldquoruinsrdquoandfauteuil instead of ldquochairrdquowhich in French aswell as in English is the right

expressionforaprofessorschairwhilstfauteuilisonlyusedinFrenchtodenotetheldquoPresidentschairrdquo(forinstanceintheInstitute)andisquiteinadmissableinEnglishevenbytheldquoUpholstererrdquoThethirdIhaveforgottenbutnotforgiven

IcannotevennowgiveupmyhabitofusingIranianinoppositiontoTuranianindeference to you He who uses Turanian must use Iranian Arian is to mesomethingbelongingto thelandofAria thereforeMedianpartofBactriaandPersia It isdecidedlyagreat step inadvance to separate the Indian from thisThattheIndiansacknowledgethemselvestobeArianssuitsmeasitdoesyouBut Iranian is a less localized name and one wants such a name incontradistinction to Turanian and Semitic It is only despised by the GermanldquoBrahmansandIndomaniacsrdquo

Thereyouhavemyopinionsandcriticisms

I have already written 67 of the 150 pages belonging to the fifth book andcannotgoontillIhavemybooksIamnowoccupiedwiththeprinciplesofthemethodforthehistoricaltreatmentofmythologywithespecialreferencetothreepointsintheEgyptianmdash

1AgeandrelationoftheOsiris-worshiptotheθεοὶνοητοίandtheastronomicalgods(RaHorusetc)

2HistoryofSethinAsiaandinEgyptadvocemAdam

3Positionandsignificationofanimalworship

BookIVgoestopressonthe15thofJulyBookVmustbeready(DV)onthe24thofAugust

Both the people and the country here please me The land is enchantinglybeautifulnay fairy-likeandourhouse is in thebest situationofallFanny isalmostmoreathomeinGermanythanIamandthegirlsrevel in theGermanenjoymentoflifeIcountonyourpayingusavisitSayagoodwordforustoyourmotherandpersuadeher tocomewithyou tovisitus inHeidelbergWeshouldmuchliketomakeheracquaintanceandtellherhowdearyouaretousallMeyer isproxenusAnglorum andAnglaram anddoesnothing I hope [pg442]toformherealittleAcademiaNicorinaShallIeverleaveHeidelbergGodblessyouCurautvaleasEveryours

P S I have worked through Steinschneiders sheet on the Semitic Roots inEgyptianwithgreatadvantageandhavesentittoDietrichTheanalogyoftheconsonantsisunmistakableDietrichwillcertainlybeabletofixthisAndnowyou must shake that small specimen Aricum out of your Dessau conjuringsleeveYouneedonlyskimthesurfaceitisnotnecessarytodigdeepwherethegold lies in sightButwemust rub theGermannose inVedabutter that theymayfindtherighttrack

Weshallhaveahardbattle tofightat first in theUniversitiesWereEgyptbutfirmly established as the primitive Asiatic settlement of the as yet undividedArianandSemiticfamiliesweshouldhavewonthegamefortherecognitionofhistoricaltruth

I hope the ldquoOutlinesrdquo and ldquoEgyptrdquo will come over next week Longman willsendthembothtoyouandalsothecopyoftheOutlinesforAufrecht(towhomIhavewrittenanostensiblelettersuchashewishedfor)Iwishsomethingcouldbe found in Oxford for that delightful and clever man Johannes Brandis Hewould exert an excellent influence and England would be a good school forhimWilltheUniversitiesadmitDissenterstotakeadegree

CHARLOTTENBERGDecember121854MYDEARVANISHEDFRIENDmdashWherethouartandwherethouhastturnedsincethyfleetingshadowdisappearedIhaveaskedinvainonallsidesduringmyjourneythroughGermanyNoonewhomImethadseenyouwhichEwaldparticularlydeploredverymuchAtalleventsyouarenowinthesanctuaryontheIsisandIhavelongdesiredtocommunicateonethingandanothertoyouButfirstIwilltellyouwhatat thismomentliesheavyonmyheartmdashldquoGalignanirdquobroughtmethenewsyesterdaymydearfriendPuseyliesseriouslyillathisbrothershouseinOxfordldquohislifeisdespairedofrdquoUnfortunatelythereisnothingimprobableinthissadintelligenceIhadalreadybeenanxiousbeforethisfortendaysasIhadwrittentohimtoPuseynearlythreeweeksagoonthenewsofthedeathofhiswife entreatinghimmost pressingly for his ownandhis familys sake tospendthewinterhereandtoliveasmuchaspossiblewithushisoldfriendsIknowhewould [pg443]have answered the letterwerehenot illPerhapshe

wasnotevenabletoreadit

DrAclandisourmutualfriendandwithoutdoubtattendsthedearinvalidAtalleventshehasdailyaccesstohimMyrequestthereforeisifheisnotalreadytakenfromusthatyouwillletAclandtellyouhowitreallyiswithhimandletmehearbyreturnofpostviaParisifpossiblealsowhetherPuseydidreceivemy letter and then howSidney and the twodaughters arewho iswith themwhetherLadyCarnarvonoronlythesistersofcharity

Nowtootherthings

1Dietrich gaveme the inclosed of coursepost festum I havemarked at thebackwhathestillwantsinyourTables

2GreetDrAufrechtandtellhimIamverysorrythatDietrichhasfoundfaultwith his Paternoster I was obliged in the hurry to leave the printing of thissectiontohimIwillletAsmetacriticgotohim

3 Ihavea letter fromHodgsonofDarjelingasananswer to the letterwrittenherebyyouveryfriendlyandldquoinspiritsrdquootherwisebutslightlyintelligibleHerefersme to a letter forty pages longwhich he has sent toMohl in Paris animprovededitionoftheonehesenttoWilsonHesupposesthatIreceivedbothifnotIshouldaskfortheonetoMohl

OfcourseIhavereceivedneitherButIhavesenttoMohlthroughhisniecetobeg he would send the said letter to you and you would inform me of theparticularsIhopeyouhavealreadyreceiveditIfnotseeaboutitforwemustnotlosesightoftheman

The copy of the ldquoOutlinesrdquomust now be in his hands These ldquoOutlinesrdquo thechild of our common toil begin now to be known in Germany Ewald hasalreadytakenadelightinthemhewillreviewthemMeyerisquiteenchantedwithyourTuraniansbutwouldgladlylikemanyothersknowsomethingmoreoftheBasquesFormeitisagreateventhavingmadeafriendshipforlifeandanalliancewithEwaldoverIsaiahs

ldquoNopeacewiththewickedrdquo

and on still higher grounds Those were delightful days which I spent inGoumlttingenandBonnasalsowithBethman-HollwegCamphausenandothersI

seeandfeelthemiseryofourpeoplefarmoredeeplythanIexpectedonlyIfindmorecomfortthanIhopedinthesympathyofmycontemporarieswhowillinglygivemeaplaceamongthemselves

[pg444]AproposaltoentertheUpperHouse(ofwhichhoweverIdonotcaretospeak)I could of course only refusewithmany thanks I have finishedmy ldquoEgyptrdquoVolumeIVwithBoumltticherandsentitforpressforthe1stJanuary

As an intermezzo I have begun a specimen for awork suggested tome in awonderfulmannerfromEnglandAmericaandGermany(particularlybyEwaldandLuumlcke)mdasharealBibleforthepeoplethatisasensibleandsensiblyprintedtextwith a popular statement of the results of the investigations of historicalcriticismandwhateverthespiritmayinspirebesides

I am now working from Isaiah Jeremiah and Baruch where beyond allexpectationIfoundnewlightontheroadIwastreading

WeliveinthehappiestretirementYourvisitandthatofyourmotherofwhomweallbecamevery fondwasagreatdelight tous thoughashortoneFannyandIhaveaplantogreetheratChristmasbyashortletterNowwritemewordhowitfareswithyou

CHARLOTTENBERGBADENJanuary111855MYDEAR FRIENDmdashI think you will not have misunderstood my silence sinceyourlastletterYourheartwillhavetoldyouthatnonewscouldbepleasantertomethanthatyouwouldundertaketobringthelastsevenfoldchildofmyEnglishlove into public notice This can of course only be during the ParliamentaryrecessYouknowbetterthananyonewhatistheunityofthesevenvolumesandwhat is the aim and result Your own is a certainly not unimportant and anindependent part of it But you have with old affection worked yourself andthoughtyourselfintothewholeevenwheretheparticularswereoflessinteresttoyouLastlyasyouhavetoldmetomydelightJowetthasbeguntointeresthimself in thework and you have therefore one near at handwho from one

pointofviewcanhelpyouasreflectingEnglishopinionEwaldtoldmethatIhadwishedtogiveaCosmosof themindinthatworkAtallevents this ideahas floated beforeme for many years and is expressed in the Preface to theldquoGodConsciousnessrdquo Only it is not more than a study for that which floatsbeforemeMytwonextvolumeswillgivemoreofitIfIonlyknewwhattodowith the work for Germany My [pg 445] task was arranged for England Itseemed to me important under the guidance of the rediscovered Hippolytuswhose form first rose clearly before me during the first work to show theorganic development of the leading ideas of Christendom in the teachers andheroesbeginningfromthefirstPentecostalfeastinordertosiftthegroundandshowtomyreadersmdash

aThattheoldsystemofinspirationandtheTheodiceoftheMiddleAgesthatistosaythatoftheseventeenthcenturyhasnosupportinancientChristianitybutjustthecontraryThatisnowafact

bThatwehavesomething infinitelymorereassuring toput in itsplaceTruthinsteadofdelusionrealityinsteadofchildsplayandpictures

cThatitishightimetobeinearnestaboutthis

d That for this clear insight and practical purpose also reasoning andmoralearnestnesswillberequiredonthepartofthespiritualguides

eButthatbeforeallthingsChristianitymustbeintroducedintotherealityofthepresentandthatthecorporationoftheChurchthelifeofthecommunityinitsworship as in its mutually supporting work must become the centre whencesprings the consciousness of communionmdashnot a system of theologyChristianityisnothingtomebuttherestorationoftheidealofhumanityandthiswill become especially clear through the antecedent forms (praeligformations) ofthedevelopment in languageand religion (SeeldquoOutlinesrdquo)There is a naturalhistoryofbothwhichrestsonlawsassureasthoseofthevisibleCosmosTherestisprofessionalphilologicalmdashlegitimatioadcausam

How much of this idea can be presented to the English public and in whatmanneryouknowmuchbetterthanIThereforeyouknowtheoneaswellandtheotherbetterthanIdoThisisthereasonwhyIbelieveyouwouldnotwaitformyanswerStillIshouldhavesenttoyouifduringthistimetwopassionshadnotfilledmyheartForoncethedreadfuldistressofourconditionforcedmeto

tryfromthemidstofmyblessedPatmostohelpbylettersasfarandwhereverIcould through advice and cry of distress and summons to helpNow there isnothing more to be done but to wait the resultAlea jacta esse Ernest is inBerlin

My second passion is the carrying out of an idea by means of a ChristianphilosophicalPeoplesBible fromthehistoricalpointofview toget the leverwhich thedevelopmentof thepresent [pg446] time inEuropehasdeniedmeThatIshouldbeginthisgreatestofallundertakingsinthesixty-fifthyearofmyageisIhopenosignofmyspeedydeathButIhavefeltsinceasifamagicwallhadbeenbrokendownbetweenmeandrealityandlongflowingspringsoflifestreamtowardsmegivingmethediscernmentandtheprolificgermofthatwhich I desired and still strive after The Popular Bible will contain in twovolumes(ofequalthickness)1stthecorrectedandreasonablydividedtextand2dthekeytoitForthatpurposeImustseewhetherIshallsucceedinexecutingthemostdifficultpartIsaiahandJeremiahAndIhaveadvancedsofarwiththissinceyesterdayeveningthatIseethechildcanmoveitcanwalkTheoutwardpracticabilitydependsonmanythingsbutIhavethoroughlyworkedthroughtheplanofit

Bytheendof1856allmustbereadyMyfirstletteristoyouThanksforyouraffection it is so exactly like you breaking away at once from London andgoingtoOxfordtotalkovereverythingwithAcland

MeyerhasoncemoredescendedfromPegasustoourprosaicsphereIbelievehe isworking at a reviewof ourwork for theMunichLiterary Journal of theAcademyLaboulaye(Vice-PresidentoftheAcademy)saysIhavegivenhimsomuchthatisnewtoreadthathecannotbereadywithhisarticlesbeforetheendofFebruaryWeshallappearintheldquoDeacutebatsrdquothebeginningofMarch

HolzmannisworkingattheproofsthattheCeltswereGermansHumboldtfindstheunityoftheTuraniansnotproved(Nevermind)OsbornsldquoEgyptrdquorunsonin one absurdity (the Hyksos period never existed) which the ldquoAthenaeligumrdquocensuressharply

WhatisAufrechtaboutButaboveallhowareyouyourselfGodpreserveyouMyfamilygreetyouHeartilyyoursinoldaffection

HEIDELBERGFebruary261855ItwasmydearfriendinexpectationoftheinclosedthatIdidnotsoonerreturnan answer andmy thanks for your affectionate and detailed letter Iwish youwould takeadvantageofmycommunication toputyourself incorrespondencewithBenfeyHeiswelldisposedtowardsyouandhasopenlyspokenofyouasldquotheapostleofGermanscienceinEnglandrdquo

[pg447]And then he stands infinitely higher than the present learned men of hisdepartmentHewouldalsobeverygladifyouwouldofferyourselftohimforcommunications suitable for his Oriental Journal from England to which healways has an eye (Keep this copy perhaps Jowettmay read it) Humboldtslettersaysinrealitytwothingsmdash

1Hedoesnotapproveofthesharplydefineddifferencebetweennomadicandagricultural languages the occupationsmay change yet the language remainsthesameasbeforeThatisagainstyouThegoodoldmandoesnotconsiderthatthelanguagewillorcanbecomeanotherwithoutperishingintheroot

2HedoesnotagreeinopposingonelanguagetoallothersasinorganicThisisagainstmeButfirstthisonelanguageisstillalmostthehalfofthehumanraceandsecondlyIhavesaidnothingwhichhisbrotherhasnotsaidasstronglyItisonlysaidasasignof lifeand thatldquomypraiseandmyadmirationmayappearhonestrdquo

InthefifthvolumeofmyldquoEgyptrdquoIcall thelanguagessentence-languagesandword-languages that is without metaphor and cannot be misunderstood ThedistinctionitselfisrightFororganicis(asKanthasalreadydefinedit)anunityinpartsAgranitemountainisnotmorethoroughlygranitethanasquareinchofgranitebutamanwithouthandsorheadisnoman

I am delighted to hear that your Veda gets on If you would only not allowyourself to be frightened from the attempt to let otherswork for you inmerehandicraftEvenyoungmenhavenottimeforeverythingYouhavenowfixedyour impress on the work and any one with thewill and with the necessaryknowledgeofthetoolscouldnotgofarwrongunderyoureyeIshouldsolike

toseeyoufreeforotherworkOnlydonotleaveOxfordSpartamquamnactusesornaYouwouldnotlikeGermanyandGermanycouldofferyounosphereofactivitythatcouldbecomparedeversodistantlywithyourpresentpositionIhave often said to you Nature and England will not allow themselves to bechangedfromwithoutandthereinconsistsexactlytheirworthinthedivineplanofdevelopmentbuttheyoftenalterthemselvesrapidlyfromwithinBesidesthereformisgonetoofar tobesmotheredJustnowtheDonsandotherPhilisterscandowhat they like for thepeoplehas itseyesonother thingsBut thewarmakestheclasseswhoarepressingforwardsmorepowerfulthanever

[pg448]Theoldmethodofgovernment isbankrupt foreverSodonotbe low-spiritedmydearMorimpatientItisnotsomuchthefaultofEnglandasofyourselfthatyoudonotfeelsettledandathomeYouhavenowasgoodapositionasayoung man of intellect and with a future before him could possibly haveanywhereeitherinEnglandorinGermanyMakeahomeforyourselfSinceIsawyourremarkablemotherIhavebeenconvincedthatunlikemostmothersshe would not stand in the way of your domestic happiness even were itcontrary to her own views but that she must be the best addition to yourhousehold foranywifewhowasworthyofyouOxford isLondonandbetterthanLondonandLondonistheworldandisGermanHowgladlywouldPaulithathonestnobleGermansoulstayifhehadbutanoccupationThesubjectionof themind by the government here becomesmore vexatiousmore apparentmorediabolicalOne formof tyranny is that ofAugustus themore thoroughbecausesoslyTheywillnotsucceedintheendbutmeanwhileitishorribletowitnessMorefirmlythaneverIsettlemyselfdownhereinHeidelbergandwilltakethewholehouseandsayldquoYoumustleavememycottagestandingandmyhearthwhoseglowyouenvymerdquoWearenowonthepointofbindingourselveswithout binding ourselves and the prudent man in P(aris) pretends not toobserve itmdashjust like the devil when a soul is making some additionalconditions

Still it ispossible that thedesire toaid in thecouncilsofViennaat anypricemaycarryussofarthatwemayjoininthemarchagainstPolandandFinlandAfteralltheriversflowaccordingtothelawsofgravitation

IhavedefinitelyarrangedmyldquoBibleworkrdquointwoworksmdash

ATheBible(PeoplesBible)correctedtranslationwithveryshortandpurely

historicalnotesbelowthetextOnevolumelargeBible-octavo

BTheKeyinthreeequallylargevolumes(eachliketheBible)IIntroductionII The restored documents in the historical books of the Old Testament andrestoration of the prophets Jeremiah and Isaiah and of some of the smallerprophetsIIITheNewTestament(ThelifeofChristisapartofthis)

TheworklookswellIhavenownotonlyperfectlydefinedtheExodusandtimeoftheJudgesbuthaveputitsoclearlyandauthenticallybeforethepublicthatas long as the world [pg 449] of Europe and America lasts the theologianscannot make the faithful crazy nor the scoffers lead them astray It can befinishedinthreeyearsIcandependonEwaldandRothe

Wehavegot through thewinter I for the first time for twentyyearswithoutcold or anything of that sort The delicious air of Spring begins to blow thealmond-treespromisetobeinblossominaweekWithtrueloveyours

CHARLOTTENBERGTuesdayMorningApril171855(Thedaywhenpeaceorwarwillbedecided)

MY DEAR MmdashI cannot delay any longer to tell you that your first articleannounced to us by George has reached me and excited the delight andadmirationofusallIt ispleasantasCicerosaysldquolaudariavirolaudatordquobutstill sweeter ldquolaudari a viro amatordquoAnd you have so thoroughly adopted theEnglishdisguise that itwillnotbeeasy foranyone to suspectyouofhavingwritten this ldquocuriousarticlerdquo It especially delightsme to see how ingeniouslyyoucontrivetosaywhatyouannounceyoudonotwishtodiscussnamelythepurportofthetheologyInshortweareallofopinionthatyourauntorcousinwasrightwhenshesaidinParistoNeukommofyouthatyououghttobeinthediplomaticserviceFromformerexperienceIhaveneverreallybelievedthatthesecondarticlewouldbeprinteditwouldhaveappearedbylastSaturdayatthelatestandwouldthenhavebeenalreadyinmyhandsButthearticleasitishasgivenmegreatpleasureandallthegreaterbecauseitisyoursIonlywishyoumight soongiveme thepowerof shakingyourdearoldhandwhich I so

oftenfeelthewantof

Meanwhile I will tell you that Brockhaus writes in a very friendly way intransmittingErnstSchulzesbiography(theunfortunatepoetsjournalwithverypleasant affectionate descriptions of his friends ofme especially) to ask if IwouldnotmakesomethingoutofthenewHippolytusforGermanyThisletterreachedmejustasIhadblendedmypastandfuturetogetherforalargedoublework the finished parts of which are now standing beforeme in seven largeportfolioswithcompletedContentsPrefaceandIntroduction

ldquoThe Bible of the Faithfulrdquo four volumes large Bible-octavo Volume I theBibleVolumesII-IV(separated)Key

[pg450]ldquoTheFaithfuloftheBiblerdquo(A)ThegovernmentandtheworshipofthefaithfulTwobooksonevolume(B)Thecongregationalandfamilybook(remodelingoftheearlierdevotionalbooksforthefaithfuloftheBible)twovolumes

AtthesametimeldquoEgyptrdquowasat lastreadyforpressastwovolumesandsoItookcouragetotakeupagainthatoldideaespeciallythatwhichwehadsooftendiscussedButfirstIcanandwillmakeaprettylittlevolumefromthehistoricalportraitsinHippolytusldquoThefirstsevengenerationsofChristiansrdquoAtranslation(by Pauli) of the exact text of the first English volume preceded by therestoration of the line and the chronology of the Roman bishops down toCorneliussincerevisedandmuchapprovedofbyRoumlstell(quiteclearlywrittenoutabouttenprintedsheetswiththedocuments)

ThisgivesmehardlyanytroubleandcostsmeverylittlethoughtButsecondlytouseEwaldsexpressionldquoTheKosmosofLanguagerdquo(infourvolumes)ThisisyourbookifitistoexistItappearstomebeforeanythingelsetobenecessarytodrawproperlimitswithawisdomworthyofGoethe

I do not think that the time has come for publishing in the German way acompleteoruniformlytreatedbookIthinkitismuchmoreimportanttofortifyourviewof language fromwithin and launch it forth armedwith stingsupontheseinertandconfusedtimesThereforemethodandsatisfactorydiscussionofthat on which everything depends with a general setting forth of the pointswhichitconcernsusnowtoinvestigateIcouldmosteasilymakeyouperceivewhatImeanbyanabstractoftheprospectuswhichIhavewrittenoffinorder

todiscussitthoroughlywithyouassoonasyoucancomehereAsyouwouldhavetoundertakethreefourthsofthewholeyouhaveonlytoconsiderallthisasaproposalopentocorrectionorratherahandlefordiscussion

