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BG/BRG KIRCHENGASSE Thinking in and beyond Language On Linguistic Relativity and a Model of Conceptual Thought Pre-Academic Paper written by Jakob Possert, 8a Advisor: Mag a . Lesya Linnyk-Pammer Graz Austria, February 2016

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Page 1: Thinking in and beyond Language - AHS VWA · 2019-09-29 · of linguistic relativity and how, although everybody has unique speaking habits, there exists a universal component in

BG/BRG KIRCHENGASSE

Thinking in and beyond Language

On Linguistic Relativity

and a Model of Conceptual Thought

Pre-Academic Paper

written by

Jakob Possert, 8a

Advisor: Maga. Lesya Linnyk-Pammer

Graz Austria, February 2016

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Abstract

This paper is concerned with the relation of thought and language, especially

with the inner workings of human conceptual thought. The questions this paper set

out to answer were whether humans think in language, thus whether their vehicle

of thought is language, and how language might limit human thinking. What the

current research, the main sources of which have been various kinds of academic

literature, supplemented with an interview, recorded lectures and personal

introspective accounts, has shown, is that both of these questions can be negated, as

they do not stand up to scrutiny. Furthermore, the workings of the mind seem to be

far more complex and intricate than what is suggested by these two assumptions.

The current paper explores the following areas: how languages differ and what that

means for speakers’ conceptual systems; what a plausible version of linguistic

relativity looks like; how humans think in a language of thought and what its

means are; what characteristics concepts have and how they operate; and finally,

what a coherent model of conceptual thought might look like. The findings have

been summarized and visualized for the facilitation of coherence and

comprehension.

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Possert, Thinking in and beyond Language 2

Preface

As an aspiring polyglot and avid student of the cognitive sciences and the

nature of the mind, the topic of this paper, the peculiar relation of language and

conceptual thought, is of strong personal interest to me. In my – admittedly quite

ambitious – attempt to get a grasp of how the world works, it is, in my opinion,

indispensable to understand how our human minds work.

This paper deals with conceptual thought – in other words, with what is

assumed to be the substance of thought. It tries to outline a structure of thought

and thereby to do away with the behavioristic notion that the mind, whether be it

its conscious, subconscious or unconscious part, cannot be studied and that no

conclusive statements can be made about it. This notion no longer holds true,

because the mind is not the unintelligible mystery to scientists that it once was.

The insights and ponderings of over a year now, which have accumulated in

written notes and quoted excerpts from innumerable sources, have finally led to this

piece on the human mind. However, it would not have been finished had I had not

had support: I want to thank my father for various conversations which have helped

considerably to refine my ideas, Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr. Kienpointner, of the

linguistics department at the University of Innsbruck, for the clarifying interview

and Prof. Maga. Lynnik-Pammer for her patience in the supervision of this paper.

It has been a true delight for me to research as well as to develop and

visualize, through grounded speculation, the ideas set forth here and I hope the

reader will share this feeling of intellectual stimulation and delight.

Graz, Austria, February 2016, Jakob Possert

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Content

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 6

2 Linguistic Relativity ............................................................................................... 7

2.1 The Strong Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis ................................................................ 8

2.2 The Weak Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis ................................................................. 9

2.2.1 Modern Research ...................................................................................... 10

2.3 Criticism of Linguistic Relativity ................................................................... 11

2.3.1 Thinking for Speaking ............................................................................. 12

2.3.2 Universal Aspects of Thought .................................................................. 12

2.3.3 Overall ...................................................................................................... 13

2.4 Sorting Out the Chaos .................................................................................... 13

2.4.1 Conceptual Capacity vs. Conceptual System .......................................... 14

2.4.2 The Conscious Attention-Principle .......................................................... 15

2.4.3 Grammatization ....................................................................................... 17

2.4.4 Culture ...................................................................................................... 18

2.4.5 Perception and Input Processing ............................................................. 20

2.4.6 Relativism given a Plurality of Languages ............................................. 21

2.4.7 Language Transfer ................................................................................... 22

2.5 A Plausible Version of Linguistic Relativity.................................................. 23

2.6 An Arch from Relatives to Universals ........................................................... 25

2.6.1 Universals in Language ........................................................................... 25

2.6.2 Idiolect ...................................................................................................... 26

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Possert, Thinking in and beyond Language 4