FIRSTVOLUME(Bunsen)

GeneralDivision

Introduction TheScience ofLanguage and itsEpochs (according toOutlines35-60)

1ThePhenomenaofLanguage(accordingtoOutlinesii1-72)

2TheMetaphysicsofLanguage(accordingtoOutlinesii73-122)mdashmanuscriptattempttocarryoutKantsCategoriesnotaccordingtoHegelsmethod

[pg451]3 The Historical Development (Outlines ii 123-140 and Outlines ofMetaphysics second volume in MS) Muumlller ad libitum (With this anethnographicalatlascoloredaccordingtothecolorsofthethreefamilies)

SECONDVOLUME(Muumlller)

FirstDivisionThesentence-languagesofEasternAsia(Chinese)

SecondDivisionTheTuranianword-languagesinAsiaandEurope

THIRDVOLUME(MuumlllerandBunsen)

FirstDivisionTheHamitic-SemiticlanguagesinAsiaandAfrica(Bunsen)

SecondDivisionTheIranianlanguagesinAsiaandEurope

FOURTHVOLUME(Muumlller)

The branching off of the Turanians and Hamites in Africa America andPolynesia

aThecolonyofEastAsiaticTuraniansinSouthAfrica(greatKaffirbranch)

bThecolonyofNorthAsiaticTuranians(Mongolians)inNorthAmerica

cTheTuraniancoloniesinSouthAmerica

dTheoldercoloniesoftheEastAsiaticTuraniansinPolynesia(Papuas)

eThenewerditto(light-coloredMalaybranch)

PetermannorKiepertwouldmaketheethnographicalatlasbeautifullyIhaveinthe last fewmonthsdiscovered that the threeNoachic familieswereoriginallynamedaccordingtothethreecolors

1Hamisclearitmeansblack

2 Shem is an honorary name (the glorious the famous) but the old name isAdam that is Edomwhichmeans red reddish ==φοίνιξ this has givenmegreat light The Canaanites were formerly called Edomi and migrated about2850afterthevolcanicdisturbanceattheDeadSea(StagnumAssyriumJustinxviii 3) towards the coast of Phœnicia where Sidon is the most ancientsettlement the firstbegottenofCanaanand theeraofTyrebeginsasearlyas2760(Herodotusii44)

3 Japhet is still explained in an incredible way by Ewald according to thenationalpunofGenesisxasderivedfromPatahldquohewhoopensorspreadsrdquoItisreallyfromYaphatldquotobeshiningrdquo==thelightwhite

[pg452]It would certainly be the wisest plan for us to fall back on this for theethnographicalatlasat leastforthechoiceofthecolorsandIbelieveitcouldeasilybemanagedFortheSemiticnationsredisnaturallytheprevailingcolorofaverydeepshadeinAbyssiniaandYemenblackinnegroKhamitesandalightshadeinPalestineandNorthernArabiaFortheTuraniansgreenmightbethoughtofas theprevailingcolorFor the Iranians there remainswhite risingintoabluishtintButthatcouldbearrangedforusbymygenialcousinBunsenthechemist

That would be a work my dearest M The genealogy of man and the firstparablerisingoutoftheinfiniteWereyounothalfAnglicizedasIamIshouldnotventuretoproposeanythingsoldquoimperfectrdquomdashthat isanythingtobecarriedoutinsuchunequalproportionsButthisistheonlywayinwhichitispossibleto us and as I think only thus really useful for our Language-propagandawhoseapostleswemustbeldquoinhoctemporismomentordquoAndnowfurtherIthink

weshould talk thisover together IgiveyouthechoiceofHeidelbergorNiceWe have resolved (D V) to emigrate about the 1st of October by way ofSwitzerlandandTurintothelovelyhomeofthepalm-treeandencamptheretillMarchthenIshouldlikeverymuchtoseeSicilybutatalleventstorunthroughNaplesandRomeinAprilandthenreturnhereintheendofAprilbyVeniceItis indescribably lovely herenowmore enjoyable than Ihaveever seen itWeshall takeahouse therewhere Icouldget into theopenair fouror five timeseverydayIfancyinthefiveworkingmonthsIcoulddomorethanintheeightdreary winter months here Much is already done the completion is certainWere not Emma (who has become inexpressibly dear to us) expecting herconfinementaboutthe21stofSeptemberweshouldalreadyatthistimebreakupfromhereinordertoreachtheheavenlyCornicheRoad(fromGenoatoNice)in the finestweatherTheodoregoes in tendays forayear toParisOfcourseEmiliaandtheothergirlsgowithusTheyallhelpmeinamostremarkablewayinmyworkIthoughtofinvitingBrockhaushereinthesummertodiscusswithhimtheeditionoftheldquoBibleworkrdquoNowweknowwhatwehaveinviewNowwritesoonhowyouareandwhatyouhaveinviewAllheresendmostfriendlygreetingsEveryours

[pg453]

BURGRHEINDORFNEARBONNDecember21855MY DEAR FRIENDmdashI think you must now be sitting quietly again in Oxfordbehind theVedas Isendyou these lines fromGeorgessmallbut lovelyplacewhere we have christened his child to stop if possible your wrath againstRenanHeconfesses inhis letter that ldquomaplumema trahirdquo hehas partly notsaidwhathethinksandpartlysaidwhathedoesnotthinkButhisnoteisnotthatofanenemyHeconsidershisbookanhomageofferedtoGermanscienceand had hoped that it would be estimated and acknowledged in the presentposition of French science and that it would be received in a friendly wayThoughbroughtupbytheJesuitsheisentirelyfreefromthepriestlyspiritandin fact his remarkable essay in the ldquoRevue desDeuxMondesrdquo of the 15th ofNovemberonEwaldsldquoHistoryofthePeopleofIsraelrdquodeservesallourthanksinatheologicalnationalandscientificpointofviewWecannotaffordtoquarrelunnecessarilywithsuchamanYoumustdealgentlywithhimYouwilldoitwillyounotformysakeIampersuadeditisbest

BrockhauswillbringoutthethirdunalterededitionofmyldquoSignsoftheTimesrdquoasthe2500andthe1000copiesareallsentoutandmoreareconstantlyaskedfor I have whilst here got the first half of the ldquoWorld-Consciousnessrdquo(Weltbewusstsein)readytosendoffThewholewillappearinMay1856astheheraldandforerunnerofmyworkontheBibleIhavegonethroughthiswithHBrockhausandreducedittofifteendelightfullittlevolumesincommonoctavosix of the Peoples Bible with a full Introduction and nine of the Key withhighercriticismIamnowexpectingthreeprintedsheetsoftheBibleVolumeItheKeyVolumesIandVIIThefourthandfifthvolumesofldquoEgyptrdquoarebeingrapidly printed at the same time forMay The chronological tables appear inSeptemberAnd nowbe appeased andwrite again soonGeorge sends heartygreetingsThursdayIshallbeinCharlottenbergagainHeartilyyours

CHARLOTTENBERGMarch101856IshouldlongagohavetoldyoumydearestfriendhowmuchyourletteroflastSeptemberdelightedmehadInotbeensoplungedinthevortexcausedbythecollision of old and new [pg 454] work that I have had to deny myself allcorrespondenceSince then Ihaveheard fromyouandofyoufromErnstandsome travelling friends and can therefore hope that you continuewell As towhat concerns me I yesterday sent to press theMS of the last of the threevolumeswhicharetocomeoutalmosttogetherVolumesIIIandIV(thirty-sixsheetsareprinted)onthe1stofMayVolumeVonthe15thofJulyIhavetakentheboldresolutionofacquittingmyselfofthisdutybeforeanythingelsethatImaythenlivefornothingbuttheldquoBibleworkrdquoandthecontestwithknavesandhypocritesintheinterestofthefaithful

InthusconcludingldquoEgyptrdquoIfounditindispensabletogivealltheinvestigationson the beginnings of the human race in a compressed form ThereforeSET==YAHVEH and all discoveries connected with this down to AbrahamAlsotheBactrianandIndiantraditionsIhavereadonbothsubjectsallthatistobe found here above all Burnouf (for the second time) and Lassens ldquoIndianAntiquitiesrdquowithDiisminorumgentiumIfindtheninLassenmuchwhichcanbe well explained by my discoveries in the Egyptian Babylonian andPhœnicianbutahugechasmopensoutforeverythingconcerningtheVedasIfindinparticularnothinganalogoustothehistoryof theDelugeofwhichyoumost certainly toldme I therefore throwmyself on your friendship with therequestthatyouwillwriteoutformethemostnecessarypointssofarastheydonotexistinColebrookeandWilsonwhichIcanorderfromBerlin(1)OntheDelugetradition(2)OntheCreationofManifthereisany(3)OntheFallofMan(4)OnrecollectionsofthePrimitiveHomesontheothersideofMeruandBactria if such are to be found I knowof coursewhatLassen says I do notexpect much as you know from these enthusiastic emigrants but all iswelcome

One must oppose with all ones power and in solemn earnest such pitifulnihilismandstupidjokesasSchwenkhasmadeofthePersianmythologyIhavedone this in the ldquoDoctrineofZoroasterrdquo I am to-day applying toHaug aboutsomehard nuts in this subject The number seven predominates here also ofcourseand in thesymbolismdependson the timeofeachphaseof themoon

but theAmshaspands have as little to dowith it aswith themoon itself TheGahanbar resemble the six days of creation if the Sanskrit translation byNeriosengh(whichIdontunderstand) ismore tobe trusted than theVispered[pg455]Butatalleventsthereisanidealelementherewhichhasbeenfittedinwiththeoldnatureworship

The sanctityof theHom(havam)must alsobe ideal theplant canonlybeasymboltoZoroasterCanitbeconnectedwithOmAstothedateZoroastertheprophet cannot have lived later than 3000 B C (250 years before Abrahamtherefore)but6000or5000beforePlatomaymorelikelybecorrectaccordingto the statements ofAristotle andEudoxusBactria (for that surely isBakhdi)wasthefirstsettlementoftheAryanswhoescapedfromtheiceregionstowardsSogd The immigration therefore can hardly fall later than 10000 or 9000beforeChristZoroasterhimselfmustbeconsideredasafterthemigrationoftheAryanstowardsthePunjabforhisdemonsareyourgods

NowwillyoupleaseletmehaveatlatestatEasterwhatyoucangivemeforonthe25ththecontinuationoftheMSmustgooffandofthistheIndiansformapart

I do not find the account by Megasthenes of Indian beginnings (Plinius andArrianus) at all amiss the Kaliyuga computation of 3102 B C is purelyhumbug just like the statement about the beginning of the Chinese times towhichLassengivescreditHowcanHerodotushavearrivedatafemaleMithraMylittaEverythingfeminineis incompatiblewiththesunyetnowhereasfarasIcanseedoesanydeitycorrespondingtoMaterappearamongthePersiansorIndiansAltogetherMithra isaknottypoint in thesystemofZoroaster intowhichitfitslikethefistintotheeye

AndnowIcometo thesubjectof the inclosedKunoFischerhasgivenamostsuccessful lecture in Berlin on Bacon which has grown into a book acompanion to Spinoza and Leibnitz but much more attractive through thereferences to the modern English philosophy and Macaulays conception ofBaconThebook is admirablywrittenBrockhaus is printing it andwill let itappearinMayoratlatestinJuneabouttwenty-fivesheetsHereservestherightoftranslationAndnowImustappealtoyourfriendshipandyourinfluenceinordertofind1sttherighttranslatorand2dtherightpublisherwhowouldgivethe author pound50 or pound100 for Fischer is dependent on his own resources ThecliqueopposeshisappearanceRaumerhasdeclaredtothefacultythatldquoaPrivat-

docentsuspendedinanystateoftheBundbecauseofhisphilosophicalopinionswhich were irreconcilable with Christianity ought not to teach [pg 456] inBerlinrdquoThe faculty defends itself I havewritten public and private letters toHumboldt but what good does that do Therefore it is now a matter ofconsequencetoenablethisverydistinguishedthinkerandwriterandremarkablycaptivatingteacher(hehadhere300pupilsinmetaphysics)tosecurethemeansofsubsistenceMissWinkworthspublisherofferedherpound150whenshesenthimthefirstchapterofmyldquoSignsrdquoLongmanshalfprofitsthatismdashnothingIonlywishtohavethemattersetgoingTheproof-sheetscanbesent

WhowrotethefoolisharticleintheldquoQuarterlyrdquoagainstJowettThebookwillliveandbearfruitWearewellexceptthatGeorgehashadscarletfeverFrancesisnursinghimatRheindorfHeartilyyours

I have myself undertaken the comparison of the Aryan with the Semitic onLassensplanTwo thirdsof thestemscanbeauthenticatedWhatascandal isRothsdecipheringoftheCyprianinscriptionsRenanmournsovertheldquoMonthlyReviewrdquobutisotherwiseverygratefulIhavemadeuseofyourAlphabetinmyldquoEgyptrdquo

CHARLOTTENBERGMarch121856MYDEARESTMmdashYoureceiveatonceapostscriptIhavesincereadWsessayontheDelugeoftheHinduacutesinthesecondvolumeoftheldquoIndianStudiesrdquoandcanreallysaynowthatIunderstandalittleSanskritfortheessayiswritteninaBrahmanic jargon thickly strewnwithverymanyGerman andFrench foreignterms O what a style I am still to-day reading Roth (Muumlnchener GelehrteAnzeigen) Iknow thereforewhat is in it that is a childs talewhichcame toIndiafromthePersianGulforatleastfromBabyloniaaboutOannesthemanintheshapeofafishwhogivesthemtheirrevelationandsavesthemHaveyoureallynothingbetterIt is just likethefableofDeucalionfromthebackward-thrownλᾶςthatisstonesOrwasitἀπὸδρυὸςἥἀπὸπέτρας

FaithintheoldbeliefssitsverylightlyonalltheemigrantchildrenofJaphetYetmany historical events are clearly buried in the myths before the Pacircndavas

Wilsonsstatement(Lasseni479n)ofthecontentsofaPuracircnashowsstillaconsciousness of those epochs Theremust be (1) a dwelling in the primitivecountry (bordering on the ideal) quite obscure historically (2) expulsionthroughachangeofclimate(3)[pg457]lifeinthelandoftheAryans(Iran)(4)migrationtoandlifeinthePunjab

For the western Aryans and for southern Europe there is another epochbetween 6000 and 5000 B C at latest namely the march of the Cushite(Turanian)Nimrud(Memnon)bySusianaandthenacrossNorthernAfrica toSpainThediscoveryofCurtiusoftheIoniansbeingAsiaticsthathadmigratedfromPhrygiawhodisputedwiththePhœniciansfortheworldscommercelongbeforethecoloniesstartedfromEuropeisveryimportant

WritemewordwhatyouthinkofWebersIndian-SemiticAlphabet

I have to-daywritten toMissWinkworth to speak to thepublisher If hewillundertakeitandpayFischerwellbotheditionswouldappearatthesametimeandshemust thencomehere inApril tomake the translation fromtheproof-sheetsTheprintingbeginsatEaster

CHARLOTTENBERGApril221856(Paliliaanniurbis2610)SothereyouaremyworthyDonsittingasaMemberofCommitteesetcandwriting reports andagitatingandcanvassing inAcademicisThis delightsmeforyouhaveitinyouandfeelthesamelongingwhichseizedmeatyouragemdashtoactandtoexertaninfluenceontheGod-givenrealitiesoflifeItinspiritsmeforyou likemewill remainwhatyouaremdashaGermanandwillnotbecomealdquoPhilisterrdquo

I have missed you here very much even more than your answers to myquestionsNooneescapeshisfatesoIcannotescapethetemptationtotrymymethodandmy insighton indirectchronology Iconfess that suchconfusion Ihave not seen as that of these investigations hitherto beyond Colebrooke andWilsonLassenandDunckerSomethingcanalreadybemadeofMegasthenesaccountsinconnectionwiththeBrahmanictraditionsinthewayclearedupby

Lassen(intheldquoJournalrdquo)Ibelieveinthe153kingsbeforeSandrokottusandthe6402 years The older tradition does not dream of ages of the world thehistorical traditions beginwith the Tretacircage and point back to the life on theIndusthefirstperiodislikethedivinedynastiesoftheEgyptiansTheKaliyugais1354BCor1400ifyoulikebutnotadayolderThesocalledcataclysmsldquoafter[pg458]theuniversehadthriceattainedtofreedomrdquo(whatnonsense)arenothing but the short interregnums of freedom obtained by the poor IndianAryansbetween themonarchiesTheyare200+300+120And Ipropose toyoumaster of the Vedas the riddle how do I know that the first republicaninterregnum (anarchy to the barbarians) was 200 years long The Indiantraditionsbegin thereforewith7000 and that is the timeofZaradushta I findmany reasons for adoptingyour opinionon theoriginof theZendbooksTheZoroastrianscameoutofIndiabuttellmedoyounotconsiderthisasareturnmigrationTheschismbrokeoutontheIndusoronthemovementtowardstheJumnaandlandsoftheGangesThedullintolerableZendbooksmaybeaslateastheywillbuttheycontainintheVendidadFargardIan(interpolated)recordoftheoldestmovementsofourcousinswhichreachbackfurtherthananythingSemitic

AboutUttara-Kuru and the like you also leaveme in the lurch and so Iwasobliged to seewhatPtolemyandCo and thebooksknowandmentionaboutthemItseemsthentomeimpossibletodenythattheὈττοροκοροιisthesameandpointsoutthemosteasternlandoftheoldnorthnowinornearShen-sithefirst home of the Chinese tome the eastern boundary ofParadise But howremarkablenotsomuchthattheAryansfaithfulpeoplehavenotforgottentheiroriginal home but that the name should be Sanskrit Therefore Sanskrit inParadise in10000or9000Explain this tomemydear friendBut firstsendmewithinhalfanhourofreceivingtheselinesincaseyouhavethemastheyassume here Lassensmaps of India (mounted) belonging tomy copy of thebookandjustnowverynecessarytomeYoucanhavethemagaininJulyontheRighiMadameSchwabeisgonetoconsolethathigh-mindedafflictedCobdenorratherhiswifeonthedeathofhisonlysonwhomwehaveburiedhereShepassesnextSundaythroughLondononherreturntoherchildrenandwillcallatErnstsSendthemapstohimwithacoupleoflinesIfyouhaveanythingelsenew send it also I have read with great interest your clever and attractivechapteronthehistoryoftheIndianHellenicmindcalledmythologyDoesJohnBull take it inWithnot less pleasureyour instructive essayon ldquoBurningandother Funereal Ceremoniesrdquo How noble is all that is really old among theAryans Weber sent me the ldquoMacirclavikacircrdquo a miserable thing harem storiesmdashI

hopebyadissolutefellow[pg459]of the tenthcenturyandsurelynotby theauthorofldquoSakuntalardquoForyourjustbutsharplyexpressedandnoblysuppressedessayagainstmdashmdasha thousand thanks Ihave to-day received the last sheetofldquoEgyptrdquoBookIVandthelastbutoneofBookV(a)andthesecondofBookV(b)These threevolumeswillappearon the1stofJuneThesecondhalfofBook V (b) (Illustrations Chronological Tables and Index) I furnishsubsequentlyforEaster1857inordertohavethelastwordagainstmycritics

Meanwhilefarewell

CHARLOTTENBERGWednesdayApril231856It would be a great pleasure to you my dear friend if you could see theenthusiasmofmyreawakened lovefor Indiawhichpossessedme in theyears1811-14 andwhichnowdaily overpowersmeBut it iswell that you are nothereforIdarenotfollowthenotesofthesirentillIhavefinishedtheldquoSignsoftheTimesrdquoandhavethefirstvolumeofmyfivebooksoftheldquoBiblerdquobeforemeIseeclearlyfrommypointofviewthatwhenonehastherightframetherealfacts of the Indian life canbedugout from the exuberantwealthofpoetry assurelyasyourErosandtheCharitesandthedeepestthoughtsfromtheirritualand mythology True Germans and Anglo-Saxons are these Indian worthiesHow grateful I am to Lassen for his conscientious investigations also toDuncker for his representation of the historymadewith the insight of a truehistorianButallthiscanaidmebutlittleIcannowherefindthematerialsforfilling up my frame-work or in case this frame-work should not itself beaccuratefordestroyingitandmywholechapterNaturallyallareignorantofthetimewhichprecedesthegreatfablemdashnamelythetimeoftheVedas

AndsoIturntoyouwitharequestandadjurationwhichyoucannotsetasideIgiveyoumyframe-workthechronologicalcanonasithasbeenshapedbymeIt is clear that we cannot depend on anything that stands in the nobleMahacircbhacircrata and the sentimental Racircmacircyana as to kings and lines of kingsunlessitisconfirmedbytheVedasbuttheygenerallysaytheveryoppositeAllcorruptions of history by our schoolmen and priests are but as childs playcomparedtothesystematic[pg460]falsifyinganddestructionofallhistoryby

the Brahmans Three things are possible (1) you may find my frame-workwrongbecausefactsareagainstit(2)youmayfindituselessbecausefactsaremissingor(3)youmayfindtheplancorrectanddiscoverfactstosupportandfurther it Ihopefor the lastbutevery truth isagainMyschemeis thisThepoetsof theVedahavenochronological reckoning theepicpoetsa falseoneThereremaintheGreeksTounderstandthenarrativeofMegasthenesonemustfirst restore thecorruptedpassageswhichLassenunfortunatelyhassoentirelymisunderstood

Arr Ind ix in Didots ldquoGeographirdquo i p 320 Ἀπὸ μὲν δὴ Διονύσου(Svayambhucirc) βασιλέας ἠρίθμεον Ἰνδοὶ ἐςΣανδράκοττον τρεῖς καὶ πεντήκοντακαὶ ἑκατὸν ἔτεα δὲ δύο καὶ τεσσαρακόσια (instead of πεντήκοντα) καὶἑξακισχίλια (6402 according to Plinys text confirmed by all MSS and bySolinusPolyhist59ofArrianwehavebutcopiesofonecodexandthelacunaisthesameinall)

Ἐν δὲ τούτοισι τρὶς ΙΣΤΑΝΑΙ (instead of τὸ πᾶν εἰς Arr writes only ἐς)ἐλευθερίην(ἱστάναιisHerodoteanforκαθιστάναιaseveryrationalprosewriterwouldhaveput)

ΤΗΝΜΕΝΕΣΔΙΑΚΟΣΙΑτὴνδὲκαὶἐςτριακόσιατὴνδὲεἴκοσίτεἐτέωνκαὶἑκατόν

The restoration is certain because the omission is explained through theὁμοιοτέλευτονandgivesameaningtotheκαὶThesenseismadeindubitablebyDiodorus rhetorical rendering of the same text ofMegasthenes ii 38 τὸ δὲτελευταῖον πολλαῖς γενεαῖς ὕστερον καταλυθείσης τῆς ἡγεμονίαςδημοκρατηθῆναι τὰς πόλεις cf 39 ὕστερον δὲ πολλοῖς ἔτεσι τὰς πόλειςδημοκρατηθῆναι

From this it follows that the monarchy was thrice interrupted by democraticgovernmentsandthattherewerefourperiodsThisistheIndiantraditionButthe whole was conceived as one history doubtless with a prehistoric idealbeginning like our Manus and Tuiskon Therefore no cosmic periods(Brahmanicalimposture)butfourgenerationsofAryanhistoryinIndia

The Kaliyuga is a newworld just as much as Teutonic Christendom but nomore The Indians will probably have commenced it A D 410 as friend

Kingsleytoo(inhisldquoHypatiardquo)[pg461]Whereisthestarting-pointIholdto1015yearsasthechronologicalcomputationuptothetimeoftheNandas

FortheNandasIholdtothe22years

If they say thatKacirclacircṣoka and his ten sons reigned 22 years andNanda ninebrothersinsuccession22yearsthe22yearsisnotwrongeitherhereortherebutthe22iscorrectandthetenkinglypersonagesalsoforaughtIcarebutthenamesarealtered(andreallytodoawaywiththeplebeianNanda)thereforeitisneither44nor88nor100(whichisnothing)but

22mdashmdash

FromParikshittotheyearbeforeSandrakottus 1037Sandraksfirstyear312()317()320()Ihavenoopiniononthepointthereforetakethemiddlenumberabout 317

mdashmdash

Beginningofthefourthperiod1354BC

Interregnumpopulargovernment 120mdashmdash

Endofthethirdperiod 1475

Nakshatraera1476(WeberldquoIndianStudiesrdquoii240)

This fourthperiod is that of the supremacyof theBrahmans in thebeginningwithitsrecoilinBuddhatowardstheend

In the year 1250 B C about the one hundredth year of the era SemiramisinvadedIndia(Dacircvpara)

ThirdperiodoftheroyaldynastiesthegreatempireontheJumnanotfarfromtheimmortalAliwalBeginningwiththeDynastyoftheKurus(Herethenamesof the kings and their works as canals etc Seat of the empire the DuacircbHastinapuraAyodhyacircorstillontheSarasvaticirc)

0years

InterregnumbetweenIIIandII(MusthaveleftitstracesA

pastedupbreakissurelythere) 300

Secondperiodofroyaldynasties(Tretacirc) 0years

(IsthisthehistoricallifeinthePunjabwithalreadyexistingkingdoms)NBWhatisthethirdofthepureflamesIsitthepeopleAtrialatriapatria

InterregnumbetweenIIandI 200years

FirstperiodBeginningofthehistoryafterfirstxyearswithanideallyfilledupunmeasuredperiod

BeginningManu 6402317mdashmdash6719BC

Deductfromthisamythicalbeginningacycleof5times12=60or600atmost60times60=3600atleast12times60=720Orabout6kingsof400yearseachMeantime2160

Total4559

(Thereremaindeducting6from154kings(withDionysos)about148)

Lengthoftime4559-1354=3205divide148=21-12meannumberofyearsforeachhistoricalgovernmentwhichisveryappropriate

ZoroasterlivedaccordingtoEudoxusandAristotle(comparedwithHermippos)6350 or 6300 B C This points to a time of Zoroastrians migrating towardsIndiaorhavingmigratedreturningagainAcceptthelatterandthebeginningof the 6402 years lies very near the first period and the Indianizing of theAryans Those accounts about Zoroaster are (as Eudoxus already proves)pre-AlexandrianthereforenotIndianbutAryanDonotthehymnsoftheRig-vedaofwhichseveralareattributedtothekingsoftheTretacircperiodcontainhintsonthatschismIf it reallyoccurred in thePunjabsomereminiscencewouldhavebeen left there of it The Zend books (wretched things) only give negativeevidence

The Brahmans of themost sinful period have of course smothered all that is

historicalinprodigiesandthiswretchedtastelongappearedtotheGermansaswisdomwhilsttheydespisedthe(certainlysuperficial)butstillsensibleEnglishresearches[pg463]ofSirWJonesandCoasphilisteringOnemustopposethismoreinflexiblythaneventhatadmirableLassendoes(NBHasColbrookeanythingonthisorWilson)

There may have been two points of contact between the Aryans and thekingdomsontheEuphratesbeforetheexpeditionofSemiramis

aBymeansoftheZoroastrianMedo-BabyloniankingdomwhichhaditscapitalinBabylonfrom2234BC(1903beforeAlexander)forabouttwocenturies

b In the oldest primitive times by the Turanian-Cushite or North AfricankingdomofNimrodwhich cannot be placed later than in the seventh chiliadTheEgyptianshadatraditionofthisasisprovedaccordingtomyinterpretationbythehistoricalgerminthestoryintheTimaeligosofthegreatcombatofEuropeandAsiaagainsttheso-calledAtlantidesbuttheseareuncertainmatters

Thatisageneralsketchofmyframe-workIfyouareabletodoanythingwithitI make you the following proposition You will send me an open letter inGerman(onlywithoutyourExcellencyandasIbegyouwillalwayswritetomeas friend to friend) in which you will answer my communication Send mebeforehandafewreflectionsanddoubtsformytextwhichImustsendawaybythe15thofMayYouropenlettermustbesentininJuneifpossiblebeforethe15th inorder to appearbefore the15thof July as anAppendix tomy text ofBookVb(fourthdivision)firsthalfIcandonothinginthemattereverythinghereiswantingIcannotevenfindGermanbookshereThereforekeepLassensmaps if you have them I have in themean time helpedmyself bymeans ofRitter and Kiepert to find the old kingdoms and the sacred Sarasvaticirc Thatsatisfiesmeforthepresent

SoonasignoflifeandlovetoyoursorelytormentedbutfaithfulB

CHARLOTTENBERGSundayMorningApril271856

Ihave laidbeforeyoumyrestorationof the textofMegasthenesandaddedafewpreliminary thoughts on the possibility of the restorationof his traditionsand somethingofmy restoringcriticism Ihavenothoweverbeenable to restsincethattimewithoutgoingtotheverygroundofthemattertoseeifIamonaside-pathorontherightroadInowsendyouthesummaryofthetwochapterswhichIhavewrittensincethen

[pg464]ITherestorationofthelistofMegasthenes(153kingsin6402years)

1 The list begins like the Sanskrit tradition with the first generation threeinterregnumspresupposefourperiods

2 The whole fourfold divided chronology is one three sections of historicalrecollections lie before theKali age Lassen is thereforewrong in saying thatMegasthenesbeganwiththeTretacircageTheprogressofthegradualextensionofthekingdomisorganic

3 The foundation of the whole tradition of the four periods of time are thegenealogical registers of the old royal families which must if possible belocalized of coursewith special reference toMagadhawhichhoweverbeginslate As in Egypt every branch tried somewhere to find its place we mustthereforethrowawayormarkallnamesnotsupportedbythelegend(thatistheVedictraditions)Thecontemporarydynastiesmustbeseparatedfromthosethatfolloweachother

4 Each period was divided from the preceding by an historical factmdashadissolution followed by a subjugation or a popular government The first isdivided from the secondbyHeraklesmdashKrishnaThe third from the second byRacircma theextirpatorof theheroesand royal races (great risingof thepeople)ThefourthfromthethirdbypurelyhistoricalrevolutionscausedorfosteredbytheAssyrianinvasion

5Themythicalexpressionfortheseperiodsisonethousandyears

6Thehistoricalinterregnumsare200300120

7Asbotharethesametherefore3times1000yearsvanishandthereremainbutthe620

8ThereforeMegastheneslist

Megastheneslist 64023000mdashmdash

KingsfromthefirstpatriarchtoSandrakottus 3402yearsInterregnums 620

mdashmdash4022

FIRSTPERIOD

AAryanrecollectionsMegastheneslistunitesthetraditionsoftheMoon-race(Budha)withthatoftheSun-race(directfromManu)

(1) Questions First questionWhat do the names Ayus and Yayacircti mean IsNahusha=man

[pg465](2) I knowking Ikshvacircku ie the gourdWho are theAsuras conquered byPrithu

(3)Anuoneof the four sonsofYayacircti is theNorthnot the Iraniannor theTuranianwhichisTurvasabuttheSemiticieAssurAnuisthechiefnationalgodoftheAssyriansaccordingtothecuneiforminscriptionsThecradleoftheold dynasty was therefore called Telanu==hill of Anu Salmanassar is calledSalem-anuiefaceofAnu

BIndianprimitivetimes

1Manu(primitivetime) 10002-14ThirteenhumankingsinthePunjabeachreignsonanaveragethirty-sixyears 468

15Krishnadestruction 1000

2468yearsrepresentingreallyonly268+200yearswithanunknownquantityrepresentingAryanmigrationsandsettlementsinthePunjab

(4)QuestionIsJonesstatementcorrectinhischronology(Worksi299)thatthefourthAvatacircrmustbeplacedbetweenthefirstandsecondperiods

SECONDPERIOD

Thekingdomof thePuruand theBharatakingsRoyal residenceprovinceoftheSarasvaticircEpostheRacircmacircyana

APeriodfromPurutoDushyanta

ConquestsfromtheSarasvationthenorthandtoKalinga(Bengal)onthesouthConquerorsTansuIlinaBharataSuhocirctra(allVedicnames)

B Period of destruction through the PantildekacirclasmdashAgamicircdha (Suhocirctras sonaccording to the unfalsified tradition) is the human Racircma the instrument ofdestruction

(5)QuestionWhy is he called inLassen i 590 the son ofRikshu (This isanotherthousandyears)

Riksha is called inM Bh (Lassen xxiii note 17) son of Agamicircdha and inanotherplacewifeofAgamicircdhaorbothtimeswife

THIRDPERIOD

TheKurusthePantildekacirclasthePacircndavasSeatsinMiddleHindostanAdvancetotheVindhya(EpostheMahacircbhacircrataofthethirdperiodastheRacircmacircyanaofthesecond)

AKingdomsoftheKurus

[pg466]BKingdom of the Pantildekacirclas Contemporary lists but the Pantildekacirclas outlast theKurusBotharefollowedbymdash

CKingdomofthePacircndavas

Ad A From Kuru to Devacircpi who retires (that is is driven away) SacircntanuBahlicirckatheBactrian()thereareelevenreignsThenthethreegenerationstoDuryodhanaandArguna

ParikshitrepresentsthebeginningoftheInterregnum

ThelistintheVishnu-puracircnaoftwenty-ninekingsfromParikshittoKshemakawithwhomtheracebecomesextinctintheKaliagedoesnotconcernus

TheyarethelinesofthepretenderswhodidnotagainacquirethethroneTheoldestlistisprobablyonlyofsixreignsforthesonofSatacircnicirckathethirdVPkingofthislistisalsocalledUdayana(Lassenxxvinote23)andthesameisthenameofthetwenty-fifthkingthesonofSatacircnicirckaIIThereforeBrihadrathaVasudacircnaandSudacircsa(212223)arelikewisethelastofaParikshit lineButtheydonotcountchronologically

FOURTHPERIOD

ThekingdomofMagadhaChronologicalclewsforMegasthenesThefirstpartoftheMagadhalistpreservedtous(Lassenxxxi)fromKurutoSahadevaisanunchronologicallistofcollaterallinesofthethirdperiodthereforeofnovaluefor the computation of timeTheKali list ofMagadha beginswithSomacircpi toRipungaya 20 kings The numbers are cooked in so stupid a way that theyneither agree with each other nor are possible One can only find the rightnumberfromlowerdown

RestorationoftheChronology

KaliIIPradyotafivekingswith 138yearsKaliIIISaisunacircgatenkingswith 360yearsKaliIVNandafatherwitheightorninesons 22years

mdashmdashKaliVKandraguptaking 317BC

mdashmdash837years

If onededucts these837years from1182 the first yearof theKali age thereremain 345 years for the twenty kings from Somacircpi to Ripungaya (FirstDynasty) averaging 17-12 years (Thatwill do) I adopt 1182 years because1354isimpossible [pg467]but1181 is thehistoricalchronologicalbeginningof a kingdom in Kashmir Semiramis invaded India under a Sthavirapati(probably only a title) about 1250 This time must therefore fall in theinterregnum(120yearsafterMegasthenes)ThehistoryofthewarwithAssyria(Asura)issmotheredbypushingforwardtheAbhicircrathatistheNavalWarontheIndus(Diodorus)

I passover the approximate restorationof the first threeperiods I havegivenyouascantyabstractofmytreatisewhichInaturallyonlylookuponasaframe-work But if the frame-work be right and of this I feel convinced if I havediscovered the true grooves and the systemmdashthen the unfalsified remains oftraditions in theVedasmustaffordfurtherconfirmationTheKalicanbefixedfor about 11501190 by powerful synchronisms The three earlier ages can beapproximatelyrestoredOnethusarrivesbyadding200+300+120(=620)toeach of the earlier and thus separated periods to the beginning of the Tretacirc(foundation of the Bharata kingdom beginning with Puru) This leads to thefollowingcomputation

IAnarchybeforePuru 200years

IIFromPurutoBharatasfather10reignsof20years 200years

FromBharatatoAgamicircdhasson6reigns 120years

EndofII 300yearsmdashmdash

IIIFromKurutoBahlika(migrationtowardsBactria)10reigns 200years

(Parikshit)apparently6-7reigns 120yearsmdashmdash

EndoftheoldestIndiankingdombeforeKali 1340years1182yearsmdashmdash

BeginningofTretacirc=2522BC(2234ZoroasterinvadedBabylonfromMedia)SeconddynastiesinBabylon

1100yearsmdashmdash3622years

We have still to account for the time of the settlement in the Punjab andformationofkingdomsthereThisgivesasthebeginningapproximately=4339BC

[pg468]Andnow I amveryanxious tohearwhatyouhavemadeoutorwhetheryouhavelet thewholematterrestas it isIhavepostponedeverything inorder toclearup thewayas faras I can I shall try to induceWeber tovisitme in theWhitsunholidaystolookintothedetailsformethatImaynotlaymyselfopentoattackBeforethatIshallhavereceivedHaugsentirelynewtranslationofthefirst Fargard which I shall print as an Appendix with his annotations MyChineserestorationhasturnedoutmostsatisfactory

Imaynowlookforwardtotellingthem(1)Therabbinicalchronologyisfalseitisimpossibleithaseverytraditionopposedtoitmostofallsothebiblicalmdashthereforeawaywithit(2)Sciencehasnottoturnbackbutnowfirst topressreally forward and to restore the question is not the fixing of abstractspeculative formulas but the employing of speculation and philology for thereconstructionofthehistoryofhumanityofwhichrevelationisonlyaportionthoughcertainlythecentreifwebelieveinourmoralconsciousnessofGod

ThisisaboutwhatIshallsayasmylastwordinthePrefacetothesixthvolumeofldquoEgyptrdquoVolumesIVandVareprintedDeosoligloria

CHARLOTTENBERGMay221856MY DEAR FRIENDmdashH R H the Prince Regent who starts for England to-morrow wishes to see Oxford and quietly and instructively I therefore givetheselinestohisprivatesecretaryHerrUllmannthathemaybyletteror(ifthetimeallows)bywordofmouthapplytoyoutofixadayHerrUllmannisthesonofthefamousDrU thepresentprelateandchiefchurch-councilorandamanofgoodintentions

Ihaveat lastgone in forVedic andBactrianchronology afterhavinghadDrHaugofBonnwithmeforeightdaysHetranslatedandreadtomemanyhymnsfrom your two quartos (which he does very fluently) and a little of Sacircyanascommentary By this and by Lassen and Roth and yours and WeberscommunicationsIbelieveIhavesavedmyselffromthebreakersandIholdmyproofsasestablishedmdash

ThattheoldestVedaswerecomposed3000-2500BCandthateverythingelseis written in a learned dead Brahmanical language a precipitate of the Vedalanguageandcertainlyverylatescarcelyanythingbefore800BC

[pg469]ManutakeshisplaceafterBuddha

The ages of the world are the miserable system of the book of Manu andnothingmore thanevaporatedhistoricalperiodsTheseepochscanbe restorednotbytheaidbutinspiteofthetwoepicsandtheirchronology

PetermannsendsmeabeautifulmapTheroutesandsettlementsoftheAryansfromtheirprimitivehometothelandofthefiverivers(orratherseven)

Haug hasworked out all the fourteen namesKabul andKandahar are hiddenamongstthemIhopehewillsettleintheautumnwithmeandforthenextfew

Inhastewithhearty thanks foryouraffectionateand instructiveanswersGodblessyou

PS Ishall take the libertyofsendingyouabout the1stofJuly thefirst fivesheetsofmyAryansbeforetheyareprintedoffandtendayslatertheremainingthreeorfourandbegforyourinstructiveremarksonthem

CHARLOTTENBERGJuly171856MYDEARLYLOVEDFRIENDmdashYesterdayeveningathalf-pastsevenoclockIwroteoffmylastchapterofldquoEgyptsPlacerdquoforpressandsotheworkisfinishedthefirstsheetsofwhichweresenttoGothafromLondonin1843thechiefpartofwhichhoweverwaswrittenin1838-39Youwillreceivethetwonewvolumes(Books IV V a) in a fortnight they will be published to-day Of the thirdvolume(thesixthof theGermaneditions)orV(b) twelvesheetsareprintedandtheothereighteenarereadyexceptafewsheetsalreadyatGothaincludingtheindextoItoV(a)Iaminthemainsatisfiedwiththework

YouarethefirstwithwhomIbeginpayingoffmydebtsofcorrespondenceandIrejoicethatIcantakethisopportunitytothankyouforallthedelightfulnewswhich your last dear letter (sent by thatmost amiableMuir) conveyed tomeespeciallyforthecompletionofthethirdbigvolumeoftheRig-vedaandforthehappy arrival of your mother and cousin which has doubtless already takenplaceYouknowitwasaletterfromthe latterwhichfirsttoldmeofyouandmademewishtoseeyouAndthenyoucameyourselfandallthatIprophesiedofyouafterthefirstconversationinLondonandyourfirstvisitinthecountryhasbeenrichlyfulfilledmdashyes[pg470]beyondmyboldesthopesYouhavewonanhonorablepositioninthefirstEnglishuniversitynotonlyforyourselfbutfortheFatherlandandyouhaverichlyreturnedthelovewhichIfeltforyoufromthefirstmomentandhavefaithfullyreciprocatedafriendshipwhichconstitutesanessentialportionofmyhappinessI therefore thankyouall themoreforalltheloveandfriendshipofyourlastlettersIcanonlyexcusemyselfbymybookfornothavingsooner thankedyou Isoonperceived thatyouwerequite right

that thechronological researcheson Indianantiquityhave led tonothingmoresurethantheconvictionthattheearlierviewswithfewexceptionswerewrongorwithoutfoundationAssoonasIacquiredthisconvictionthroughreadingthelastworksonthesubject(LassenandRoth)IgrewfuriousasithappenstomefromtimetotimeandatthesametimereawokethelongingaftertheresearcheswhichIhadtolayasidein1816andwhichInowdeterminedtoapproachagaininthecourseofmyworkwhichischronologicalinthewidestsenseAfterIhadread all that is written I let Haug come to me in the Whitsun holidays Hebrought with him the translation I wished for of the First Fargard of theVendidad and you can imaginemy delightwhen inBooksXII andXIII hediscoveredforme(purely linguistically) the twocountries thenon-appearanceof which was the only tenable counter-reason which opposed itself to theintuition towhich I had held fast since 1814mdashnamely that this document soancient in itsprimitiveelementscontainednothing less than thehistoryof thegradualinvasionfoundingofstatesandpeoplingofAsiabytheAryansHowcould Kandahar and Kabul be missing if this were true Without the leastsuspicionofthishistoricalopinionHaugprovedtomethattheyarenotwantingPetermannwillmakethewholeclearinalittlemapsuchasIshowedhimYouwillfindit in thesixthvolumeThenherejoicedmyheartbytranslatingsomesinglehymnsoftheRig-vedaespeciallyinBookVIIwhichIfoundthrewgreatlightontheGod-ConsciousnessthefaithinthemoralgovernmentoftheworldHe comes tome from the 1st ofAugust he is free inBonn and goes for theZendaffairstoParismarrieshisbrideinOfterdingenandcomesheretomeonthe1stofOctoberforMithridatesandtheOldTestamenttheprintingofwhichbegins in January 1857 with the Pentateuch With him (in default of yourpersonalpresence)IhavenowgonethrougheverythingatwhichIarrivedwithregardtotheperiod[pg471]oftheentryoftheAryans(4000BC)intheInduscountry(towhichSarasvaticircdoesnotbelongmdashonecanaseasilycountsevenasfiveriversfromtheeasternbranchoftheupperIndustothewestoftheSatadru)andwithregardto thedifficultquestionsof theconnectionof thesemigrationswith Zoroaster That is Imust place Zoroaster before the emigration on themarch(from5000-4000)theemigrantsgraduallybreakoffThreeheresiesoneafteranotherarementionedintherecorditselfThenotexterminatedgermsofthenature-worship(withtheadorationoffire)springupagainbutthemoralliferemained (1)Therefore theVeda language is tome theprecipitateof theOldBactrian(astheEddalanguageoftheOldNorse)(2)TheZendlanguageisthesecondstepfromtheNorthernOldBactrian(3)TheSanskritisonestillfurtheradvancedfromtheSouthernOldBactrianor fromtheVeda language (4)AllIndian literature except the Vedas is in the New South Bactrian already

become a learned language which has been named the perfect or SanskritlanguageTheepochsofthelanguagearethethreegreathistoricalcatastrophes