2.6.3 Spanning the Arch ................................................................................... 27

2.7 Does language equal thought? ....................................................................... 29

3 Structures of the Mind ......................................................................................... 30

3.1 The Language of Thought .............................................................................. 30

3.1.1 Does Language Limit Thought? .............................................................. 31

3.1.2 Proof for Mentalese .................................................................................. 31

3.1.3 A Synthesis of Relativism and Mentalese ............................................... 32

3.2 Means of Mentalese ........................................................................................ 33

3.2.1 Visual Thinking ........................................................................................ 33

3.2.2 An Introspective Account of Thought ...................................................... 35

3.3 Concepts and Categories ................................................................................ 38

3.3.1 Analogy ..................................................................................................... 39

3.3.2 Metaphor .................................................................................................. 39

3.3.3 Categories without Words ........................................................................ 40

3.3.4 Characteristics a Category ...................................................................... 41

3.3.5 Experentialism ......................................................................................... 42

3.4 Foundations of Thinking ................................................................................ 43

3.4.1 Without Language .................................................................................... 44

3.4.2 Language and Meaning ........................................................................... 45

3.5 Unconscious .................................................................................................... 45

3.5.1 The Layers of Consciousness ................................................................... 47

3.6 A Model of Conceptual Thought ..................................................................... 49

3.6.1 In Isolation ............................................................................................... 49

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Possert, Thinking in and beyond Language 5

3.6.2 In Process ................................................................................................. 51

3.6.3 A Fictional Account: On Vacation ........................................................... 52

4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 55

5 Index of Sources .................................................................................................... 56

5.1 Monografies ..................................................................................................... 56

5.2 Papers .............................................................................................................. 58

5.3 Internet ........................................................................................................... 59

5.3.1 Articles ...................................................................................................... 59

5.3.2 Websites .................................................................................................... 60

5.3.4 Other ......................................................................................................... 61

5.4 Appendix I ....................................................................................................... 61

6 Register of Illustrations ........................................................................................ 62

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Possert, Thinking in and beyond Language 6

1 Introduction

The aim of this paper is to explore the nature of conceptual thought. The

question being asked is whether the structure of thought is the grammatical

structure of language, and if it is not so, what alternative structure does exist and

what role does language play in this alternative structure?

The paper is made up of two parts: The first one discusses the matter

of linguistic relativity and how, although everybody has unique speaking habits,

there exists a universal component in all languages. As language is the most

obvious pathway into human cognition, the interest for linguistic relativity and

linguistic universals goes beyond linguistics and extends to many fields, from

anthropology to the cognitive sciences.

The second part of the paper is concerned with the nature of concepts and

categories and leads to a model of conceptual human thought. How our minds work

is not only of importance to an understanding of ourselves and who we are as

human beings, but also relevant as the groundwork of all human experience and

thought. Thus, the development of such a model is of concern to virtually all areas

of human existence from mental illness to wellbeing, from education to work.

The human mind is extremely complex and thus it is no surprise that

many statements made in this paper tend to be simplistic. Furthermore, a built-in

problem when dealing with the human mind is, of course, that it is not directly

investigable, whereby there is bound to be a considerable amount of grounded

speculation.

The research for this paper mainly stems from monographies,

academic papers and articles as well as recorded lectures accessible on the Internet,

but also draws on an interview with Prof. Kienpointner of the linguistics

department at the University of Innsbruck.

Overall, the paper is intended to be both a summary of previous

findings on the topics of linguistic relativity and conceptual thought as well as an

attempt to suggest plausible positions and coherent model of conceptual thought.

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Possert, Thinking in and beyond Language 7

2 Linguistic Relativity

To fully understand what it means to say that one thinks in language or that

human thought is constrained by language, one first has to know what

consequences such an assumption would have. The relationship between language

and thought has always been an important topic in philosophy and has been studied

over many centuries.1 Many theories have been formulated, one of which has caused

possibly the most heated debate in linguistics of the past few decades, which

revolves around what is called linguistic relativism.2 It suggests that a natural

language, such as German or Arabic, has an impact on the way a person thinks.

Thus, for example, whether, due to their distinct mother tongues, a native speaker

of German thinks differently from a native speaker of Arabic.

Although language and thought are two main topics of philosophy going back

to classical civilizations, this theory was first proposed in modern times by Wilhelm

von Humboldt. He stated that a nation’s “weltanschauung”, or way of viewing the

world, is reflected in the grammar of its language and furthermore, that learning a

new language means acquiring a new perspective of the world.3 A similar idea has

been formulated by Ludwig Wittgenstein, who famously wrote: “The limits of my

language mean the limits of my world.”4

The linguists Edward Sapir and his protegé Benjamin Whorf are given the

credit for being the first to make specific assumptions based on the research they

conducted. Therefore, linguistic relativity is also known as the Sapir-Whorf

hypothesis, although they actually never formulated any concrete hypothesis.5

1 FORMIGARI, Lia: A History of Language Philosophies. Philadelphia et al.: John Benjamins 2004, p. 53.

2 cf. DEUTSCHER, Guy: Through the Language Glass. Why the world looks different in other languages. New York:

Metropolitan Books 2010, p. 20. 3 cf. VON HUMBOLDT, Wilhelm; Edited by LOSONSKY, Michael: On Language. On the Diversity of Human Language

Construction and its Influence on the Mental Development of the Human Species. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999, p. 60. 4 WITTGENSTEIN, Ludwig: Tractatus Logico-philosophicus.In: Werkausgabe Band 1. Edited by Joachim Schulte

Franfurt a.M.: suhrkamp 1984, p. 67. 5 HILL, Jane; MANNHEIM, Bruce: Language and Worldview. In: Annual Review of Anthropology. Edited by Richard

Gallagher et al. (Vol. 21) Palo Alto et al.: Annual Reviews 1992, pp 381-404, p. 386.

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In order to be able to have a structured debate and to investigate the matter

scientifically, Eric Lenneberg, along with his colleague Roger Brown, have

articulated their ideas in the following two general propositions of a weak and a

strong Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, respectively, based on Sapir’s and Whorf ‘s writings:

“1. Structural differences between language systems will, in general, be paralleled by nonlinguistic

cognitive differences, of an unspecified sort, in the native speakers of the language.

2. The structure of anyone's native language strongly influences or fully determines the worldview he

will acquire as he learns the language.”6

2.1 The Strong Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Whorf concluded from his research on a Native American language called

Hopi that “Native American languages impose on their speakers a picture of reality

that is totally different from ours”7, “ours” meaning Anglophone Americans. This

notion that people think differently because they have different mother languages

has become very popular and has even made its way into fictional literature. In

George Orwell’s dystopian novel “1984” the government redesigns the commonly

spoken language with the intention of making any kind of treason literally

“unthinkable. Their idea is that, through the elimination of certain words, citizens

would not be able to think them anymore.8 In more abstract terms, linguistic

determinism, as it is called, claims that “[...] you can think only in the categories

which your language allows you to think.”9

Today however, there is a general consensus among scholars that the strong

version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis cannot hold.10 One simple argument against

it is that languages change: “If thinking and perception were totally determined by

language, then the concept of language change would be impossible.”11

6 BROWN, Roger: Reference in memorial tribute to Eric Lenneberg. In: Cognition. Edited by Steven Sloman et al.

(Vol. 4, No. 2). Melbourne et al.: Elsevier 1976, pp 125-153, p. 128. 7 DEUTSCHER, Guy: Does Your Language Shape How You Think? In: New York Sunday Times. Edited by Jake

Silverstein et al..URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/29/magazine/29language-t.html [As of 17.02.2015]. 8 cf. ORWELL, George: 1984. 35

th Edition. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company 1961, pp. 246.

9 YULE, GEORGE: The Study of Language. 2

nd Edition. New York et al.: Cambridge University Press 1996, p. 247.

10 cf. AHEARN, Laura: Living Language. An introduction to linguistic anthropology. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell 2012, p.

69. 11

YULE, George: The study of language, p. 248.

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2.2 The Weak Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

While linguistic determinism has been abandoned by virtually all linguists,

the weak version of the hypothesis, a definition of which has been stated in the

beginning of this chapter, enjoys great popularity. And it is very obvious why: Many

language learners will have noticed that there are considerable amounts of

variation between languages, even within the same language family.

One example is given in the table below, where the French, German, Danish

and Italian words for what would roughly be translated as “tree”, “wood” and

“forest” to English, are outlined. As can be seen, there are inconsistencies between

what concepts these words encompass in their respective languages. These basic

issues of translatability have been taken as proof of at least a moderate version of

linguistic relativity.12

Table 1: Words in the Domain of Forestry in four European Languages13

12 cf. LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago:

Chicago University Press 1987, p. 322. 13

cf. ECO, Umberto; Edited by TRABANT, Jürgen: Einführung in die Semiotik. 9th

German Edition.München: Willhelm Fink 2002, p. 86.

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2.2.1 Modern Research

The claims made by linguistic relativity have been extensively tested with

some very interesting results. Color perception is a case in point because, much like

different languages categorize the domain of forestry in a variety of ways,

“[d]ifferent languages [also] divide up the color continuum differently.”14 And

scientific evidence has been found that Russian speakers, who do not know a single

word for “blue”, but rather differentiate between what would be in English “light

blue” and “dark blue”, “[...] are quicker to distinguish two shades of blue[...].”15

Orientation is one of the best examples for how languages differ: While it is

normal for Europeans to refer to the objects around them as being, for example,

“left” or “right” from them, "[o]thers, like the Pirahã, orient themselves to objects

external to their body, what some refer to as exocentric orientation."16 Even more

peculiar are some Aboriginal groups such as the Guugu Yimithirr, who “rely on

cardinal directions”17 to orient themselves. This language virtually forces you “[...]

to know where the cardinal directions are at each and every moment of your waking

life”18 and thus certainly influences nonverbal cognition.