AKingdom in the region of the Indusmdash4000-3000 TheVeda language as alivingpopularlanguage

B Second PeriodmdashOn the Sarasvaticirc and in the Duacircb The Veda tonguebecomesthelearnedlanguageSanskritisthepopularlanguage3000-2000

CThirdPeriodmdashSanskritbeginstobethelearnedlanguageatleastattheend

DKali=1150BCSanskritmerelythelearnedlanguage

ThereforetheoldestVedasthepurelypopularcannotbeyoungerthan3000thecollectionwasmade in the thirdperiod the tenthbook isalready inchiefpartwritten inadead languageYouseealldependsonwhether Icanauthenticatethe four periods with their three catastrophes for a new form of languagepresupposes a political change Forms such asHar-aqaiti I can explain just asthat the Norwegian names of places are younger than the correspondingIcelandic forms in the colony the old remains as a fixed form in themothercountrythelanguageprogresses

ForwhatconcernsnowseriouslytheMythologyyourspiritedessayopeningthewaywasarealgodsendforIhadjustarrivedattheconvictionwhichyouwillfind expressed in the introduction to Book V (a) That the so-called nature-religioncanbenothingbutthesymboloftheprimitiveconsciousnessof[pg472]Godwhichonlygraduallybecameindependent(throughmisunderstanding)andwhichalreadyliesprefiguredinorganicspeechPmdashmdashKmdashmdashandCoareonthis point in great darkness or rather in utter error You have kept yourselfperfectly free from this mistake I however felt that I must proclaim what ispositivelytruefarmoresharplyandhavedrawntheoutlinesofamethodwhichistomethemoreconvincingasithasstoodthetestofthewholehistoryofoldreligion For in taking up the Aryan investigations I closed the circle of myhistoricalmythologicalinquiryWhatwillyousaytothisForIhavewrittenthewholeespeciallyforyoutocometoanunderstandingwithyouIarriveatthesamepointwhichyouaimatbutwithoutyourroundaboutwaywhichisbutamake-shift But in the fundamental conception of nature-religion we docertainlyagreealtogetherIfyoucometoGermanyyouwillfindherewithmetheproof-sheetsofBookV(b)(aboutpages1-200)whichtreatofthissectionas

wellas theanalysisof the tableof theHebrewpatriarchsTheywillbe lookedthroughbeforeHaugsjourneytoParisandminetoGeneva(August1)andwillbethereforeallstruckoffwhenIreturnhereonthe23dAugust

YouressayholdsabeautifulplaceinthehistoryofthesubjectTheworkonthatsectiongavemeinexpressibledelightandadespaired-ofgapinmylifeisfilledupasfarasisnecessaryformyownknowledgeandIbelievetoonotwithoutadvantagetothefaithful

HowdisgracefulitisthatwedonotinstinctivelyunderstandtheVedalanguagewhenwereaditinrespectableRomanletterswithalittlepreviousgrammaticalpracticeYourVedaGrammarwillbeaclosedbook tomeasyouprint in thelater Devanagari goose-foot character Haug shall transliterate for me thegrammaticalformsintoyouralphabetHeisanobleSuabianandmuchattachedtomealsoagreatadmirerofyours

My ldquoGod-Consciousnessrdquo is printed (thirty-two sheets) twenty are corrected(andfought throughwithBernays)Thiswork toowillbecarried throughthesecondrevisebeforemyjourneyIwondermyselfwhatwillcomeoftheworkIts extent remains unaltered (three volumes in six books) but its contents areeverswellingIhopeitwilltakeIshallstriketheoldsystemdeadforeverifwedo not go to ruin of this I am sure therefore I must all the more lay thefoundationsofthenewstructureinthehearttheconscienceandthereason

[pg473]OwhatahideoustimeGodbepraisedwhomadeusbothfreeSoalsoisCarlnow throughhisofficial efficiencyandhishappymarriageTheweddingwilltakeplaceinParisbetweenthe9thand15thOctoberWeshallgothere

I take daily rides and was never better Please God I shall finish the ldquoGod-Consciousnessrdquo (II and III) between the25thAugust and the endofOctober(thethirdvolumeisnearlyready)andthenIshalltakeuptheldquoBibleworkrdquotheproof-sheetsofwhich liebeforemewithundivided energyThe contractwithBrockhaus is concluded and exchanged I shall perhaps come to England inOctober1857thatistosaywiththefirstvolumeoftheBiblebutnotwithoutit

Neukomm and Joachim have been with us for six weeks which gave us thegreatestenjoymentNeukommreturnshereattheendofAugust

Mychildrenpromiseme(withoutsayingit)tomeethereforthe25thAugustto

introducetheamiablebridetomeIamrejoicingoveritlikeachild

Why do you not make a journey to the Neckar valley with your mother andcousinMypeoplesendheartygreetingsWithtrueloveyours

IampurposelynotreadingyourAnti-RenanallatoncethatImayoftenreaditover again before I finish it I think it is admirably written Perhaps adistinguishedphilologistDrFliedner(nephewoftheheadoftheDeaconesses)may call on you He has been highly recommended to me and is worthy ofencouragementWhatisAufrechtaboutIcannotceasetofeelinterestedabouthim

CHARLOTTENBERGOctober71856YesterdaymydearestfriendIsentoffthecloseofthelastvolumeofldquoEgyptrdquotogetherwith theprinted sheets 13-19 and at the same time toBrockhaus thelast two revised sheets of the ldquoGod inHistoryrdquoVolume I and to-day I haveagaintakenupthetranslationoftheBible(Exodus)withHaugandCamphausenmdashthat is Haug arrived the day before yesterday (Between ourselves I hopeBernaysiscomingtomeforthreeyears)HowIshouldhavelikedtoshowyouthese sheets 13-19 (theBactrians and Indians and their chronology)Youwillfind in them a thorough discussion of your beautiful essay (which has beenadmired everywhere as a perfect masterpiece) not without [pg 474] someshakingsoftheheadatKmdashmdashandBmdashmdashInfactIhavegoneinforitandbyNew Years Day you shall have it before you This with the journey toSwitzerlandand threeweeksof indispositionafterwardsareanexcuse formysilence

ItalwaysgivesmegreatandinexpressiblepleasurewhenyoutalktomebyletterandthinkaloudAndthistimeIhavebeendeeplytouchedbyitIamconvincedyou have since then yourself examined the considerations which opposethemselvestoyourboldandnoblewishwithregardtothePunjabWhatwouldbecome of your great work I will not here say what shall we in Europe dowithoutyouAlsodoyoumean togoalone toHaptaHenduorasamarriedmanThereyouwillneverfindawifeAndwouldyourintendedgowithyou

AndthechildrenAllEnglishmentellmeitisjustasunbearablyhotinLahoreasinDelhiinUmritsirthereisnofreshairNoSinggoestoCashmirbecausehewho reigns therewould soondispatchhimout of theworld at the timeof thefever

BythebywhathasbecomeofyourconvertDoeshestillsmokewithoutanyscruple

Your gorgeous Rig-veda at Brockhaus frightens people here because of itsextent (theywould havegivenup theSanhita satisfiedwith various readings)and the exorbitant price Others would willingly have had your own VedaGrammarbesides the Indiangrammatical treatise especiallyonaccountof theVedicformsInfactyouareadmiredbutcriticisedYoumustnotallowthistoannoyyouIfindthatHaugthinksaboutthemythologynearlyasIdo

Everything in Germany resolves itself more and more into pettinesses andcliquesandthepitifulquestionofsubsistenceldquoThemanyprincesareourgoodfortunebutpovertyisourcrimerdquoHadnotBrunnofferedhimselftotakeBraunsplacegivinguphisprivatetutorshipwemusthavegivenuptheArchaeligologicalInstituteatRomeWithdifficultyGerhardhasfoundonemaninGermanywhocouldundertaketheItalianprintingoftheldquoAnnalirdquo(appearingasyouknowinGotha) ldquoResta a vedere se lo puograverdquo All who can leave Prussiamdashand onlyblockheads or hypocrites are let in with the exception of physical sciencewhoevercandosoturnsengineerorgoesintoahouseofbusinessoremigratesMydecidedadviceonthisaccountthereforeisreserveyourselfforbettertimesandstayatpresentinEnglandwhereyouhavereallywonadelightfulpositionforyourself

[pg475]NowforvariousthingsaboutmyselfEverypossible thingisdonetodrawmeawayfromhere(mythirdcapitolthefirstofmyown)TheKingquiterecently(whichIcouldnotintheleastexpect)receivedmehereattherailwaystationinthemostaffectionatewayanddemandedapromise fromme that IwouldpayhimavisitwithinayearandadayButIhaveonceforalldeclaredmyselfastheldquohermitofCharlottenbergrdquoandhermitsandprophetsshouldstayathomeIdonot even go to Carlsruhe and CoblentzCui bono What avails good wordswithoutgooddeedsButthenationisnotdeadDontimaginethatBeforethismonthisoutyouwillseewhatIhavesaidonthissubjectinthePrefacetotheldquoGod in HistoryrdquoWithin six to ten years the nation will again be fit to act

PalmerstonwillcuthisthroatifnothingcomesoftheNeapolitanbusinessandjustthesameifhecannotmakeldquoagoodcaserdquotheprincipleofinterventionevenagainst Bomba is self-destruction for England and disgraceful in the highestdegreeThe fox cannotbeginwar in Italyat thepresentmoment fromwantofmoneyandhisaccomplicesareafraidoflosingtheirstolenbootySohetriestogaintimeHewillstillliveafewyears

Ihaveseenmdashmdashheknowsagreatdealmorethanheallowstoappearbutisthedriest and most despairing Englishman I have ever seen He has sufferedshipwreck of everything on the Tuumlbingen sand bank The poor wretchesReligionandtheologywithoutphilosophyisbadphilosophywithoutphilosophyis a monster So Comte is a trump-card with many in Oxford He is so inLondon What a fall of intellect what a decay of life what an abyss ofignorance Jowett is a living shoot andwill continue so but JohnBull ismychief comfort even formy ldquoGod inHistoryrdquo America is my greatest miseryaftermymiseryforGermanybuttheNorthwillproveitselfintheright

Withheartygreetingsoftruestattachmentandlovetoyourmothertrulyyours

WeexpectGeorgeonthe18thErnstishere

CHARLOTTENBERGJanuary291857YouhavereallyinflicteditonmeForthoughIhavebutonelegtostandupon(Icannotsitatall)astheotherhasbeensufferingforfourdaysfromsciatica(letDrAclandexplain[pg476]thattoyouwhilstyouatthesametimethankhimheartilyforhisexcellentbookonthecholera)stillIamobligedtoplacemyselfatthedesktoanswermydearfriendsletterreceivedyesterdayeveninginbedThe last fortnight Ihavedaily thoughtofyou incessantly andwished towriteyouadunningletteratthesametimethankingyouforthethirdvolumeoftheVedawhichalreadycontainssomehymnsoftheseventhbookastheadmiringHaugreaditouttomeOutofthisespeciallyhepromisesmeagreattreasureformyVedicGod-Consciousnesswithoutprejudicetowhatthemusemayperhapsprompt you to send me in your beautiful poetical translation for my youngassistantwill havenothing todowith thatYouwill certainly agreewithhim

afteryouhavereadmyfirstvolumethatmuchistobefoundinthatVedaforthecentreofmyinquiriestheconsciousnessintheIndianIraniansoftherealityofthedivine inhuman life I find inall thathasyet comebeforeme almost thesamethatechoesthroughtheEddaandthatappearsinHomeraspopularbeliefthegodhead interferes inhumanaffairswhencrimebecomes toowantonandthus evil is overcome and the good gainsmore andmore the upper handOfcourse that is kept in the background when despair in realities becomes thekeynote of the God-Consciousness as with the Brahmans and then with themuch-praisedapostlesofannihilationtheBuddhistsYouarequiterightitisapitythatIcouldnotlettheworkappearallatonceforevenyoumisunderstandmeWhenIsayldquowecannotpraywiththeVedasandHomerandtheirheroesnotevenwithPindarrdquoImeanweasworshippersasacommunityandthatyouwillsurely allow Of course the thoughtful philosopher canwell saywith Goetheldquoworship and liturgy in the name of St Homer not to forget AEligschylus andShakespearerdquo But that matter is nevertheless true in history without anylimitationIhaveonlytrieditwithConfuciusbutitismoredifficultitisasifanantediluvianarmadillotriedtodance

ButwhatwillmyOldTestamentreaderssaywhenIleadthemintothegloryoftheHellenicGod-ConsciousnessCrossingandblessingthemselveswonthelpMy expressions therefore in the second volume are carefully considered andcautiouslyusedButthetragedyofmylifewillbethefourthbookYetIwriteitIhavewrittenit

YouarequiterightabouttheEnglishtranslationallthethreevolumesatonceandtheaddressat thebeginningBut[pg477]youmust read thesecondbookformeItisnogoodsayingyoudontunderstandanythingaboutitIhavemadeiteasyenoughforyou Ihaveassertednothingsimplywithoutmaking iteasyfor every educated person to form his own opinion if he will only reflectseriouslyabouttheBibleThepresuppositionsareeitherasgoodasgrantedorwhereanythingpeculiartomecomesinIhaveinthenotesjustifiedeverythingthoroughlyalthoughapparentlyverysimplyTaketheLentSundaysforthisandyouwillkeepEasterwithmeandalsoyouramiablemother (fromwhomyouneversendmeevenawordofgreeting)

But now how does it farewith ldquoEgyptrdquo The closing volume which as youknow I wrote partly out of despair because you would not help me and inwhich I most especially thought of you and reckoned on your guidingfriendshipmust surely now be in your hands (the two preceding volumes of

coursesometimeago)Whydontyoureadthem

IamnotatalleasyatwhatyoutellmeaboutyourselfandyourfeelingseventhoughIfeeldeeplythatyoudonotquitewithdrawyourinmostthoughtsfromme But why are you unhappy You have gained for yourself a delightfulpositioninlifeYouaregettingonwithyourgiganticworkYou(likeme)havewon a fatherland in England without losing your German home the everexcellentYouhaveabeautifulfuturebeforeyouYoucanatanymomentgiveyourselfacomfortableandsoul-satisfyingfamilycircleIfmanyaroundyouarePhilisters you knew that already still they areworth something in their ownlineOnlystepboldlyforwardintolifeThenHeidelbergwouldcomeagainintoyouritinerary

OnethingmorethistimeIhavenotreceivedWilsonstranslationIpossessboththefirstandsecondvolumesHashenotcontinuedhisusefulworkWhatcanIdotoremindhimofthemissingpartThethirdvolumetoomustcontainmuchthatisinterestingforme

Icannot forgetAufrecht Ishefree fromcareandcontentedThefamilygreetyou and your dearmotherWe expectCharles and his youngwife nextweekErnstisasyouwillknowbackatAbbeyLodgeWithunalteredaffection

[pg478]

CHARLOTTENBERGApril271857The month is nearly over my dear friend before the close of which I mustaccording to agreement deliver up my revised copy of the amendments andadditionstotheEnglisheditionofmyldquoEgyptrdquo(Theyarealreadythere)Ihopedthatinthisintervalyouwouldhavefoundalittleleisure(asLepsiusandBernayshavedonewhosentmethefruitsoftheirreadingalreadyatthebeginningofthemonth in the most friendly way) to communicate to me your criticisms ordoubtsorthoughtsorcorrectionsonthatwhichIhavetouchedoninyourownespecial territory as I had expressly and earnestly begged you to do I have

improved the arrangement verymuchAs you have not done this I can onlyentertainoneoftwodisagreeablesuppositionsnamelythatyouareeitherilloroutofspiritsorthatyouhaveonlywhatisdisagreeabletosayofmybookandwouldratherspareyourselfandmefromthisButasfromwhatIknowofyouandyouknowofme Idonot find ineither theoneor theothersuppositionasufficientexplanationofyourobstinatesilence Ishouldhaveforcedmyself towaitpatientlyhadInottobegfromyoualoneasmallbutindispensablegiftformyldquoGodinHistoryrdquo

Ihaveagaininthisinterregnumtakenuptheinterruptedstudiesoflastyearonthe Aryan God-Consciousness in the Asiatic world and thanks to Burnoufsyours Wilsons Roths and Fausboumllls books and Haugs assistance andtranslationsIhavemadethewayeasytomyselfforunderstandingthetwogreatAryanprophetsZaraduschtraandSākyaand(sofarasthatispossibletooneofusnow) theVedaand thisnotwithout successandwith inexpressibledelightMyexpectationsarefarexceededTheVedicsongsarebyfarthemostgloriouswhichinfirstgoingthroughthatfearfultranslationofWilsonsseemedtowishtohidethemselvesentirelyfrommeThedifficultiesofmakingthemintelligibleevenofabaretranslationareimmensetheutterperversenessofSacircyanaisonlyexceededbythatofWilsontowhomhoweveronecanneverbegratefulenoughforhiscommunicationsInowfirstperceivewhatadifficultbutalsonobleworkyouhaveundertakenandhowmuchstill remainsdoubtfulevenafteronehasgotbeyondthecollectorsandneartotheoriginalpoetsItisasifoftheHebrewtraditionsweonlyhadthePsalmsandthatwithoutanindividualpersonalitylikeDavidwithoutinfactanyoneonthecontraryallusionstoAbrahamspossiblepoemsandthecosmical[pg479]dreamsoftheAramaeligansButyethowstrongis the feeling of immediate relation toGod and nature how truly human andhowcloselyrelatedtoourownWhatacurioussimilaritytotheEddaHomerandPindarHesiodandtheHellenicprimitivetimesNothinghowevergavemegreaterdelightthanthedignityandsolemnityofthefuneralceremonieswhichyouhavemadesoreallyclearandeasytobeunderstoodThisisasyettheonlypiece of real life of our blood relations in the land of the five rivers I havenaturallytakenpossessionofthistreasurewiththegreatestdelightandperfectedthe description formyproblemby the explanation ofYama (following on thewhole Roth who however overlooks the demiurgic character) of the Ribhus(departingentirelynotonlyfromNegravevesmistakenviewsbutalsofromwhatIhave read elsewhere representing them as the three powerswhich divide andform matter namely Air Water and Earth to whom the fourth Agni wasjoined under the guidance of Tvashar) and of the funeral ceremonies as the

conditionofthelawsofinheritancewhereIreturntomyownbeginningAndhereitstrikesmeatoncethatintheVedassofarastheyareaccessibletomethereisnota tracetobefoundof the joining togetherof the threegenerations(thedepartedandhisfatherandgrandfather)andmakingthemtheunityoftherace through the sacrificial oblationsAndyet the ideamustbeolder than theVedas as this precise though certainly not accidental limitation is foundwithSolonandtheTwelveTablesjustasclearlyaswithManuandallthebooksoflawsandthecommentariescollectedbyColebrookeYouwouldofcoursehavementioned this inyour account if anythingof the sorthadexisted in the tenthbookButeventhePitristhefathersarenotmentionedbutitpassesonstraightto Yama the first ancestor Haug too has discovered nothing if you knowanything about it communicate it tome in the course ofMay formy secondvolumegoes topresson the1stJune Ishall read italoud toGeorgeandMissWynnherebetweenthe25thand31st

But my real desire is that you should send me one of your melodious andgracefulmetrical translationsofyourhymnldquoNoraughtnornoughtexistedrdquo Imustofcoursegiveit(itbelongswithmetotheperiodoftransitionthereforecomparativelyspeakinglate)andhowcanIventuretotranslateitIhavetobesuredonesowithaboutfivepoemswhichHaugchoseformeoutof thefirstninebooksandtranslatedliterally[pg480]andthenexplainedthemtomeaswellaswiththosewhichIworkedoutofWilsonstwofirstvolumesbythehelpofRothandHaugButthatisyourhymnandIhavealreadywrittenmythanksforyourcommunication inmyMSand then lefta spaceThatgoodRowlandWilliamsthinksittheisticoratalleventsletsoneofthespeakerssayso