Another well-studied phenomenon is grammatical gender. Many European

languages such as German or Spanish attribute a gender to every noun. While

Spanish only has feminine or masculine, German even has neuter. And, though in

German it is not obligatory to conform adjectives to the gender of the noun, as one

has to do in Spanish, both languages force their speakers to use distinct articles for

each gender. This is an interesting area for research into relativism and indeed

“[t]he results [...] demonstrate that a grammatical distinction in language has the

power to bias people’s memory, their descriptions of words and pictures […].”19

14 BORODITSKY, Lera; Edited by BROCKMAN, John et al.: How Does Our Language Shape The Way We Think? URL:

https://edge.org/conversation/lera_boroditsky-how-does-our-language-shape-the-way-we-think [As of 17.02.2016]. 15

ibid. 16

cf. EVERETT, Daniel: Don’t Sleep There Are Snakes. Life And Language In The Amazonian Jungle. New York et al.: Vintage Books 2009, p. 216. 17

DEUTSCHER, Guy: Does Your Language Shape How You Think? 18

ibid. 19

BORODOTSKY, Lera; SCHMIDT, Lauren; PHILLIPS, Webb: Sex, Syntax and Semantics. In: Language in Mind: Advances in the Study of Language and Thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2003, pp 61-79, p. 75.

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2.3 Criticism of Linguistic Relativity

Being one of the hottest topics in linguistics today, studies in this area have

also received a lot of criticism. Most of the attacks on Whorfianism, as it is also

called, are launched against strong versions of linguistic relativity and target, in

particular, the claim that the world is perceived differently in different languages.

Color perception is one of the best studied domains with relation to linguistic

relativity. William Gladstone’s book, “Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age”20,

where various color words in the Iliad and the Odyssey21 are discussed, has been

interpreted by some to suggest that Homer was colorblind. 22 More recently, other

claims about special perceptions of color have arisen. For example, it has been

proposed that, because there is no distinct word for blue and green in a certain

language, it is much harder, if not impossible, for speakers of the language to

distinguish between them.23 However, both of these claims are deemed absurd now.

Studies such as the Russian color experiment outlined in the previous

section, have been accepted to be true but to only account for minimal differences,

as the reaction time of Russians and speakers of languages without distinct words

for “light blue” and “dark blue” has, on average, only differed by 124 milliseconds.24

Nonetheless, critiques of relativism all too often tend towards the other

extreme of radical relativity and take the admittedly small implications of a study

such as evidence that that all impact of language on thought is negligible.25 Russell

G. Schuh, for example, states that “the structural properties of language have little

if any influence on thought.”26

20 GLADSTONE, William: Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age (3 vol.s). Oxford: Oxford University Press 1858.

21 HOMER: Iliad and Odyssey. Translated by William Cowper. London: J. Johnson 1791.

22 SAMPSON, Geoffrey: Gladstone as linguist. In: Journal of Literary Semantics. Edited by Michael Toolan (Vol. 42

No. 1). Berlin et al.: De Gruyter, pp 1-29, p. 1. 23

cf. Radiolab: Why Isn’t the Sky Blue? URL: http://www.radiolab.org/story/211213-sky-isnt-blue/ [As of 17.02.2016 / Podcast]. 24

MCWHORTER, John: The Language Hoax. Why the World Looks the Same in Any Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2014, p. 9 25

cf. ibid, p. 3. 26

SCHUH, Russell: Reply to Boroditsky “How Language Shapes Thought”. 2011. URL: http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/schuh/lx001/Discussion/d01_response_to%20Boroditsky.pdf [As of 17.02.2016], p. 1.

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2.3.1 Thinking for Speaking

However, there have been other studies on linguistic relativity which one

could not brush off as easily. Especially the gender studies quoted above (in Section

2.2.1), which address exactly these structural properties that Schuh claims have

very limited influence on thought, have caused uproar in the field of linguistics and

triggered many replies. A very elegant solution for holding on to an utter denial of

linguistic relativism is stating that linguistic relativity is a circular problem.27 This

rebuttal maintains that, according to linguistic relativity, language only influences

us when we use language. The alternative explanation for the grammatical gender

studies is that “[…] gender information does not influence non-linguistic

representations but the level of (linguistically oriented) “Thinking for speaking”.”28

So, this position says that “[t]hinking for speaking differs from one language

to another.”29 However, even if the findings of relativists only hold true for the

linguistic part of cognition, and the debate of whether it includes non-linguistic

impacts as well is far from over yet, this already means that it is impossible to claim

that relativism only has minimal impacts. After all, “[l]anguage is so tightly woven

into human experience that it is scarcely possible to imagine life without it."30

2.3.2 Universal Aspects of Thought

The particular emphasis of numerous attacks mounted on linguistic

relativity, as can be seen in critical and vaguely formulated statements such as

“[w]hat language does not is shape thought by itself [...]”31, seems to be that there

exists a common cognitive structure, which is universal to all human beings.

27cf. PINKER, Steven: The Language Instinct. How the Mind Creates Language. London: Penguin 1995, p. 61.

28 HÄRTEL, Holden: Pitfalls in the language-thought distinction. A view on studies of linguistic relativity. URL:

https://www.uni-kassel.de/fb02/fileadmin/datas/fb02/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Anglistik_Amerikanistik/Dateien/Linguistik/Presentations/Pr%C3%A4sentation_KogWis.pdf [As of 17.02.2016], slide 12. 29

BORODOTSKY, Lera; SCHMIDT, Lauren; PHILLIPS, Webb: Sex, Syntax and Semantics, p. 62. 30

PINKER, Steven: The Language Instinct, p. 3. 31

MCWHORTER, John: The Language Hoax, p. 28.

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“Structuralists [for example] contend that human experience is largely

universal, owing to a common biological inheritance and common cognitive

structure.”32 Such a universal part of cognition is recognizable when taking a look

at how human categories operate and the characteristics that they have, as will be

shown in Section 3.3.

2.3.3 Overall

What most of these attacks on linguistic relativity seemingly want to point

out, is that the relativistic effects of language are limited, as was illustrated in

Section 2.3.1, which claims that all variation is to be found in linguistic cognition

alone. Other skeptics simply relegate variation and the study of variation to other

scientific domains such as anthropology and cultural studies.33

2.4 Sorting Out the Chaos

Some scholars have objected that the debate about relativism has been

confused, in particular because “[...] there [are not one or two kinds of] relativism,

but rather dozens, if not hundreds, of versions, depending on the stand one takes on

various issues.”34 To say that one is arguing for or against the weak Sapir-Whorf

hypothesis is problematic because there are different interpretations, beyond the

definition quoted in the beginning of this chapter, of what this weak version

actually is on a detailed level. Fishman’s “Whorfianism of the Third Kind” was one

of the first steps to give another alternative to the views of either the weak or the

strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis by stating that “language is a key to

culture”.35

32 FAIRALL, Gaige: Theories of Social & Cultural Reality. The Social Construction of Reality. URL:

http://slideplayer.com/slide/1421113/ As of 10.02.2016, slide 30. 33

cf. MCWHORTER, John: The Language Hoax, pp. 59. 34

LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 328. 35

cf. FISHMAN, Joshua: Whorfianism of the Third Kind. Ethnolinguistic diversity as a worldwide societal asset. In: Language in Society. Edited by Dell Hymes et al. (Vol. 11 No. 1) Cambrige et al.: Cambridge University Press 1982, pp 1-14, p. 8.

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George Lakoff has laid out various parameters for specific issues in the

debate and a framework for discussing these different kinds of relativism in a

professional way that makes it possible to clarify to which extent linguistic

relativity is plausible,36 which will be discussed in the following section.

2.4.1 Conceptual Capacity vs. Conceptual System

How is it possible that there exists both a common cognitive structure as well

as significant differences between languages and their impact on thinking? Linguist

and cognitive scientist George Lakoff has sorted out this issue by introducing “[...] a

distinction between conceptual systems and conceptualizing capacities, [and

clarifying that t]he same capacities can give rise to different systems [...].”37

More precisely, conceptual capacity refers not only to the ability to form

symbolic structures, i.e. concepts, that correlate with preconceptual structures

(basic-level and image-schematic concepts), but also to the ability to make analogies

from structures in the physical domain to structures in abstract domains and

eventually, the ability to form complex concepts and general categories.38 It could be

said that this capacity corresponds to the notion of a universal cognition, which is

common to all members of the species homo sapiens.

However, there are reasons why the same conceptual capacities can lead to

different conceptual systems:

On the one hand, while there exists a capacity for all kinds of

conceptualizations, “[...] highly structured preconceptual experiences may be

different,”39 leading to distinct systems of conceptualization. Topographical

idiosyncrasies, such as those the Australian Aborigines (see Section 2.2.1) are

exposed to, may lead to different conceptualizations.

36cf. LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 307.

37 ibid, p. 310.

38 cf. ibid, p. 281.

39 cf. ibid, p. 310.

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On the other hand, the same experience can motivate different conceptual

systems. For example, in English the “front” of a thing is the side which is facing

towards one, while in Hausa, it is the side which is facing away from one, that is, in

the same direction in which one is facing.40 Both of these conceptualizations are

logical – neither is somehow truer than the other.

Various other phenomena, such as that the language of the Eskimos allegedly

has more words for “snow” than English, can be explained by the capacity-system

distinction as well: “Given a general conceptualizing capacity and a language

capacity, [Eskimos] can conceptualize and name structured aspects of that domain

of experience,”41 which in this case is snow. In this way, Eskimos, like English-

speaking skiers, both have many words for “snow”, 42 because [a]nyone with an

expert knowledge of some domain of experience is bound to have a large vocabulary

about things in that domain [...]”.43

Furthermore, this framework accounts for how languages change, are learned

and are translated – things that have been previously taken as proof of the

impossibility of relativism:44 "Differences in conceptual systems do not necessarily

entail that understanding and learning are impossible,"45 because there exists this

universal capacity, from which other conceptual systems can come forth.