RowlandWilliamsldquoChristandHinduismrdquohasbeenarealrefreshmenttomeinthisinvestigationoftheIndianconsciousnessofGodintheworldThemasteryoftheSocratic-Platonicdialoguethedelicacyandfreedomoftheinvestigationand the deepChristian and human spirit of thisman have attractedmemorethanallothernewEnglishbooksandevenfilledmewithastonishmentMuirthat goodman sent itme throughWilliams andNorgate and I havenot onlythankedhimbutWilliamshimself ina full letterandhavepressingly invitedhimforhisholidaystoourlittlephilosophersroomItisanespecialpleasuretomethatMaryandJohnwhoseneighborheisinsummerhaveappreciatedhimandlovedandprizedhimandHenryalso

HenrywillbringmeldquoRationalGodlinessrdquoThisbookEnglishasitisshouldbeintroduced into India in order to convert the followers of Brahma and the

EnglishChristiansOne seeswhat hidden energy lies in the Englishmind assoon as it is turned to a worthy object but for this of course the fructifyinginfluencesoftheGermanspiritarerequiredIhaveonthecontrarybeenmuchdisappointedbyGmdashmdashscommunicationcontainedinBurnoufsclassicalworksonthatmostdifficultbutyetperfectlysolublepointoftheteachingofBuddhathe twelve points ldquobeginning with ignorance and ending with deathrdquo Gmdashmdashleavestherationalwayevenatthefirststepandperceiveshiserrorhimselfatthe ninth but so far he findsBuddhas (that is his own) proofs unanswerableHow totally different is Burnouf He is fresh self-possessed and clear I canbetterexplainwhyWilliamvonHumboldtwentastrayonthissubjectButIhavealreadygossipedtoomuchofmyownthoughtstoyouThereforetoAnglicis

Whatareyouabout inOxfordAccording toHaugsaccountyouhaveabusedmewell or allowedme to bewell abused in your ldquoSaturdayReviewrdquowhichpasses as yours and Kingsleys mouthpiece If it were criticism howevermistaken but why personal aspersions Pattisons article on the ldquoTheologiaGermanicardquointheAprilnumberoftheldquoWestminster[pg481]Reviewrdquo isverybraveanddeservesallthanksHehaslearnttoprizeBleekinallrespectshehasopenedhimselfmoretomeinthelastfewweeksandI likehimBut themanwho nowwrites the survey of foreign literature in the ldquoWestminster Reviewrdquomighthavejustreadmybookthishecannothavedoneorelseheisathoroughbungler for he (1) understands me only as representing the personal God(apparently theone in theclouds asyouonceexpressed ita-straddle riding)andleavingouteverythingbesides(2)thatthelasttwenty-sevenchaptersofthebookofIsaiaharenotasonehashithertoconceivedwrittenbyonemanbutbyJeremiah althoughhe is already theglorified saint of the53dchapterandbyBaruchNow thankGod that the sheet is finished and thinkoccasionally in afriendlywayofyourtruefriend

I shall to-day finish theante-SolonicGod-Consciousnessof theHellenesThatdoesonegood

CHARLOTTENBERGFridayMay81857Imustatleastbeginalettertoyouto-daybecauseIfeelImustthankyouand

expressmydelightat the letterandarticleThe letterconfirmsmyfears in thehighestdegreenamelythatyouarenotwellnot tosaythatyoubegintobeahypochondriacal old bachelor But that is such a natural consequence of yourretiredsulkyDonslifeandofyourspleenthatIcanonlywonderhowyoucanfightsobravelyagainstitButbothletterandarticleshowmehowvigorousarebothyourmindandheart It isquite right inyou todefendFroude thoughnoone better knows that the general opinion is (as is even acknowledged bymembers of the German romantic school) that Shakespeare intentionallycounteractedthecorruptinstinctanddepravedtasteofhisnationinthematterofOldcastle Whatever strange saints there have been in all countries yet theWycliffitestruetotheirgreatandnoblemasterweremartyrsandMilmanhasinsisted on thismost nobly TomisapprehendWyeliffe himself that is not torecognizehimasthefirstandpurestreformerthemanbetweentheWaldensesTaulerandLutherishoweveraheresymoreworthyofcondemnationthantheignoringofGermanyintheReformationanddoublydeplorablewhenoneseessuchblindfaithinthebloodysentencesofthatmostmiserablecourtofjudgmentofHenryVIII Imust therefore invert your formula thus [pg 482] ldquoLhistoireromanique(romantique)nevautpasleRomanhistoriquerdquo(IamnotspeakingofldquoTwoYearsAgordquoforIonlybegantoread thebookyesterday)But IamverygladthatyouthinksohighlyofFroudepersonallyandthereforethismatterdoesnotdisturbmeOntheotherhandIrejoicewithoutanybutthatyouhavetakenupBuddhaso lovinglyandcourageously (Doyouknowthatextractsfromthearticlehave found theirway into thepapers throughldquoGalignanirdquo as ldquoSignsoftheTimesrdquo)YouwillsoonseehownearlyweagreetogetheralthoughIcannotsay so much of the humanizing influence of Buddhism it makes of theTuranianswhattheJesuitsmakeofthepeopleofParaguayldquoprayingmachinesrdquoInChina the Buddhists are not generally respected in India they could notmaintain their position and would with difficulty convert the people if theytriedtoregaintheirlostgroundButBuddhapersonallywasasaintamanwhofelt formankindaprofoundman Ihavesaid inmysectionldquoBuddhahasnotonly found more millions of followers than Jesus but is also even moremisunderstoodthantheSonofMaryrdquoHaveyoureadDhammapadamWhatistheauthorityforBuddhasldquoTenCommandmentsrdquoIhavealwaysconsideredthisas an invention of Klaproths confirmed by Prinsep I do not find them onAsokas pillars nor in that didactic poem on the contrary four or five adlibitumIshallhowevernowreadthesermonsofthe(reallyworthless)convertAsokaatthefountainheadfromSprengerslibrary

You have represented the whole as with a magic wand We really edified

ourselves yesterday eveningwith it Frances read aloud andwe listened andthismorningearlymywifehasmadeitintoabeautifullittlebookinquartowithwhich I this afternoon made Truumlbner very happy for some hours He is aremarkablemanandismuchdevoted toyouandIhaveentered intobusinessrelations with him about my ldquoBibleworkrdquo the first volume of which goes topressonthe1stofJanuarytheothersixstandbeforemeasfarfinishedastheycan be till I have the printed text of ldquoThe Peoples Biblerdquo in three volumesbeforemeonwhichtheldquoBiblicalDocumentsrdquothreevolumesandtheldquoLifeofJesusandtheEternalKingdomofGodrdquoonevolumearefoundedHeappearstometobetherightnegotiatorbetweenAmericaEnglandandGermanyHewillbeforelongcallonyousomeSaturday(Writemewordhowyouthinkofhimasabookseller)Thedutyyoupay for [pg483]yourplacebyputting togetheraChresthomathy is very fair whether you are obliged to print your Lectures IcannotdecideIshallcursethembothiftheypreventyoufromtearingyourselfaway from the Donnish atmosphere and bachelor life of Oxford and fromthrowingyourselfintothefreshmentalatmosphereofGermanyandofGermanmind and life You must take other journeys besides lake excursions andHighland courses Why dont you go to Switzerland with an excursion (byBerlin) toBreslau to theGermanOrientalCongressThere isnothing like theGermanspirit inspiteofall itsone-sidednessWhata lœtapaupertasWhatarecognition of the sacerdocy of science And then the strengthening air freefromfogofourmountainsandvalleysYoubad fellow to tellmenothingofyourmothersleavingyouforyououghttoknowthatIamtenderlydevotedtoheranditvexesmeallthemoreasIshouldlongagohavesenthermyldquoGodinHistoryrdquo had I known that she was in Germany (Query where Address)Thereforefetchherinsteadofluringherawaytothewalksunderthelime-treesGeorgeisgoingtooattheendofJunefromheretotheAlpsweexpecthiminafortnightHeisagreatdelighttome

NowsomethingmoreaboutYamaIthinkyouareperfectlyrightwithregardtotheoriginItisexactlythesamewithOsiristhehusbandofIsistheearthandthenthejudgeofthedeadandfirstmanOnlywedonotonthisaccountexplainAnubisasasymbolofthesunbutasthewatchfulDogofJusticetheaccuserSotherearefeaturesinYama(andYima)whicharenottobeeasilyexplainedfromthecosmogonicconceptionalthoughtheycanbefromtheideaofthedivinethefirstnaturalrepresentationofwhichistheastraloneIthinkhoweverthatYamaisGeminusthatisldquotheupperandlowersunrdquotospeakasanEgyptianThetwodogsmustoriginallyhavebeenwhat theirmother theoldbitchSaramacirc isbutwiththeGodofDeaththeyaresomethingdifferentandthelordofthedeadisto

be as little explained by the so-called nature-religionwithout returning to theeternalfactorasthisfirstphaseitselfcouldhavearisenwithoutitascosmicalmdashtherefore as first symbolHow I long for your two translations The hymnwhichyougiveinthearticleissublimethesearchaftertheGodofthehumanheartisexpressedwithindescribablepathosandhowmuchmorewillthisbethecaseinyourhandsinanewIndiantranslationForwearemostsurelynowtheIndians of [pg 484] the West I am delighted that you so value RowlandWilliams We must never forget that he has undertaken (as he himself mostpointedlywrotetome)thedifficulttaskldquototeachAnglicantheology(andthattoAnglican Cymri)rdquo He has not yet quite promised to pay me a visitmdashhe isevidently afraid of me as a German and freethinker and is afraid ldquoto becatechisedrdquoHe like all Englishmen iswanting in faithHe seems to occupyhimselfprofoundlywiththecriticismoftheOldTestamentPoorfellowButhewilltaketoDaniel

The Harfords are determined to keep him there in which Henry has alreadyencouraged them I however thinkheought togo toCambridge if theyofferhimaprofessorshipMuirhaswrittentomeagainmdashanhonestmanbuthehasagain taken a useless step a prize for which Hoffmann (superintendent-in-general)istobethearbiterandthethreejudgeswillbenamedbyhimLehnertas theologian (Neanders unknown successor) H Ritter as the historian ofphilosophy (very goodmdashandwho asOrientalist) Nomagister will touch hispenhisducibus and taliauspicio You should perform theBenares vow by acatechism drawn up for the poor young Brahmans in the style of RowlandWilliamsandyetquitedifferentthatisinyourownmannertellingandshortAt all events no one in Germany will write half as good a book for theBrahmans as Williams has done The Platonic dialogue requires a certainbreadthunlessone is ableandwilling to imitate theParmenidesAt the sametimetheordinarymissionariesmayconvertthelowerclassesthroughtheGospeland through Christian-English-German life in which alone they prove theirfaith By the by it seems thatWilliams hopes for an article from you in theldquoNorthBritishReviewrdquoThatyouintendtoreadmyldquoEgyptrdquoisdelightfulonlynot in theLongVacationwhen you ought to travel aboutHave you read thefriendly article on ldquoGod inHistoryrdquo in the ldquoNational Reviewrdquo (April) whichhowevercertainlyshowsanignoranceborderingonimpudenceEventhemaninthe ldquoWestminster Reviewrdquo pleases me better although he looked through mybookfastasleepandputs intomymouth themostunbelievablediscoveriesofhis own ignorancemdashIsaiah chapters xlix-lxvi are written by Jeremiah andBaruch and similar horrorsWhen will people learn something But in four

yearsIhopewithGodshelp tostate this inspiteof themandforce thematlasttolearnsomethingthroughldquothehelpoftheirmastersandminerdquoWith trueloveyours

[pg485]

CHARLOTTENBERGFridayMorningAugust281857SeethereheremainsinthecentreofGermanyforamonthandletsonehearandseenothingofhimHadInotsoonafterthereceiptofyourdearandinstructivelettergonetoWildbadandtherefallenintoindescribableidlenessIshouldlongagohavewrittentoOxfordfortheletterwasagreatdelighttomeThesnailhadthere crept out of his shell and spoke to me as the friend but now ldquoYourExcellencyrdquoappearsagainsothesnailhasdrawnhisheadinagain

NowmydearfriendyououghttobethankedforthefriendlythoughtofpayingmeavisitandwritingtomeThereforeyoumustknowthatIreturnedhereonthe19th inorder togreet inhis fathersnativecountryAstormynowsixty-threeyearsoldpupilwhoproposedhimselfforthe20thtothe25thandwhoformysakehaslefthismoney-bagsinordertoseemeonceagainAndnowAstoris really in Europe and has called at Abbey Lodge but his wife andgranddaughter have stayed on in Paris or Brussels andAstor isnot yet hereThishoweverhasnoeffectonmymovementsforIdonotaccompanyhimtoSwitzerlandwhereIknowBrockhauswouldsendahueandcryafterme

ThattheOxfordDonshouldaskhimifIwouldaffordhimaldquofewhoursrdquoshowsagaintheEnglishleavenForyouwellknowthatmyhermitslifeisdeartomefor this reasonmdashthat it leavesmeat liberty to receivehere theMusesandmyfriendsAndwhat havewenot to talk overThe ldquohoursrdquo belong to theDonsgown for you know verywell thatwe could in a ldquofew hoursrdquo only figure toourselveswhatwehave todiscussby turnsSocomeas soonasyoucan andstay at least aweek hereYouwill findmy house to be sure rather lonely asHenryhas robbedmeof thewomankind andSternbergofTheodora and thatexcellent princess keeps Emilia from me who is faithfully nursing herbenefactress in an illness that I hope is passing awayWe twoold people arehoweverhereandfullofoldlifePerhapsyouwillalsostillfindTheodorewhohoweversoonafterAstorsdeparturewillbehurryingoff toFalmouthforsea-

bathinginacceptanceofhisbrotherErnstsinvitationLaboulayehasannouncedhimself for the 8th Gerhard and his wife for the first or second week inSeptember therefore ifyoudofindanyone theywillbefriendsBesides[pg486]Meyer there isDr Sprenger theArabic scholar as house friendwhoselibraryIhaveatlastsecuredforusmdashadelightfulmanwhoismyguideintheArabiandesertsothatImaybecertainofbringingthechildrenofIsraelinthirtymonthstotheJabboknamelyinthefifthoftheeightvolumes

IcangiveyounobetterproofofmylongingtoseeyouthanbysayingthatyoushallevenbewelcomewithoutyourmotherwhoissodearandunforgottentousallalthoughwebynomeansgiveupthehopethatyouwillbringherwithyouhereForImustseeheragaininthislifeIoughttohavethankedherbeforethisforacharmingletterbutIdidnotknowwhereshehadgonefromCarlsbadhersonneversentmetheaddressShouldshenotcomewithyouyoumustpaytollfor the delay which however must not be longer than one year with aphotographforImustsoonseeher

SoyouhavelookedatmyGenesisIampleasedatthisButIhopeyouwilllookatthechaptersonceagainwhentheyaresetinpagesaftermylastamendmentsalsoatmydiscussionsonGenesisi1-4ii4-7asiandiiofthethirtythorns(in theAppendixp cxxxv)which I have run into theweak sideof theBibledragon though less thanone thirtiethof itsheaviest sins I feelas if Ihadgotover three quarters of thework since I sent the eleven chapters and the thirtythorns into theworldMyholidays last till the21stofOctoberHaug is in theIndia House overMinokhired and Parsi Bundehesh If you have a momentstimelookatmyquietpolemicagainstyouandBurnoufinfavorofBuddhainreferencetotheNirvacircnaKoeppenhasgivenmemuchnewmaterialalthoughheisofyouropinionIamquiteconvincedthatBuddhathoughtonthispointlikeTaulerandtheauthoroftheldquoGermanTheologyrdquobuthewasanIndianandlivedindesperatetimesAthousandthanksforthedovewhichyousentmeoutoftheark of the Rig-Veda I had sinned against the same hymn by translating itaccordingtoHaugasIhadnotcourageenoughtoaskyouformoreAndthatleadsme to tell youwithwhat deep sympathy andmelancholy pleasure yourtouching idylhas filledmeYouwill easilybelieveme that after the first fiveminutes I sawyouvividlybehind themask I thankyouverymuch forhavingorderedittobesenttomeIamverygladthatyouhavewrittenitforIwouldfarratherseeyoumixinginthelifeofthepresentandfuturewithyourinnatefreshness and energy I must end All love from me and Fanny to yourincomparablemotherSotoourspeedymeetingTrulyyours

[pg487]Georgewillhavearrived inLondonyesterdaywithwifeandchildhisdarlingElla has a serious nervous affection and they are to try sea air He is muchdepressed

CHARLOTTENBERGFebruary171858Your affectionate letter my dear friend has touched me deeply First yourunaltered loveandattachmentand thatyouhaveperfectlyunderstoodmeandmyconductinthisaffairNaturallymyfatewillbeverymuchinfluencedbyitImustbeeveryyear inBerlin thisyearIshallsatisfymyselfwiththelast threeweeksafterEasterIn1859(asIshallspendthewinterinNice)IshalltakemyseatwhenIreturninAprilacrosstheAlpsButlater(andperhapsfrom1859)Imust not only live inPrussiawhich is prescribed by good feeling and by theconstitutionbutImuststayforsometimeinBerlinTheyallwishtohavemethereGodknowshowlittleeffortitcostsmenottoseektheplaceofMinisterofInstructiontosaynothingofdecliningitforeverythingisdailygoingmoretoruinButitcouldonlybeforashorttimeandBethmann-HollwegUsedomandotherscandotherightthingjustaswellandhavetimeandyouthtodragawaytheheavycartofaChineseorderofbusinesswhichnowconsumesninetenthsofthetimeofaPrussianminister(whoworkstwelvehoursaday)

WhatIwishandamdoingwithmyldquoBibleworkrdquoyouwillseebetweenthelinesofmyfirstvolumeotherpeopletwelvemonthslaterwhenmyfirstvolumeoftheBible documents ldquocomes outrdquo and even then theywill not seewhere theconcludingvolumetendsmdashtheworldshistoryintheBibleandtheBibleintheworldshistoryAlreadyintheendof1857Ifinishedallofthefirstvolumethestereotyping goes on fearfully slow You will receive one of the first copieswhichgoesacrosstheChannelandyouwillreaditatoncewillyounotIamdelighted thatyouareabsorbed inEckarthe is thekey toTaulerand there isnothingbetterexcepttheGospelofStJohnFortherestandsstillmoreclearlythanintheothergospelwritingsthattheobjectoflifeinthisworldistofoundtheKingdomofGodonearth(asmyfriendstheTaipingsunderstanditalso)Ofthis Eckart and his scholars had despaired just as much as Dante and hisparody Reineke Fuchs Youwill find alreadymany pious ejaculations of this

kindinmytwovolumesofldquoGodinHistoryrdquobutIhavedeferredtheclosing[pg488]word till the sixth bookwhereour tragedywill be revealed in order tobeginboldlywithaneweposIsendyouto-dayfoursheetsbybook-postldquoTheAryansinAsiardquoforIcannotfinishitwithoutyourpersonalhelpYouwillfindthat youhave already furnished agreat portionof thematterThe samehymnwhichI translatedwithdifficultyandtroublefromHaugs literal translation(instropheswhichyouhoweverdonotrecognize)(Psli)youhavetranslatedformeinyourowngracefulmanneronafly-sheetandsenttomefromLeipzigOfcourseIshallusethistranslationinplaceofmyownIthereforeventuretorequestthatyouwilldothesamewithregardtotheotherexampleswhichIhavegivenIfyouwishtoaddanythingnewitwillsuitperfectlyforeverythingfitsin at the end of the chapter the number of the pages does not come intoconsideration in the present stageYouwill receive the leaves on Saturday itwouldbedelightfulifyoucouldfinishtheminthecourseofthefollowingweekandsendthembacktome(WehaveacontractherewithFrancewhichgivesusasortofbook-post)IexpectnextweekthecontinuationoftheBrahmanismandBuddhaIshouldliketosendbothtoyouThenotesandexcursuswillonlybeprintedatthecloseofthevolumethereforenotbeforeMayTherest(BooksVVI)willbeprintedduringthesummertoappearbeforeIcrosstheAlpsInthisIdevelopthetragedyoftheRomano-Germanicworldandshallbothgainmanyand losemany friendsby it Ihave readyourbrilliant articleonWelckerwithgreatdelight Ipossess itHaveyousent it (ifonlyanonymously) to thenobleoldmanHehas deserved itThe articlemakes a great noise andwill pleasehimverymuch In fact everythingwouldgivemeundisturbedpleasure did Inotsee(evenwithoutyourtellingmewhichhoweveryouhavedoneasisthesacreddutybetweenfriends)thatyouarenothappyinyourselfOfone thingIamconvincedmdashyouwouldbejustaslittlesoevenlessinGermanyandleastofallamongthesonsof theBrahmansIfyoucontinuetoliveasyoudonowyou would everywhere miss Englandmdashperhaps also Oxford if you went toLondonOfthisIamnotclearingeneralaGermanlivesfarmorefreelyintheWorld-city than in theDon-citywhere everyEnglish idiosyncrasy strengthensitself and buries itself in coteries Unfortunately I have neither readldquoIndophilusrdquonorldquoPhilindusrdquopleasetellmethenumbersoftheldquoTimesrdquoIcangetacopyoftheldquoTimesrdquoherefrom[pg489]thelibraryfrommonthtomonthTrevelyan is an excellent man occasionally unpractical andmistaken alwaysmeaning well and accessible to reason But does any one study in LondonDubito But I dont understand the plan of an Oriental College Perhaps it ispossible toundertakeLondonwithoutgivingupOxfordentirelyThepowerofinfluencingtheyoungmenwhoaftertenortwentyyearswillgovernthelandis

far greater inOxford or Cambridge than in London I am curious about yourldquoGermanReadingBookrdquo