2.4.2 The Conscious Attention-Principle

A famous and often mentioned quote in discussions of relativism is attributed

to Roman A. Jakobson: “Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and

not in what they may convey.”46

40 cf. LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 310.

41 ibid, p. 309.

42 cf. ibid, p. 308.

43 ibid, p. 308.

44 cf. Linguistic Society of America: Language and Thought. URL:

http://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/language-and-thought [As of 17.02.2016]. 45

LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 312. 46

JAKOBSON, Roman: On Linguistic Aspects of Translation In: Language in Literature. Edited by Krystyna Pomorska; Stephen Rudy. Cambridge et al.: Belknap Press 1987. pp 428-436, p. 433.

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Skeptics state that “[o]ne can say anything in any language,”47 or more

precisely that “[... w]hatever can be expressed in one language can be expressed in

any other language.”48 This is very important to scholars who argue that it would be

unethical to claim that people who speak different languages think differently,49 as

such claims might give an argument to colonists who think of their language as

superior.50

If what must be conveyed is of such great importance, as Jakobson suggests,

it might be suggested that there exists something like a conscious attention-

principle. The idea is that the variation in thinking, which is influenced by

language, has to be attributed to what native speakers, and their respective

cultures, give attention to: “For instance, some languages, like Matses in Peru,

oblige their speakers, like the finickiest of lawyers, to specify exactly how they came

to know about the facts they are reporting.”51

Given certain circumstances of life and certain aspects of culture, it is clear

that different languages have differing capabilities to speak about certain things

and it is no surprise that languages have more words for things that their speakers

often talk about.52 These speakers are simply more frequently confronted with a

certain domain of experience and need related vocabulary more often, like the

Eskimos, who have more words for snow because they are constantly surrounded by

it and because their survival depends upon their understanding of the snow. Here,

it is very apparent how culture, with its ingrained linguistic conditions,53 can

influence language, and thus also behavior and conclusively, thinking, in profound

ways.54

47 MCWHORTER, John: The Language Hoax, pp. 19.

48 MACNAMARA, John: Linguistic Relatvity. In: The Influence of Language on Culture and Thought. Edited by Robert

Cooper; Bernard Spolsky. Berlin et al.: De Gruyter 1991, p. 48. 49

cf. 49

MCWHORTER, John: The Language Hoax, pp. 144. 50

cf. TOMLINSON, Sally: The Politics of Race, Class and Special Education. The Selected Works of Sally Tomlinson. London et al.: Routledge 2014, pp. 105. 51

BORODITSKY, Lera; Edited by BROCKMAN, John et al.: How Does Our Language Shape The Way We Think? 52

cf. MCWHORTER, John: The Language Hoax, p. 35. 53

cf. ibid, p. 60. 54

cf. VALDES, Joyce: Language, thought and culture. In: Culture Bound. Bridging the Cultural Gap in Language Teaching. Edited by Joyce Merrill Valdes (11

th Edition). Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press 2001, pp. 2.

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As such, this attention-principle can also explain why some languages have

no words for a certain aspect of life. For example,

“[Tahitians] not only do not have a word for sadness, they seem to have no concept of it and,

correspondingly, no ritualized behavior for dealing with depression and bereavement.”55

Thus, although they certainly experience sadness, it is not discussed and

there exists no established course of action, such as solacing, to deal with the

emotion, which can be explained by the phenomenon that it is much more likely to

think about a concept if a word for it exists:

"There is reason to believe that people, who use a given categorization in many important

expectancies, are more skilled in identifying category instances than are people who have few

expectancies about the category."56

This line of thought holds that having more nuanced words, where there

actually exists great variation between languages,57 accounts for an improved

ability to detect these nuances. It also might be suggested that having a word for

something allows one to think about it more precisely or at least express a certain

thought more directly than if this word did not exist. 58 In this sense, the attention-

principle not only accounts for the existence, but also for the absence, of attention to

certain aspects of life.

2.4.3 Grammatization

Certain concepts that are ingrained into a language are very likely to be

grammaticized in the mind of the speaker, meaning that they constitute a part of

the underlying structure of the mind, which is below the level of consciousness.

“Concepts that are automatic and unconscious are used in thinking and understanding; they are not

merely pondered as objects of thought. Concepts that are used in this way are fixed in the mind, or

“entrenched”, as opposed to being novel, that is, newly made up. Conventional concepts, shared by

members of a culture, are also fixed in the mind of each speaker.”59

55 LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 310.

56 BROWN, Roger: Words & Things. An Introduction to Language. 10

th Ed.. Toronto: Collier-Macmillan 1968, p. 226.

57 MCWHORTER, John: The Language Hoax, p. 151.

58 cf. SCHUH, Russell: Reply to Boroditsky “How Language Shapes Thought”, p. 2.

59 LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, pp. 320.

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For example, there exist two forms of “to be” in Spanish: “Ser”, which is

generally used for an essential quality and “estar”, which is used for a condition.60

It is important to note that a native or fluent speaker of the language does not take

notice of the difference between the words when uttering them. This discrepancy is

simply part of the rules of the language, if whatever one wants to say is to be

formulated correctly. Only learners of Spanish have to make the distinction

consciously, as they virtually have to think about or remember in each specific case

whether “to be” is seen as an essential or a conditional property.

This suggests that language structures only influence conscious thinking, or

to put it another way, language structures only influence one when paying attention

to them. Nevertheless, the principle of grammatization suggests that Spanish

speakers are more prone to make a distinction subconsciously between temporary

conditions and fundamental qualities of objects and people than are speakers of

languages in which such distinctions are not made.

2.4.4 Culture

When trying to sort out the confusion of linguistic relativity it would be

careless not to at least touch upon the role of culture. Culture and language interact

in complex ways. In general, it is quite impossible to separate the two61 and each

molds the other.62

The impact of culture seems to be both minimal and significant: On the one

hand, Whorf himself stated that “[...] there are connections but not correlations or

diagnostic correspondences between cultural norms and linguistic patterns”63,

arguing that culture does not significantly influence language in any deterministic

way.

60 StudySpanish.com: Ser and Estar. Part I. URL: http://www.studyspanish.com/lessons/serest1.htm [As of

17.02.2016]. 61

cf. Appendix I. 62

EVERETT, Daniel: Language. The Cultural Tool. URL: http://library.fora.tv/2011/11/01/Language_The_Cultural_Tool [As of 17.02.2016 / Video]. 63

WHORF, Benjamin: Language, Thought, and Reality. Selected Writings of Benjamin Whorf. Edited by John Carroll; Steven Levinson; Penny Lee (2

nd Edition). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012, p. 204.

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However it is also true that “[...] culture bears significant responsibility for

the things we talk about [...], "64 and obviously, linguistic patterns are also

important in the use of language. Furthermore, “[o]ur languages reflect our

concerns,”65 which relates to the fact that languages vary significantly in the array

of words they have for different aspects of life.66 Thus, although the structure of a

language may not be extremely relevant to thinking, language still portrays

cultural aspects of life.

While there is a constructive debate going on about the specific relation of

culture and language, “[t]here is no doubt that cultures differ in substantial ways,

and that these differences have substantial psychological effects on the members of

the culture [...].“67 However, this in turn has been used to claim that all variation is

due to culture, as shown in Section 2.3.3, which is not only simplistic but also highly

problematic to prove, because language and culture are not really separable.68

Conclusively, it is important to point out how one’s beliefs about the “real

world” are largely dependent on cultural language habits of a speech community:

“The fact of the matter is that the “real world” is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the

language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as

representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds,

not merely the same world with different labels attached.”69

Thus, especially in the context of the social realities, which entails beliefs

about how certain things are supposed to be done, the extreme importance of

language and language habits can be seen. These differences in language habits can

clearly lead to different kinds of thinking about the “real world” as one’s notion of

the “real world” is markedly destined by cultural weltanschauungen.

64 EVERETT, Daniel: Don’t Sleep There Are Snakes, p. 254.

65 YULE, George: The Study of Language, p. 248.

66 cf.

MCWHORTER, John: The Language Hoax, p. 35.

67 ROZIN, Paul: Five potential principles for understanding cultural differences in relation to individual differences.

In: Journal of Research in Personality. Edited by Richard Lucas et al. (Vol. 37 No. 4). Melbourne et al.: Elsevier 2003, pp 273-283, p. 274. 68

cf. Appendix I. 69

SAPIR, Edward: The Status of Linguistics as a Science. In: Language. Published by the Linguistic Society of America (Vol. 5 No. 4), pp 207-214, p. 209.

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2.4.5 Perception and Input Processing

A particular issue in the ongoing debate about linguistic relativity is the

impact of language and culture on the way we perceive and interpret sensory input.

A rather radical claim has been put forward by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in

their book “Metaphors We Live By” where they point out that “[...] all experience is

cultural through and through”.70 In terms of categories, the explanation for this

claim runs as follows:

“Each person’s repertoire of categories is the medium through which they filter and perceive the

environment, as they attempt to pinpoint the most central aspects of situations that they come into

contact with.”71

While this observation seems solid, it is probably necessary to make a

distinction for perception between looking and seeing. Looking, in this sense, only

means unstructured light hitting the retina. Seeing however, entails that one

already recognizes structures, which can be labeled, and thus also associated with

concepts and put into certain frames. These frames, by which we understand

reality,72 are defined as the "characteristic features, attributes, and functions of a

denotatum[, which is defined as “an actual object referred to by a linguistic

expression,”73]and its characteristic interactions with things necessarily or typically

associated with it."74

Thus, for example, one understands the “healthcare”-frame through the

concepts of sickness, insurance, doctor, patient, hospital, treatment, etc. Thus, when

one is ill and has insurance one see a doctor, who brings one, as a patient, to the

hospital in order to be treated. In this sense, one understands situations, and the

part one plays in them, through these frames.