Imaintainone thingmdashyouarenothappy and that comes fromyourbachelorlifeTheprogressofyourVedicworkdelightsmebuthowmuchinitisstillariddleThusforinstancethelonghymn(2AshtakathirdAdhyacircyaSucircktaviiiCLXIV)p125Thehymnisfirstofallascanbeprovedbeyondverse41notgenuine but even this older portion is late surely already composed on theSarasvaticircTheVeda isalreadya finishedbook (verse39)BrahmaandVishnuare gods (35 36) The whole is really wearisome because it wishes to bemysteriouswithoutanidea(See4AshtakaseventhAdhyacircyavoliiip463)IsnotBrahmathereagodlikeIndra

IdependonyourmarkingallegregiousblunderswitharedpencilManysuchmuststillhaveremainedleavingoutofviewalldifferencesofopinionTellmeasmuchasyoucanonthispointinaletterforontheContinentonlynotesforpressareallowedtogoasapacket(Butof theseyoucanbringinasmuchasyou wish the copy is a duplicate) At the end I should much like to writesomethingaboutthepresentimpossibilityofenjoyingtheRig-VedaandofthenecessityofaspiritualkeyButIdonotquiteknowfirstofallwhetheronecanreallyenteruponthewholethereismuchthatisconventionalandmortalbythesideofwhatisimperishableAnanthologyinabouttwoorthreevolumeswouldfindarapidsaleandwouldonlybenefitamorelearnedandperfecteditionIfyouhavearrivedatthesameconclusionIwillblowthetrumpet

GeorgegreetsyouheartilyasdohismotherandsistersPerhapsIshallmoveinApril1859toBonnhereIshallnotstayDeusprovidebitWithtruestaffectionyours

Best remembrance to your mother Have you read my preface to ldquoDebit andCreditrdquo Ihavepouredoutmyheart aboutKingsley in the Introduction to theGermanldquoHypatiardquoandtoldhimthateverybodymustsaytohimselfsoonerorlateldquoLetthedeadburythedeadrdquo

[pg490]

CHARLOTTENBERGJuly311858With threefold joymy loved friendhave Iheard thenews throughyourgreatadmirerMmeSchwabeofyourcharmingintentionofdelightingusinAugustwithavisitFirstonaccountoftheplanitselfthenbecauseIcannowcompressintoafewlinestheendlessletterIhavesolonghadinmythoughtstodevelopitin conversation according to my hearts desire thirdly because really sinceyesterdaythedayhascomewhentheonehalfoftheconcludingvolume(iii)ofldquoGodinHistoryrdquohasgonetopresssothatitsappearingissecuredAlettertoyouandalikedebttoLepsiusthereforeopenthelistAndnowbeforeanythingelse receivemyhearty thanks foryour friendlyand instructive letterandwhataccompanieditinVedicis Itcamejustat theright timeandyouwillseewhatuseImadeofitinthework

AndnowherefirstcomemycongratulationsNothingcouldbemoreagreeableand suitable it is personally and nationally an honor and an uniqueacknowledgmentIcanonlyaddthewishthatyoumayenjoythedignityitselfasshort a time as possible and take leave as soon as possible of the Fellow-celibatesofAllSoulsYourcareerinEnglandwantsnothingbutthiscrowning-pointHowprosperousand fullof resultshas itbeenWithoutceasing tobeaGermanyouhaveappropriatedallthatisexcellentandsuperiorinEnglishlifeandofthatthereismuchanditwilllastforlifeIimagineyouwillbringyourhistoricalChrestomathy with you and propose to you as you most probablygivesomethingoutoftheHeliandandUlphilastoreservemyWoluspaforthenexteditionasIhavejustestablishedthefirsttenabletextofthisdivinepoemonwhichthebrothersGrimmwouldneverventureIhavehadthisadvantageofworking on the good foundation ofmy studies (with a Danish translation) of1815 from Copenhagen Neither Magnusson nor Munch nor Bergmann hasgiventhetextoftheonlyMS(CodRegius)onehasdisfigureditwiththelatestinterpolations anotherwith unauthorized transpositions I have at lastworkedout theunityof theHelgiandtheSigurdsongswitheachotherandtheoldestpurelymythologicalstratum(thesolartragedy)ofbothasanimportantlinkinthechainofevidencefortherealityoftheGod-ConsciousnessofmankindanditsorganiclawsWhatpeoplewillsaytotheldquoresultsrdquo(BookVI)whichfallintooneshandsIdonotknow

[pg491]

I have been obliged to postpone the journey to Italy from September toNovemberOctober (the23d) is thegreatcrisis forPrussia and Ioughtnot toforsaketheFatherlandthenandhavewillinglyagreednottodosoAbrighterbetterdayisapproachingMayGodgivehisblessingEveryonemusthelpitisthehighesttime

But nothing disturbsme from thework ofmy life The fourth volume of theldquoBibleworkrdquogoestopressthedayafterto-morrowonthe1stofSeptemberthefifth (Documents I a) I have now finishedmy preliminary work for the OldTestament in the main points and only reserved the last word before thestereotyping so Ibegin atonceon theNewTestament andLifeof JesusThefriendly and clever notice of the first volume of the ldquoBibleworkrdquo in theldquoContinental Reviewrdquo gave me and my whole family great pleasure andBernays is here since yesterday (forAugust and September) which helps theprintingofthePentateuchverymuchasIalwayssenthimalastreviseandnowallcanbeworkedoffhereIfinishwithHauginthebeginningofSeptemberhewillgoprobablytoPoonahwithhisverysensiblebrideCharlesandTheodorearewellIexpectGeorgethisweekwithEmiliaforavisitMyfamilygreetyouBernayssighsHehasagainmadesomebeautifuldiscoveries thatofAristotle(aboutthetragedies)IhavecarriedfurtherphilosophicallySuggesttothatgoodArthur Stanley (to whom I have sent my ldquoBibleworkrdquo) to send me hisldquoPalestinerdquoIcannotgetithereandshouldliketosaysomethingaboutit

Withmosttrueloveyours

CHARLOTTENBERGJuly231859My sons knew too well what delight they would give me through theirconfidential communication which has already given us all a foretaste of thedelight of your visit with your bride and meanwhile has brought me yourexpectedandaffectionateletter

IhavefeltalltheseyearswhatwasthematterwithyouandIsympathizewithyourhappinessasifitconcernedoneofmyownchildrenIthereforenowmylovedfriendwishyouallthemorehappinessandblessingintheacquisitionof

thehighestoflifesprizesbecauseyourlovehasalreadyshowntherighteffectand strength in that you have acquired courage for [pg 492] finishing at thispresenttimeyourdifficultandgreatworkontheVedasTheworkwillalsogiveyoufurtherrefreshmentforthefuturewhilsttheeditingoftheVedastillhangsonyourhands

Thereforeletusallwishyoujoymostheartily(mywifehasreceivedthejoyfulnews in Wildbad) and accept our united thanks beforehand for your kindintentionofvisitingusshortlywithyouryoungwifeBythattimeweshallallbeagain united here Your remarkable mother will alone be wanting Beg yourbridebeforehandtofeelfriendlytowardsmeandtowardsusallYouknowhowhighlyIesteemhertwoauntsthoughwithoutpersonalacquaintancewiththemandhowdeartomeisthecultivatednobleChristiancircleinwhichthewholefamilymoves I have as yet carriedoutmy favorite planwith a goodhopeofsuccess six months in Charlottenberg on the true spiritually historicalinterpretationoftheOldTestamentinthefirstvolumesoftheseconddivisionofthework (the so-called documents) sixmonths of thewinter on the ldquoLife ofJesusrdquoandwhat inmyviewimmediately joinson to thatThefirstvolumeoftheBibledocumentsisprintedthePentateuchYouwillseethatIhavehandledAbraham andMoses as freely here as I did Zoroaster andBuddha inmy lastworktheexplanationofthebooksandthehistoryfromJoramtoZedekiahisasgoodasfinished

We shall keep peace Napoleon and Palmerston understand each other andPalmerstonistheonlystatesmaninEnglandandEuropewhoconceivesrightlytheItalianquestionRussiafollowshimIstillhopebytheautumntobeabletobless the God of free Italy beside Dantes and Machiavellis graves With us(Prussia)mattersmovefairlyforwardsheretheyhavebeenfoolsandbegintofeelashamedofthemselvesSoaspeedyandhappymeeting

Yourheartilyaffectionatefriend

BUNSEN

Footnotes

1Thisarticleformedtheprefacetoacollectionofextractspublishedin1858 under the title ofGermanClassics The extracts are arrangedchronologicallyandextendfromthefourthtothenineteenthcenturyTheyaregivenintheoriginalGothicOldHigh-GermanandMiddleHigh-Germanwithtranslationswhileinthemoremodernportionsthedifficult words only are explained in notes A list of the principalworksfromwhichtheextractsaretakenwillbefoundattheendofthearticlep44

2ldquoUt easdamhomilias quisque (episcopus) aperte transferre studeat inrusticamromanamlinguamauttheodiscamquofaciliuscunctipossintintelligere quaelig dicanturrdquomdashConc Tur can 17 WackernagelGeschichtederDeutschenLiteratursect26

3LateinischeGedichtedesXundXIJahrhundertsvonJGrimmundASchmellerGoumlttingen1838

4Reinhard Fuchs von JacobGrimmBerlin 1834 Sendschreiben anKarlLachmannLeipzig1840

5Poems of Grave Ruodolf von Fenis Her Bernger vonHorheim seeDesMinnesangsFruumlhlingbyLachmannandHauptLeipzig1857

6Poem of theKuumlrenberger seeDesMinnesangs Fruumlhling pp 8 and230

7See an account of the Italian Guest of Thomasin von Zerclaria byEugene Oswald in Queene Elizabethes Achademy edited by F JFurnivall London 1869 This thoughtful essay contains someimportantinformationonThomasin

8Des Minnesangs Fruumlhling Herausgegeben von Karl Lachmann undMoritzHauptLeipzig1857

9SebastianBrantsNarrenschiffHerausgegebenvonFriedrichZarnckeLeipzig1857

10Rede auf Schiller von Jacob Grimm Berlin 1859 (Address onSchillerbyJacobGrimm)

Schiller-Buch von Tannenberg Wien From the Imperial PrintingPress1859

Schillers Life and Works By Emil Palleske Translated by LadyWallaceLondonLongmanandCo1860

ViedeSchillerParAdRegnierMembredelInstitutParisHachette1859

11SeeTheTimesSpecialCorrespondentfromViennaNovember14

12The Prince of Holstein-Augustenburg was the grandfather of thepresentDukeandofPrinceChristianofSchleswig-Holstein

13Preface to a new edition of Wilhelm Muumlllers poems published in1868 in the Bibliothek der Deutschen National-literatur desachtzehnten und neunzehnten Jahrhunderts Leipzig BrockhausTranslatedfromtheGermanbyGAM

ldquoFreeandstrongandpureandGerman

OntheGermanRhineNothingcanbenowdiscovered

SavealoneourwineIfthewineisnotarebel

ThennomoreareweMainzthouproudandfrowningfortress

Lethimwanderfreerdquo

15ldquoAnd letmehavemyfullglassand letmehavemyhearty laughatthesewretchedtimesHewhocansingandlaughwithhiswineyouneednotputunderthebanmylordsmirthisaharmlesschildrdquo

ldquoEuropewantsbutpeaceandquietwhyhastthoudisturbedherrestHowwithsillydreamsoffreedomdostthoudaretofillthybreastIfthouriseagainstthyrulersHellasthoumustfightaloneEenthebolsterofaSultanloyalEuropecallsathronerdquo

17IamenabledthroughthekindnessofMrTheodoreMartintosupplyanexcellenttranslationofthesetwopoemsprintedbyhimin1863inavolumeintendedforprivatecirculationonly

18Ptolii11ἐπὶτὸναὐχένατῆςΚιμβρικῆςΧερσονήσουΣάξονες

19GrimmGeschichtederDeutschenSprachep609StraboPlinyandTacitusdonotmentionthenameofSaxons

20Grimmlcp629

21SeePoetaSaxoanno772inPertzMonumI228line36Grimmlcp629

22SeeGrimmDeutscheSprachep781

Germaniac40Grimmlcp60424

Grimmp64125

BedaHistEccl I 15 ldquoPorro deAnglis hoc est de ilia patria quaeligAngulusdiciturrdquoetcEthelwertChronIldquoPorroAngliavetussitaestinter Saxones et Giotos babens oppidum capitale quod sermoneSaxonicoSleswicnuncupatursecundumveroDanosHaithabyrdquo

26Grimmlcp630

27ldquoGutiverosimilitercumveniunt(inregnumBritanniaelig)suscipidebentetprotegiinregnoistosicutconjuratifratressicutpropinquietpropriicives regni hujus Exierunt enim quondam de nobili sanguineAnglorumscilicetdeEngracivitateetAnglieidesanguineillorumetsemperefficiunturpopulusunusetgensunaItaconstituitoptimusInaRexAnglorumMultiveroAngliceperuntuxoressuasdesanguineetgenereAnglorumGermaniaeligetquidamAngliceperuntuxoressuasdesanguineetgenereScotorumproceresveroScotorumetScotifereomnesceperuntuxoressuasdeoptimogenereet sanguineAnglorumGermaniaelig et itu fuerunt tunc temporis per universum regnumBritanniaelig duo in carne una Universi praeligdicti semper postea procommuni utilitate coronaelig regni in simul et in unum viriliter contraDanos et Norwegienses semper steterunt et atrocissime unanimivoluntate contra inimicos pugnaverunt et bella atrocissima in regnogesseruntrdquo(DieGesetzederAngelsachsenedSchmidp296)

28KlausGrothwritesldquoTheislandofFriesianspeechonthecontinentofSchleswigbetweenHusumandTondernisaveryriddleandmiracleinthe history of languagewhich has not been sufficiently noticed andconsidered Why should the two extreme ends only of the wholeFriesian coast between Belgium and Jutland have retained theirmother-speechFortheOstFriesiansinOldenburgspeaksimplyPlatt-Deutsch like the Westphalians and ourselves Cirk HinrichStuumlremburgs so calledOst-FriesianDictionary has nomore right tocallitselfFriesianthantheBremenDictionaryUnlessthewholecoasthassunkintotheseawhocanexplainthatclosebehindHusumina

flatcountryasmonotonousasaHungarianPusstawithoutanynaturalfrontierordivisionthetravelleronenteringthenextinnmayindeedbeunderstoodifhespeaksHighorLowGermannaymayreceivetoeitherananswer inpureGermanbuthears thehostandhisservantsspeakinwordsthatsoundquitestrangetohimEquallystrangeisthefrontier north of the Wiede-au where Danish takes the place ofFriesian Who can explain by what process the language hasmaintained itself so far and no farther a language with which onecannottravelbeyondeightortensquaremilesWhyshouldthesefewthousandpeoplenothavesurrendered longago this lsquouseless remnantofanunschooleddialectrsquoconsideringtheylearnatthesametimeLowandHighGermanorLow-GermanandDanishInthefar-stretchingstraggling villages a Low-German house stands sometimes aloneamongFriesianhousesandviceversaandthathasbeengoingonforgenerationsIntheSaxonfamiliestheydonotfinditnecessarytolearnFriesian for all the neighbors can speak Low-German but in theFriesianfamiliesonedoesnothearGermanspokenexceptwhenthereareGermanvisitorsSincetheseventeenthcenturyGermanhashardlyconqueredasinglehousecertainlynotavillagerdquo(IllustrirteDeutscheMonatshefte1869p330)

29Histoire de St Louis par Joinville Texte rapprocheacute du FranccedilaisModerneparMNatalisdeWaillyMembredelInstitutParis1865

ŒuvresdeJeanSiredeJoinvilleavecuntexterapprocheacuteduFranccedilaisModerneparMNatalisdeWaillyParis1867MNatalisdeWaillyhassincepublishedaneweditionofJoinvilleHistoiredeSaintLouisparJeanSiredeJoinville suivieduCredoetde la lettreagraveLouisXtexte rameneacute agrave lorthographe des Chartes du Sire de Joinville Paris1868Hehasmore fullyexplained theprinciplesaccording towhichthe text of Joinville has been restoredbyhim in hisMeacutemoire sur laLanguedeJoinvilleParis1868

30SeePaulinParisp175

31InhislasteditionofthetextofJoinvillewhichwaspublishedin1868MdeWaillyhasrestoredthespellingofJoinvilleonall thesepoints

accordingtotheruleswhichareobservedinJoinvilleschartersandinthe best MSS of the beginning of the fourteenth century The fac-similes of nine of these charters are published at the end of M deWaillysMeacutemoire sur la Langue de Joinville of others an accuratetranscriptisgivenTheauthentictextsthuscollectedinwhichwecanstudy the French language as itwaswritten at the time of JoinvilleamounttonearlyonefifthofthetextofJoinvillesHistoryTocorrectaccording to these charters the text of Joinville so systematically ashad been done byM deWailly in his last editionmay seem a boldundertaking but few who have read attentively hisMeacutemoire woulddenythattheneweditorhasfullyjustifiedhiscriticalprinciplesThuswith regard to the terminations of the nominative and the obliquecases where other MSS of Joinvilles History follow no principlewhateverMdeWaillyremarksldquoPourplusdesimpliciteacute jappellerairegravegledusujetsingulieretregravegledusujetpluriellusagequiconsistaitagravedistinguer dans beaucoup de mots le sujet du regime par unemodificationanalogueagravecelledeladeacuteclinaisonlatineOrjaiconstateacuteque dans les chartes de Joinville la regravegle du sujet singulier estobserveacutee huit cent trente-cinq fois et violeacutee sept fois seulementencoredois-jedirequecinqdecesviolationsserencontrentdansunemecircmechartecelledumoisdemai1278quinestconnuequeparunecopiefaiteausiegravecledernierSilonfaitabstractiondecetexteilrestedeuxviolationscontrehuitcenttrente-cinqobservationsdelaregravegleLaregravegledusujetplurielestobserveacuteecinqcentquartre-vingt-huitfoisetvioleacutee six fois cequidonneau totalquatorzecentvingt-trois contretreize en tenant comptemecircme de six fautes commises dans le textecopieacuteausiegravecledernierDeceresultatnumeacuterique il fauteacutevidemmentconclure dabord que lune et lautre regravegle eacutetaient parfaitementconnuesetpratiqueacuteesagrave lachancelleriede Joinville ensuitequonestautoriseacuteagravemodifier le textede lHistoirepartoutougraveces regraveglesysontvioleacutees(Dapregravesuncalculapproximatifonpeutcroirequelecopistedu quatorziegraveme siegravecle a violeacute ces regravegles plus de quatremille fois etquillesrespectaitpeut-ecirctreunefoissurdix)rdquo

32Table Meacutethodique des Meacutemoires de Treacutevoux (1701-1775) preacuteceacutedeacuteedune Notice Historique Par le Peacutere P C Sommervogel de laCompagniedeJeacutesus3volsParis1864-65

Chasot aContribution to theHistory ofFrederic theGreat and hisTimeByKurdvonSchloumlzerBerlin1856

34SpeechdeliveredatStratford-on-Avononthe23dofApril1864 theTercentenaryofShakespearesbirth

35FranzBacovonVerulamDieRealphilosophieund ihrZeitalterVonKunoFischerLeipzigBrockhaus1856

36PauliHentzneri JC ItinerariumGermaniaeligGalliaeligAngliaelig Italiaeligcum Indice Locorum Rerum atque Verborum commemorabiliumHuic libro accessecircre novacirc hacircc editionemdash1 Monita Peregrinatoriaduorum doctissimorum virorum itemque Incerti auctoris EpitomePraeligcognitorum Historicorum antehac non edita Noribergaelig TypisAbrahamiWagenmannisumptibussuiipsiusetJohanGuumlntzeliiannoMDCXXIX

37Antiquities Historical andMonumental of the County of CornwallByWilliamBorlaseLLDLondon1769

AWeekattheLandsEndByJTBlightLondon1861

38Plin H N xvi c 44 ldquoNon est omittenda in ea re et Galliarumadmiratio Nihil habent Druidaelig (ita suos appellant magos) visco etarbore in qua gignatur (si modo sit robur) sacratius Jam per seroborumeliguntlucosnecullasacrasineeafrondeconficiuntutindeappellati quoque interpretatione Graeligca possint Druidaelig videriEnimveroquidquidadnascaturillisecœlomissumputantsignumqueesseelectaeligabipsodeoarborisEstautemidrarumadmoduminventuet repertum magna religione petitur et ante omnia sexta luna quaeligprincipia mensium annorumque his facit et seculi post tricesimumannum quia jam virium abunde habeat nec sit sui dimidia Omniasanantem appellantes suo vocabulo sacrificiis epulisque rite subarbore praeligparatis duos admovent candidi coloria tauros quorumcornuatuneprimumvincianturSacerdoscandidavestecultusarboremscandit falce aurea demetit candido id excipitur sago Tum deinde

victimas immolant precantes ut suum donum deus prosperum facialhisquibusdederitrdquo

39Tre homestead rosmoor peatland a commonpol a pool lan anenclosurechurchcaertownpenhead

40CranmersWorksedJenkynsvoliip230

41Observations on an ancient Manuscript entitled Passio Christi bymdashmdashScawenEsq1777p26

42BorlasesNaturalHistoryofCornwallp315

43Ibid

44Her age was certainly mythical and her case forms a strongconfirmation of the late Sir G C Lewiss skepticism on that pointDolly Pentreath is generally believed to have died at the age of onehundred and two Dr Borlase who knew her and has left a gooddescription of her stated that about 1774 she was in her eighty-seventh yearThis if she died in 1778would only bring her age toninety-oneButMrHaliwellwhoexaminedtheregisteratPaulfoundthat Dolly Pentreath was baptized in 1714 so that unless she wasbaptized late in life this supposed centenarian had only reached hersixty-fourthyearatthetimeofherdeathandwasnomorethansixtywhenDrBorlasesupposedhertobeeighty-sevenAnotherinstanceofextraordinary old age is mentioned byMr Scawen (p 25) about ahundredyearsearlierldquoLetnottheoldwomanbeforgottenrdquohesaysldquowhodiedabouttwoyearssincewhowasonehundredandsixty-fouryears old of good memory and healthful at that age living in theparishofGuithianbythecharitymostlyofsuchascamepurposelytoseeherspeakingtothem(indefaultofEnglish)byaninterpreteryetpartly understanding it Shemarried a secondhusband after shewaseightyandburiedhimafterhewaseightyyearsofagerdquo

45SpecimensofCornishProvincialDialects byUncle JanTreenoodle

London1846p82

46GreeceAncientandModernbyCCFeltonBoston1867voliip314

47TheRaces of theOldWorldAmanual ofEthnologyByCharlesLBraceLondon1863p362seq

48Cornish proverbs have lived on after the extinction of Cornish andevenastranslatedintoEnglishtheynaturallycontinuetoexercisetheirownpeculiar spellon themindsofmenandchildrenSuchproverbsaremdash

ldquoItisbettertokeepthantobegrdquo

ldquoDogoodforthyselfthoudostitrdquo

ldquoSpeaklittlespeakwellandwellwillbespokenagainrdquo

ldquoThereisnodownwithouteyenohedgewithoutearsrdquo

49A critical edition with some excellent notes was published byMrWhitleyStokesunderthetitleofThePassionMSSofitexistattheBritish Museum and at the Bodleian One of the Bodleian MSS(Gough Cornwall 3) contains an English translation by Keigwynmadein1682

50IntheMSintheBritishMuseumthetranslationissaidbyMrNorristobedated1693(voliip440)Itwaspublishedin1827byDaviesGilbertandacriticaleditionwaspreparedbyMrWhitleyStokesandpublished with an English translation in 1862 Mr Stokes leaves itdoubtful whether William Jordan was the author or merely thecopyistandthinksthetextmaybelongtoanearlierdatethoughitisdecidedlymoremodernthantheotherspecimensofCornishwhichwepossessinthedramasandinthepoemofThePassion

GuareinCornishmeansaplayagametheWelshgware52

According toLhuydguirimirwould be a corruption ofguarimirkleieamiracle-playNorrisvoliip455

53Insomelineswrittenin1693ontheoriginoftheOxfordTerraeligfiliuswereadmdash

ldquoTheseundergraduatesoraclesDeducedfromCornwallsguarymiraclesmdashFromimmemorialcustomthereTheyraiseaturfytheatreWhenfromapassageundergroundByfrequentcrowdsencompassedroundOutleapssomelittleMephistophelesWhoeenofallthemobtheoffalisrdquoetc

54ThefollowingextractfromaCornishpapergivessomecuriouswordsstillcurrentamongthepeoplemdash

ldquoA few weeks since a correspondent in the Cornish TelegraphremarkedafewfamiliarexpressionswhichweWestcountryfolksareaccustomed touse insovagueasense that strangersareoften ratherpuzzledtoknowpreciselywhatwemeanHemightalsohaveaddedtothelistmanyoldCornishwordsstillincommonuseasskawfortheelder-tree skaw-dower water-elder skaw-coo nightshade bannelbroom skedgewith privet griglans heath padzypaw (from padzarfour)thesmallgraylizardmuryantheantquilkanthefrog(whichretains its English name when in the water) pul-cronach (literallypool-toad)isthenamegiventoasmallfishwithaheadmuchlikethatof a toad which is often found in the pools (pulans) left by therecedingtideamongtherocksalongshorevisnanthesand-lancebul-horntheshell-snaildumble-dorytheblack-beetle(butthismaybeacorruption of the dor-beetle) A small solid wheel has still the oldnameofdrucsharFinelypulverizedsoiliscalledgruteTherootsandotherlightmatterharroweduponthesurfaceofthegroundforburningwe call tabs The harvest-home and harvest-feast guildize Plum

means softquailwitheredcrum crookedbruyans crumbswith afewothertermsmorerarelyused

ldquoMany of our ordinary expressions (often mistaken for vulgarprovincialisms) are French words slightly modified which wereprobably introduced into theWest by the old Norman families wholong resided there For instance a large apron to come quite roundworn for the sake of keeping the under-clothing clean is called atouser (tout-serre) a game of running romps is a courant (fromcourir) Very rough play is a regular cows courant Going into aneighborsforaspelloffriendlychatisgoingtocursey(causer)abitTheloinsarecalledthecheens(oldFrenchechine)Theplantsweet-leaf akindofSt Johnswort here called tutsen is theFrench tout-saine (heal all) There are some others which however are notpeculiartotheWestaskickshaws(quelquechose)etcWehavealsomany inverted words as swap for wasp cruds for curds etc ThenagainwecallaflyafleaandafleaaflayandthesmalleststreamofwaterariverrdquomdashWB

55QuotedinPetrieEcclesArchitectureofIrelandp107

56BorlaseAntiquitiesofCornwallp162

57Strabo iv 197 τοὺς δ᾽ οἴκους ἐκ σανίδων καὶ γέῥῤων ἔχουσιμεγάλουςθολοειδεῖςὄροφονπολὺνἐπιβάλλοντες

58CfPhotiusBibliothecaedBekkerp148132περὶτῆςπαρὰτὸνὠκεανὸν Γιγωνίας πέτρας καὶ ὅτι μόνῳ ἀσφοδειλῷ κινεῖται πρὸςπᾶσανβίανἀμετακίνητοςοὖσὰ

59ThefollowingextractfromaCornishnewspaperJuly151869showsthe necessity of imperial legislation on this subject to preventirreparablemischiefmdash

ldquoTheruthlessdestructionoftheTolmenintheparishofConstantinewhichhasbeensomuchdeploredhashad theeffectweareglad to

say of drawing attention to the necessity of takingmeasures for thepreservationof the remainingantiquitiesandobjectsofcuriosityandinterestinthecountyInarecentnumberoftheWestBritonwecalledattention to the threatened overthrow of another of our far-famedobjectsofgreatinterestmdashtheCheesewringnearLiskeardandwearenow glad to hear that the committee of the Royal Institution ofCornwallhaverequestedthreegentlemenwhotakegreatinterestinthepreservationofantiquitiesmdashMrWilliamJoryHenwoodFGSetcMrNHareJrofLiskeardandMrWhitleyoneofthesecretariesoftheRoyal InstitutionmdashtovisitLiskeard for thepurposeofconferringwiththeagentsofthelessorsoftheCheesewringgranitequarriesmdashtheDuchy of Cornwallmdashand with the lessees of the works MessrsFreemanofPenrynwhoarethemselvesgreatlyanxiousthatmeasuresshould be taken for the preservation of thatmost remarkable pile ofrocksknownastheCheesewringWehavenodoubtthatthemeasuresto be adopted will prove successful and with regard to any otherantiquitiesornaturalcuriositiesinthecountyweshallbegladtohearfrom correspondents at any time if they are placed in peril ofdestruction in order that a public announcement of the fact maybecomethemeansofpreservingthemrdquo

60Seep245

61See Isaac Taylors Words and Places p 212 The Ock joins theThamesnearAbingdon

62See the learnedessayofMRossignolldquoDe lOrichalqueHistoireduCuivreetdesesAlliagesrdquo inhisworkLesMeacutetauxdans lAntiquiteacuteParis1863

63ThereisanotherPennycomequicknearFalmouth

64IsaacTaylorWordsandPlacesp402

65IthasbeenobjectedthatMarchadyoncouldnotbecalledtheoriginalformbecausebyacartaAlanicomitisBritanniaeligsealedaccordingto

Dugdales Monasticon Anglicanum by Alan anno incarnationisdominiMCXLtenshillingsperannumweregrantedtothemonksofStMichaelduefromafairheldatMerdresemorMerdreseinUntilhoweverithasbeenprovedthatMerdresemisthesameplaceandthesamenameasMarchadyonor that the lattersprangfromtheformerMarchadyoninthecharterofRichardEarlofCornwall1257mayforourimmediatepurposebetreatedastherootfromwhichalltheothernamesbranchedoffSeeOliverMonasticonExonp32

66IfamarketwasheldontheldquodimidiaterraelighidardquograntedbyRoberttothemonksthisdifficultywoulddisappear

67IntheAdditionalSupplement(p4)DrOlivergivesthemorecorrectreading ldquode Markesiou de parvo Mercato Brevannek PenmedelTrewarbenerdquo It depends on the comma after Markesiou whetherparvusMercatusisaseparateplaceornot

68DrBannister remarks thatMarkesionoccursasearlyas1261 in thetaxation of Bishop Walter Bronescombe as quoted in BishopStapledons register of 1313 If that be so the original form and itsdialecticvarietieswouldhaveexistedalmost contemporaneouslybutthe evidence that Markesion was used by Bishop Bronescombe isindirectSeeOliverMonastExonp28

69Ontheterminationoftheplural inCornishseeMrWhitleyStokessexcellentremarksinhiseditionofThePassionp79alsoinKuhnsBeitraumlge iii 151 and Norris Cornish Drama vol ii p 229 Myattention has since been called to the fact thatmarhas occurs in theplural as marhasow in the Cornish Drama vol i p 248 and assunder suchcircumstancesmaybecome j (cfcanhasaweCreat line29butcanhajoweCreatline67)MarhajowwouldcomestillnearertoMarket Jew Dr Bannister remarks that in Armorican market ismarchadpluralmarchadoucorruptedintomarchajou

70The followingnote fromaCornishpapergivessome important factsastothedateofthenameofMarketJewmdash

ldquoAmong theStatePapers at theRecordOffice there is a letter fromRalph Conway to Secretary Cope dated 3d October 1634 whichmentionsthenameofMarket-jew

ldquoInanotherdated7thFebruary1634-5Sir JamesBagg informs theLords of the Admiralty that the endeavors ofMr Basset and othergentlemen in the west of Cornwall to save the cargo of a wreckedSpanishgalleonwhichbrokefromhermooringsinGwavasLakenearPenzance were opposed by a riotous multitude consisting of theinhabitants of Mousehole and Marka-jew who maintained theirunlawfulproceedingswiththecryoflsquoOneandAllrsquo threateningwithdeath the servantsof theCrownandcompelling them toavoid theirfurybyleapingdownahighcliff

ldquoInanotherofthesamedatefromRalphBirdofSaltramtoFrancisBasset the rebels of Mousehole with their fellow-rebels ofMarketJew are spoken of as having menaced the life of any officer whoshould come to their houses to search for certain hides thatmysteriouslydisappearedfromthedeckofthegalleononeboisterousnightandwereprobablytransferredtoMouseholeinthecock-boatofMr Keigwin of that place and various methods are suggested foradministeringpunishmenttotheoutrageousbarbarians

ldquoInconsequenceofthesecomplaintstheLordsoftheAdmiraltywroteto Sir Henry Marten on the 12th of February of the same yearconcerninglsquotheinsolencyrsquocommittedbytheinhabitantsofMouseholeandMarkaiew requesting that theoffendersmaybepunishedand ifnecessarythemostnotoriousofthemsenttoLondonfortrial

ldquoInMagnaBritanniaetHibernia1720p308Merkju ismentionedasbeinglsquoalittlemarket-townwhichtakesitsnamefromthemarketonThursdays it being a contraction ofMarket-Jupiter ie as tis nowcalledMarketJeworratherJursquo

ldquoNorden who was born about 1548 says in his Specul Britanniaeligwhichwaspublishedin1728thatMarca-iewe(Marca-iewinmargin)signifies in English lsquomarket on the Thursdayrsquo In an old mapapparentlydrawnbyhandwhichappearstohavebeeninsertedinthisbookafteritwaspublishedMarketIewisgivenandinthemapissued

withthebookMarketJew

ldquoThemapofCornwallcontained inCamdensBritanniabyGibson1772givesMarket-JewTheedition1789byGoughstatesatpage3that lsquoMerkiu signifies theMarket of Jupiter from the market beingheldonaThursdaythedaysacredtoJupiterrsquo

ldquoCarews Survey of Cornwall ed 1769 p 156 has the followingmdashlsquoOver against the Mount fronteth a towne of petty fortunepertinently named Marcaiew or Marhas diow in English ldquotheThursdaiesmarketrdquothinsprsquo In the edition published in 1811 p 378 it isstatedinafoot-notethatMarazionmeanslsquomarketontheStrandrsquo thenamebeingwelladaptedtoitssituationlsquoforZionanswerstotheLatinlitusrsquothinsprdquo

71HBCBrandesKeltenundGermanenp52

72CapgraveLegendaAngliaeligfol269

73ldquoWithin the landofMenekeorMenegland isaparochchircheofSKeveryn otherwise PiranusrdquomdashLeland ldquoPiran and Keveryn weredifferentpersonsrdquoSeeGoughseditionofCamdenvolip14

74CarewSurvey (ed1602)p58ldquoFromwhichcivility in the fruitfulage of Canonization they stepped a degree farder to holines andhelpedtostuffetheChurchKalenderwithdiverssaintseithermadeorborneCornishSuchwasKebysontoSolomonprinceofCorsuchPeranwho(ifmyauthor theLegendlyenot)after that(likeanotherJohannesdetemporibus)hehadlivedtwohundredyereswithperfecthealth tookhis last rest in aCornishparishwhich there-throughheendowedwithhisnamerdquo

75HuntsPopularRomancesvoliip19

76SaxonChronicleedEarlep14andhisnotePrefacepix

Thishow according to Professor Earle appears again in theHoe ahigh down at Plymouth near the citadel in Hooton (Cheshire) inHow-gateHoweofFifeandotherlocalnamesSeealsoHalliwellsvHoesandHoghKemblesCodexDiplomaticusNos563663784

78Huntvolip187

79MatthewParisOperaedWatsp902

80SeeReymeriFœderaAD1255tomip543

81See Adam Bremensis De Situ Daniaelig ed Lindenbruch p 136BucklesHistoryofCivilizationvolip275

82Carew Surrey (ed 1602) p 8 ldquoand perhaps under one of thoseFlavianstheJewishworkmenmadeheretheirfirstarrivalrdquo

83Gibbon chap i ldquoThe namewhich used by Ptolemy and Pliny in amore confined by Ammianus and Procopius in a larger sense hasbeenderivedridiculouslyfromSarahthewifeofAbrahamobscurelyfrom the village of Saraka more plausibly from the Arabic wordswhich signify a thievish character orOriental situationYet the lastand most popular of these etymologies is refuted by Ptolemy whoexpressly remarks thewesternandsouthernpositionof theSaracensthenanobscuretribeonthebordersofEgyptTheappellationcannotthereforealludetoanynationalcharacterandsince itwas importedby strangers it must be found not in the Arabic but in a foreignlanguagerdquo

84SeeRWilliamsLexiconCornuBritannicumsv

85ldquoItmaybegivenasarulewithoutexceptionthatwordsendingwithtordinWelshorBritondoiftheyexistinCornishturntordtosrdquomdashNorrisvoliip237

ldquoThefrequentuseofthinsteadofsshowsthat(inCornish)thesoundwasnotsodefiniteasinEnglishrdquomdashNorrisvoliip224

Another explanation of Attal Sarazin has been suggested by aneminent Cornish scholar ldquoI should explain sarazinrdquo he writes ldquoasfromsaratinaMedLatsaritinuscfex-saritumex-saritareinDiezEWii283svEssartAtalcannotbeWadhailIwouldidentifyitwiththeFrattellesplintItoccursinO427meaninglsquofallowrsquoAtalsarazin I should explain as lsquodug-up splinters or shinglersquo and towle(toll)sarazinasalsquodug-upholeorexcavationrsquothinsprdquo

87Seep311l30

88ldquoHistory of the Exchequerrdquo London 1711 p 168 ldquoEt quod nullusJudaeligus receptetur in aliquaVilla sine speciali licentia Regis nisi inVillisillisinquibusJudaeligimanereconsueveruntrdquo(37HenryIII)

89ReadbeforetheAshmoleanSocietyOxfordNovember251867

90In Goughs edition of Camden the name is given ldquoCareg cowse inclowseietheheavyrockinthewoodrdquo

91BaroniiAnnalesanno493

93IhaveaddedchurchforMrMunrowhokindlycollatedthispassageformeinformsmethattheCCCMSgivesdistinctlyaeligdemwheretheeditorhasleftalacuna

94Thomas Crammer sends a dispensation in 1537 to the Rev JohnArscott archpresbyter of the ecclesiaStMichaelis inMonteTumbaExoniensis diocesis (Monasticon Dioc Exon p 30) Dr OliverremarksldquoItmaybeworthwhiletoobservethatwhenStMichaellsquoinprocellarsquo or lsquoin periculo marisrsquo is named in the old records the

foreign house is meant But St Michael lsquoin Tumbacircrsquo or lsquoMonteTumbacircrsquoisanameoccasionallyappliedtobothhousesrdquoItwouldhavebeen interesting todetermine the exact datewhen this latter name isforthefirsttimeappliedtotheCornishMount

95Passion edW S p 95 Coth Bret kocircz=O Celtic cottos (Atecottildquoperantiquirdquo)

96It was suggested to me that the opacissima sylva may even have amore distant origin There seems as little evidence of a dense foresthavingsurroundedMontStMichel inNormandyas therewasinthecaseofStMichaelsMountinCornwallNowasthefirstapparitionofStMichael is supposed tohave takenplace inMountGarganus ieMonteGarganoorMontediSAngeloinApuliamaynotldquothedenseforestrdquohavewanderedwiththearchangelfromtheldquoquercetaGarganirdquo(HorOdii97)toNormandyandthencetoCornwall

97AMemoirofBaronBunsenbyhiswidowBaronessBunsen2vols8voLongmans1868

ChristianCarl Josias Freiherr von Bunsen Aus seinen Briefen undnach eigener Erinnerung geschildert von seiner Wittwe DeutscheAusgabe durchneueMittheilungenvermehrt vonFriedrichNippoldLeipzig1868

98TranslatedbyGAM

99NodatebutaboutDecember1849

ENDOFTHEPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKCHIPSFROMAGERMANWORKSHOPVOLIII

Credits

September102008

ProjectGutenbergTEIedition1ProducedbyGeetuMelwaniChuckGriefDavidKingandtheOnlineDistributedProofreadingTeamatlthttpwwwpgdpnetgt(ThisfilewasproducedfromimagesgenerouslymadeavailablebyTheInternetArchiveCanadianLibraries)

AWordfromProjectGutenberg

Thisfileshouldbenamed26572-hhtmlor26572-hzip

Thisandallassociatedfilesofvariousformatswillbefoundin

httpwwwgutenbergorgdirs265726572

Updated editions will replace the previous one mdash the old editions will berenamed

CreatingtheworksfrompublicdomainprinteditionsmeansthatnooneownsaUnitedStatescopyrightintheseworkssotheFoundation(andyou)cancopyand distribute it in the United States without permission and without payingcopyrightroyaltiesSpecialrulessetforthintheGeneralTermsofUsepartofthis license apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenbergtrade electronicworks to protect the Project Gutenbergtrade concept and trademark ProjectGutenbergisaregisteredtrademarkandmaynotbeusedifyouchargefortheeBooksunlessyou receive specificpermission Ifyoudonot chargeanythingforcopiesofthiseBookcomplyingwiththerulesisveryeasyYoumayusethiseBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works reportsperformancesandresearchTheymaybemodifiedandprintedandgivenawaymdashyoumaydopracticallyanythingwithpublicdomaineBooksRedistributionissubjecttothetrademarklicenseespeciallycommercialredistribution

TheFullProjectGutenbergLicense

Pleasereadthisbeforeyoudistributeorusethiswork

ToprotecttheProjectGutenbergtrademissionofpromotingthefreedistributionofelectronic works by using or distributing this work (or any other workassociated in any way with the phrase ldquoProject Gutenbergrdquo) you agree tocomplywith all the terms of the Full Project Gutenbergtrade License (availablewiththisfileoronlineathttpwwwgutenbergorglicense)

Section1

GeneralTermsofUseampRedistributingProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicworks

Byreadingorusinganypartof thisProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicwork youindicatethatyouhavereadunderstandagreetoandacceptallthetermsofthislicenseandintellectualproperty(trademarkcopyright)agreementIfyoudonotagree to abide by all the terms of this agreement you must cease using andreturn or destroy all copies of Project Gutenbergtrade electronic works in yourpossession If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a ProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicworkandyoudonotagreetobeboundbythetermsofthisagreementyoumayobtainarefundfromthepersonorentitytowhomyoupaidthefeeassetforthinparagraph1E8

ldquoProject Gutenbergrdquo is a registered trademark It may only be used on orassociatedinanywaywithanelectronicworkbypeoplewhoagreetobeboundbythetermsofthisagreementThereareafewthingsthatyoucandowithmostProject Gutenbergtrade electronic works even without complying with the fulltermsofthisagreementSeeparagraph1CbelowTherearealotofthingsyoucandowithProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicworksifyoufollowthetermsofthisagreementandhelppreservefreefutureaccesstoProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicworksSeeparagraph1Ebelow

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (ldquothe Foundationrdquo orPGLAF)ownsacompilationcopyrightinthecollectionofProjectGutenbergtradeelectronic works Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in thepublicdomainintheUnitedStatesIfanindividualworkisinthepublicdomainintheUnitedStatesandyouarelocatedintheUnitedStateswedonotclaimaright to prevent you from copying distributing performing displaying orcreatingderivativeworksbasedontheworkaslongasallreferencestoProjectGutenberg are removedOf coursewe hope that youwill support the ProjectGutenbergtrade mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freelysharing Project Gutenbergtrade works in compliance with the terms of thisagreementforkeepingtheProjectGutenbergtradenameassociatedwiththeworkYoucaneasilycomplywiththetermsofthisagreementbykeepingthisworkinthe same formatwith its attached full ProjectGutenbergtradeLicensewhen youshareitwithoutchargewithothers

Thecopyrightlawsoftheplacewhereyouarelocatedalsogovernwhatyoucandowith thisworkCopyright laws inmost countries are in a constant state ofchangeIfyouareoutsidetheUnitedStatescheckthelawsofyourcountryinadditiontothetermsofthisagreementbeforedownloadingcopyingdisplayingperformingdistributingorcreatingderivativeworksbasedonthisworkoranyother Project Gutenbergtrade work The Foundation makes no representationsconcerning thecopyrightstatusofanywork inanycountryoutside theUnitedStates

UnlessyouhaveremovedallreferencestoProjectGutenberg

The followingsentencewithactive links toorother immediateaccess to thefullProjectGutenbergtradeLicensemustappearprominentlywheneveranycopyof a Project Gutenbergtrade work (any work on which the phrase ldquoProjectGutenbergrdquoappearsorwithwhichthephraseldquoProjectGutenbergrdquoisassociated)isaccesseddisplayedperformedviewedcopiedordistributed

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost norestrictionswhatsoeverYoumaycopyitgiveitawayorre-useitunderthetermsof the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online athttpwwwgutenbergorg

IfanindividualProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicworkisderivedfromthepublicdomain(doesnotcontainanoticeindicatingthatitispostedwithpermissionofthecopyrightholder) theworkcanbecopiedanddistributed toanyone in theUnited Stateswithout paying any fees or charges If you are redistributing orprovidingaccesstoaworkwiththephraseldquoProjectGutenbergrdquoassociatedwithor appearing on the work you must comply either with the requirements ofparagraphs1E1through1E7orobtainpermissionfortheuseoftheworkandtheProjectGutenbergtradetrademarkassetforthinparagraphs1E8or1E9

If an individual Project Gutenbergtrade electronic work is posted with thepermissionofthecopyrightholderyouruseanddistributionmustcomplywithbothparagraphs1E1 through 1E7 and any additional terms imposed by thecopyright holder Additional terms will be linked to the Project GutenbergtradeLicenseforallworkspostedwiththepermissionofthecopyrightholderfoundatthebeginningofthiswork

Donotunlinkordetachor remove thefullProjectGutenbergtradeLicense termsfromthiswork or any files containing a part of thiswork or any otherwork

associatedwithProjectGutenbergtrade

Donotcopydisplayperformdistributeorredistributethiselectronicworkoranypartofthiselectronicworkwithoutprominentlydisplayingthesentencesetforthinparagraph1E1withactivelinksorimmediateaccesstothefulltermsoftheProjectGutenbergtradeLicense

Youmayconverttoanddistributethisworkinanybinarycompressedmarkedup nonproprietary or proprietary form including any word processing orhypertext form However if you provide access to or distribute copies of aProjectGutenbergtradeworkinaformatotherthanldquoPlainVanillaASCIIrdquoorotherformat used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenbergtradeweb site (httpwwwgutenbergorg) you must at no additional cost fee orexpensetotheuserprovideacopyameansofexportingacopyorameansofobtainingacopyuponrequestoftheworkinitsoriginalldquoPlainVanillaASCIIrdquoorother formAnyalternate formatmust include the fullProjectGutenbergtradeLicenseasspecifiedinparagraph1E1

Donotchargea fee foraccess toviewingdisplayingperformingcopyingordistributinganyProjectGutenbergtradeworksunlessyoucomplywithparagraph1E8or1E9

You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to ordistributingProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicworksprovidedthat

bullYoupayaroyaltyfeeof20ofthegrossprofitsyouderivefromtheuseofProjectGutenbergtradeworkscalculatedusingthemethodyoualreadyusetocalculateyourapplicabletaxesThefeeisowedtotheowneroftheProjectGutenbergtradetrademarkbuthehasagreedtodonateroyaltiesunderthisparagraphtotheProjectGutenbergLiteraryArchiveFoundationRoyaltypaymentsmustbepaidwithin60daysfollowingeachdateonwhichyouprepare(orarelegallyrequiredtoprepare)yourperiodictaxreturnsRoyaltypaymentsshouldbeclearlymarkedassuchandsenttotheProjectGutenbergLiteraryArchiveFoundationattheaddressspecifiedinSection4ldquoInformationaboutdonationstotheProjectGutenbergLiteraryArchiveFoundationrdquo

Youprovideafullrefundofanymoneypaidbyauserwhonotifiesyouinwriting(orbye-mail)within30daysofreceiptthatshedoesnotagreetothetermsofthefullProjectGutenbergtradeLicenseYoumustrequiresuchausertoreturnordestroyallcopiesoftheworkspossessedinaphysicalmediumanddiscontinuealluseofandallaccesstoothercopiesofProjectGutenbergtradeworks

Youprovideinaccordancewithparagraph1F3afullrefundofanymoneypaidforaworkorareplacementcopyifadefectintheelectronicworkisdiscoveredandreportedtoyouwithin90daysofreceiptofthework

YoucomplywithallothertermsofthisagreementforfreedistributionofProjectGutenbergtradeworks

IfyouwishtochargeafeeordistributeaProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicworkorgroupofworks ondifferent terms than are set forth in this agreement youmust obtain permission in writing from both the Project Gutenberg LiteraryArchive Foundation andMichael Hart the owner of the Project GutenbergtradetrademarkContacttheFoundationassetforthinSection3below

Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort toidentifydocopyrightresearchontranscribeandproofreadpublicdomainworksin creating the Project Gutenbergtrade collection Despite these efforts ProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicworks and themediumonwhich theymay be storedmay contain ldquoDefectsrdquo such as but not limited to incomplete inaccurate orcorrupt data transcription errors a copyright or other intellectual propertyinfringementadefectiveordamageddiskorothermediumacomputervirusorcomputercodesthatdamageorcannotbereadbyyourequipment

LIMITED WARRANTY DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES mdash Except for theldquoRight of Replacement or Refundrdquo described in paragraph 1F3 the ProjectGutenbergLiteraryArchiveFoundation theownerof theProjectGutenbergtradetrademark and any other party distributing a Project Gutenbergtrade electronicworkunderthisagreementdisclaimall liability toyoufordamagescostsandexpenses including legal fees YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NOREMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE STRICT LIABILITY BREACH OFWARRANTYORBREACHOFCONTRACTEXCEPTTHOSEPROVIDEDIN PARAGRAPH F3 YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION THETRADEMARK OWNER AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THISAGREEMENTWILLNOTBELIABLETOYOUFORACTUALDIRECTINDIRECT CONSEQUENTIAL PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGESEVENIFYOUGIVENOTICEOFTHEPOSSIBILITYOFSUCHDAMAGE

LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUNDmdash If you discover adefectinthiselectronicworkwithin90daysof receiving ityoucanreceivearefundofthemoney(ifany)youpaidforitbysendingawrittenexplanationto

thepersonyoureceivedtheworkfromIfyoureceivedtheworkonaphysicalmediumyoumustreturnthemediumwithyourwrittenexplanationThepersonor entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide areplacementcopyinlieuofarefundIfyoureceivedtheworkelectronicallythepersonorentityprovidingittoyoumaychoosetogiveyouasecondopportunitytoreceivetheworkelectronicallyinlieuofarefundIfthesecondcopyisalsodefectiveyoumaydemandarefundinwritingwithoutfurtheropportunities tofixtheproblem

Exceptforthelimitedrightofreplacementorrefundsetforthinparagraph1F3thiswork is provided to you AS-ISWITHNOOTHERWARRANTIESOFANYKINDEXPRESSORIMPLIEDINCLUDINGBUTNOTLIMITEDTOWARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANYPURPOSE

Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or theexclusion or limitation of certain types of damages If any disclaimer orlimitationset forth in thisagreementviolates the lawof thestateapplicable tothis agreement the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximumdisclaimeror limitationpermittedbytheapplicablestate lawTheinvalidityorunenforceabilityofanyprovisionofthisagreementshallnotvoidtheremainingprovisions

INDEMNITY mdash You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation thetrademarkowner any agent or employeeof theFoundation anyoneprovidingcopies of Project Gutenbergtrade electronic works in accordance with thisagreement and any volunteers associated with the production promotion anddistributionofProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicworksharmlessfromallliability

costsandexpensesincludinglegalfeesthatarisedirectlyorindirectlyfromanyofthefollowingwhichyoudoorcausetooccur(a)distributionof thisoranyProjectGutenbergtradework(b)alterationmodificationoradditionsordeletionstoanyProjectGutenbergtradeworkand(c)anyDefectyoucause

Section2

InformationabouttheMissionofProjectGutenbergtrade

Project Gutenbergtrade is synonymous with the free distribution of electronicworksinformatsreadablebythewidestvarietyofcomputersincludingobsoleteoldmiddle-agedandnewcomputersItexistsbecauseoftheeffortsofhundredsofvolunteersanddonationsfrompeopleinallwalksoflife

Volunteersand financial support toprovidevolunteerswith theassistance theyneed is critical to reaching ProjectGutenbergtrades goals and ensuring that theProject Gutenbergtrade collection will remain freely available for generations tocomeIn2001theProjectGutenbergLiteraryArchiveFoundationwascreatedto provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenbergtrade and futuregenerations To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary ArchiveFoundationandhowyoureffortsanddonationscanhelpseeSections3and4andtheFoundationwebpageathttpwwwpglaforg

Section3

InformationabouttheProjectGutenbergLiteraryArchiveFoundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit 501(c)(3)educationalcorporationorganizedunderthelawsofthestateofMississippiandgranted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service The FoundationsEINor federal tax identification number is 64-6221541 Its 501(c)(3) letter isposted at httpwwwgutenbergorgfundraisingpglaf Contributions to theProject Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the fullextentpermittedbyUSfederallawsandyourstateslaws

TheFoundationsprincipalofficeislocatedat4557MelanDrSFairbanksAK99712 but its volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerouslocationsItsbusinessofficeislocatedat809North1500WestSaltLakeCityUT84116 (801)596-1887emailbusinesspglaforgEmailcontact linksandup to date contact information can be found at the Foundationsweb site andofficialpageathttpwwwpglaforg

Foradditionalcontactinformation

DrGregoryBNewbyChiefExecutiveandDirectorgbnewbypglaforg

Section4

InformationaboutDonationstotheProjectGutenbergLiteraryArchiveFoundation

Project Gutenbergtrade depends upon and cannot survive without wide spreadpublicsupportanddonationstocarryoutitsmissionofincreasingthenumberofpublic domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machinereadable form accessible by thewidest array of equipment including outdatedequipmentMany small donations ($1 to $5000) are particularly important tomaintainingtaxexemptstatuswiththeIRS

The Foundation is committed to complyingwith the laws regulating charitiesand charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States Compliancerequirementsarenotuniformandittakesaconsiderableeffortmuchpaperworkandmanyfees tomeetandkeepupwiththeserequirementsWedonotsolicitdonations in locations where we have not received written confirmation ofcomplianceToSENDDONATIONSordeterminethestatusofcomplianceforanyparticularstatevisithttpwwwgutenbergorgfundraisingdonate

Whilewecannotanddonotsolicitcontributionsfromstateswherewehavenotmet thesolicitationrequirementsweknowofnoprohibitionagainstacceptingunsoliciteddonationsfromdonorsinsuchstateswhoapproachuswithofferstodonate

International donations are gratefully accepted but we cannot make anystatements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside theUnitedStatesUSlawsaloneswampoursmallstaff

PleasechecktheProjectGutenbergWebpagesforcurrentdonationmethodsandaddressesDonationsareacceptedinanumberofotherwaysincludingchecksonline payments and credit card donations To donate please visithttpwwwgutenbergorgfundraisingdonate

Section5

GeneralInformationAboutProjectGutenbergtradeelectronicworks

ProfessorMichaelSHartistheoriginatoroftheProjectGutenbergtradeconceptofalibraryofelectronicworksthatcouldbefreelysharedwithanyoneForthirtyyears he produced and distributed Project Gutenbergtrade eBooks with only aloosenetworkofvolunteersupport

ProjectGutenbergtradeeBooksareoftencreatedfromseveralprintededitionsallofwhichareconfirmedasPublicDomainintheUSunlessacopyrightnoticeisincluded Thus we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with anyparticularpaperedition

Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBooks eBooknumber often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII compressed(zipped)HTMLandothers

Corrected editions of our eBooks replace the old file and take over the oldfilenameandetextnumberThereplacedolderfileisrenamedVersionsbasedonseparate sources are treated asneweBooks receivingnew filenames and etextnumbers

MostpeoplestartatourWebsitewhichhasthemainPGsearchfacility

httpwwwgutenbergorg

ThisWebsiteincludesinformationaboutProjectGutenbergtradeincludinghowtomakedonations to theProjectGutenbergLiteraryArchiveFoundationhow tohelpproduceourneweBooksandhowtosubscribetoouremailnewslettertohearaboutneweBooks

Contents

DEDICATION

I GERMAN LITERATURE1

LIST OF EXTRACTS FOR ILLUSTRATING THE HISTORY OF GERMAN LITERATURE

II OLD GERMAN LOVE-SONGS8

III YE SCHYPPE OF FOOLES9

IV LIFE OF SCHILLER10

V WILHELM MUumlLLER13 1794-1827

VI ON THE LANGUAGE AND POETRY OF SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN

VII JOINVILLE29

VIII THE JOURNAL DES SAVANTS AND THE JOURNAL DE TREacuteVOUX32

IX CHASOT33

X SHAKESPEARE34

XI BACON IN GERMANY35

XII A GERMAN TRAVELLER IN ENGLAND36

XIII CORNISH ANTIQUITIES37

XIV ARE THERE JEWS IN CORNWALL

XV THE INSULATION OF ST MICHAELS MOUNT89

XVI BUNSEN97

LETTERS FROM BUNSEN TO MAX MUumlLLER IN THE YEARS 1848 TO 185998

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[10]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

Footnotes

Credits

A Word from Project Gutenberg

The Full Project Gutenberg License

Section 1 General Terms of Use amp Redistributing Project Gutenbergtrade electronic works

1A

1B

1C

1D

1E

1E1

1E2

1E3

1E4

1E5

1E6

1E7

1E8

1E9

1F

1F1

1F2

1F3

1F4

1F5

1F6

Section 2 Information about the Mission of Project Gutenbergtrade

Section 3 Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

Section 4 Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

Section 5 General Information About Project Gutenbergtrade electronic works

FOREIGNMEMBEROFTHEFRENCHINSTITUTEETC

VOLUMEIII

ESSAYSONLITERATUREBIOGRAPHYANDANTIQUITIES

NEWYORK

CHARLESSCRIBNERANDCOMPANY

Contents

Footnotes

DEDICATION

GIVENTOME

ANDASAMEMORIAL

[pg001]

IGERMANLITERATURE1

[pg044]

Gothicmdash

SEVENTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

VocabularyofStGall

EIGHTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

NINTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

TENTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

ELEVENTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

TWELFTHCENTURY

THIRTEENTHCENTURY

FOURTEENTHCENTURY

FIFTEENTHCENTURY

SIXTEENTHCENTURY

SEVENTEENTHCENTURY

EIGHTEENTHCENTURY

[pg051]

[pg062]

[pg073]

[pg074]

IVLIFEOFSCHILLER10

[pg100]

MARKBOZZARI17

MARKBOZZARIS

[pg111]

LIEDVORDERSCHLACHT

SONGBEFOREBATTLE

[pg116]

Fruumlhling1848

[pg134]

Spring1848

Sommer1851

[pg135]

Summer1851

Winter1863

30December1863

Winter1863

December301863

MINJEHANN

MYJOHN

OlBuumlsum

WHATTHEPEOPLETELL

OldBuumlsum

VINETA

HESAumlMISOVEL

[pg142]II

HETOLDMESOMUCH

[pg143]VI

TOumlFMAL

KEENGRAFFISSOBRUT

[pg144]III

DEJUNGEWETFRU

THESOLDIERSWIDOW

[pg151]

VIIJOINVILLE29

[pg192]

[pg200]

IXCHASOT33

Baireuthin1737mdash

Andagainmdash

[pg208]

[pg214]

XSHAKESPEARE34

April1864

[pg217]

XIBACONINGERMANY35

[pg222]

[pg232]

AD1598

[pg238]

[pg261]

[pg262]

[pg287]

POSTSCRIPT

July1867

[pg316]

[pg343]

XVIBUNSEN97

Andagain(p493)mdash

Andoncemoremdash

Again(IIp87)mdash

[pg381]

[pg387]

[pg393]

[pg395]

[pg401]

[pg422]

[pg426]

[pg428]

ἐςἀεί

[pg432]

[pg434]

[pg436]

GEORGEBUNSEN

[pg438]

[pg440]

Yourtruefriend

KMEYER

Nowtootherthings

oftenfeelthewantof

FIRSTVOLUME(Bunsen)

GeneralDivision

[pg453]

Meanwhilefarewell

22mdashmdash

mdashmdash

0years

Total4559

mdashmdash4022

FIRSTPERIOD

SECONDPERIOD

THIRDPERIOD

AKingdomsoftheKurus

FOURTHPERIOD

mdashmdash837years

[pg478]

[pg485]

[pg490]

[pg491]

BUNSEN

Footnotes

20Grimmlcp629

Grimmp64125

26Grimmlcp630

43Ibid

London1846p82

60Seep245

78Huntvolip187

87Seep311l30

98TranslatedbyGAM

Credits

September102008

Section1

Section2

Section3

Section4

Section5

httpwwwgutenbergorg

Contents

DEDICATION







VII JOINVILLE29


IX CHASOT33

X SHAKESPEARE34






XVI BUNSEN97


[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[10]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

Footnotes

Credits




1A

1B

1C

1D

1E

1E1

1E2

1E3

1E4

1E5

1E6

1E7

1E8

1E9

1F

1F1

1F2

1F3

1F4

1F5

1F6





Contents

Footnotes

DEDICATION

GIVENTOME

ANDASAMEMORIAL

[pg001]

IGERMANLITERATURE1

[pg044]

Gothicmdash

SEVENTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

VocabularyofStGall

EIGHTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

NINTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

TENTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

ELEVENTHCENTURY

OldHigh-Germanmdash

TWELFTHCENTURY

THIRTEENTHCENTURY

FOURTEENTHCENTURY

FIFTEENTHCENTURY

SIXTEENTHCENTURY

SEVENTEENTHCENTURY

EIGHTEENTHCENTURY

[pg051]

[pg062]

[pg073]

[pg074]

IVLIFEOFSCHILLER10

[pg100]

MARKBOZZARI17

MARKBOZZARIS

[pg111]

LIEDVORDERSCHLACHT

SONGBEFOREBATTLE

[pg116]

Fruumlhling1848

[pg134]

Spring1848

Sommer1851

[pg135]

Summer1851

Winter1863

30December1863

Winter1863

December301863

MINJEHANN

MYJOHN

OlBuumlsum

WHATTHEPEOPLETELL

OldBuumlsum

VINETA

HESAumlMISOVEL

[pg142]II

HETOLDMESOMUCH

[pg143]VI

TOumlFMAL

KEENGRAFFISSOBRUT

[pg144]III

DEJUNGEWETFRU

THESOLDIERSWIDOW

[pg151]

VIIJOINVILLE29

[pg192]

[pg200]

IXCHASOT33

Baireuthin1737mdash

Andagainmdash

[pg208]

[pg214]

XSHAKESPEARE34

April1864

[pg217]

XIBACONINGERMANY35

[pg222]

[pg232]

AD1598

[pg238]

[pg261]

[pg262]

[pg287]

POSTSCRIPT

July1867

[pg316]

[pg343]

XVIBUNSEN97

Andagain(p493)mdash

Andoncemoremdash

Again(IIp87)mdash

[pg381]

[pg387]

[pg393]

[pg395]

[pg401]

[pg422]

[pg426]

[pg428]

ἐςἀεί

[pg432]

[pg434]

[pg436]

GEORGEBUNSEN

[pg438]

[pg440]

Yourtruefriend

KMEYER

Nowtootherthings

oftenfeelthewantof

FIRSTVOLUME(Bunsen)

GeneralDivision

[pg453]

Meanwhilefarewell

22mdashmdash

mdashmdash

0years

Total4559

mdashmdash4022

FIRSTPERIOD

SECONDPERIOD

THIRDPERIOD

AKingdomsoftheKurus

FOURTHPERIOD

mdashmdash837years

[pg478]

[pg485]

[pg490]

[pg491]

BUNSEN

Footnotes

20Grimmlcp629

Grimmp64125

26Grimmlcp630

43Ibid

London1846p82

60Seep245

78Huntvolip187

87Seep311l30

98TranslatedbyGAM

Credits

September102008

Section1

Section2

Section3

Section4

Section5

httpwwwgutenbergorg

Contents

DEDICATION







VII JOINVILLE29


IX CHASOT33

X SHAKESPEARE34






XVI BUNSEN97


[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[10]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

Footnotes

Credits




1A

1B

1C

1D

1E

1E1

1E2

1E3

1E4

1E5

1E6

1E7

1E8

1E9

1F

1F1

1F2

1F3

1F4

1F5

1F6