70 LAKOFF, George; JOHNSON, Mark: Metaphors We Live By. London: University of Chicago Press 1980., p. 57.

71 HOFSTADTER, Douglas; SANDER, Emmanuel: Surfaces and Essences. Analogy as the Fuel and Fire of Thinking.

New York: Basic Books 2013, p. 130. 72

cf. LAKOFF, George: Idea Framing, Metaphors, and Your Brain. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S_CWBjyIERY [As of 17.02.2016 / Video]. 73

The Free Dictionary: Denotatum. URL: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/denotatum [As of 17.02.2016]. 74

ALLAN, Keith: Natural Language Semanics Oxford: Blackwell Publishers 2001, p. 251.

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So, when one sees something one has already unconsciously categorized and

framed it and passed judgment.75 In this way, perception and immediate experience

have a lot to do with culture, but nonetheless, one has to take into account that

there is a time lag between looking and ordering one’s visual impressions.

2.4.6 Relativism given a Plurality of Languages

An interesting and important question to ask is how relativism works when

one is able to speak several languages as proficiently as their native tongue. In the

book “Multiple Realities of Multilingualism”, which gives personal accounts of

individuals who are able to speak several languages fluently, 76 it is suggested that

such a person uses different conceptual systems sector specifically. Thus, when one

is with one’s maternal family for example, which is of Mexican origin, a different

conceptual system is activated than when one is with one’s paternal family, which is

Chinese.77 In the following I will give an account of my personal experiences of this

phenomenon:

In my own experience, I can clearly see such sector- or domain-specific

tendencies in my use of languages. I speak colloquial German at home, to classmates

and people of my age, although I use more slang with the latter two. I talk in High

German to adults, but Steirisch, the dialect of the Styrian region in Austria, to my

maternal grandparents. I speak English to friends from other countries, but I also use it

for rational argumentation and intellectual subjects, while I use Spanish when I am

emotional. French, Latin and Nepali I all speak too poorly to claim any domain-specific

influence, apart from the situational context of learning the language.

My case is taken to be just one out of millions, if not billions, of speakers who

know at least two languages and use them on a weekly basis.78 However, such

domain-specific use of language is hardly a phenomenon of this modern and

hyperconnected world of the 21st century:

75 cf. FRANCK, Frederick: Zen in der Kunst des Sehens. German Edition. Kreuzlingen: Ariston Verlag 1998, pp. 31.

76 Edited by TODEZVA, Elka; CENOZ, Jasone: The Multiple Realities of Multilingualism. Personal Narratives and

Researchers’ Perspectives. Berlin et al.: De Gruyter 2009. 77

cf. Appendix I. 78

cf. ibid.

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“The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, king of Spain, archduke of Austria, and master of several

European tongues, professed to speaking ’Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and

German to my horse.’"79

In addition, variations of conceptualization exist within a single language as

“[...] people can have many ways within a single conceptual system and a single

language of conceptualizing a domain [...]”,80 But this also occurs within a single

domain:

“It is simply a fact that it is possible for an individual to understand the same domain of experience in

different and inconsistent ways. [...] The fact that [conceptual] systems are not monolithic indicates

that one does not have to look across conceptual systems to find evidence of relativism.”81

2.4.7 Language Transfer

When looking at the plurality of languages another particular interesting

phenomenon is language transfer, which describes how some words are imported

from other languages due to a variety of reasons, such as that there is no word for it

in one’s own language, that it somehow “fits” better or even because it is simply cool

to do so. The word “cool” being a case in point here, being used around the world.82

In the case of German and English, the resulting mixture is colloquially referred to

as “Denglisch”.83 The same phenomenon is true in other languages, as, for example,

the mix of Nepali and English is called “Nenglish”.84 An attempt to explain this

phenomenon in terms of conceptual systems would be that these words are only

isolated borrowed concepts, and because they work within a complete conceptual

system of another language, they function like any other word in the conceptual

system of the language it was borrowed into.

79 DEUTSCHER, Guy: Through the Language Glass, p. 1.

80 LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 317.

81 ibid, p. 335.

82 cf. VisualThesaurus: When “Cool” Got Cool. URL: http://www.visualthesaurus.com/cm/wordroutes/when-cool-

got-cool/ [As of 17.02.2016]. 83

Liechtensteiner Vaterland: Sprechen wir noch Deutsch? URL: http://www.vaterland.li/liechtenstein/vermischtes/Sprechen-wir-noch-Deutsch;art171,154108 [As of 17.02.2016]. 84

RAI, Vishnu: English, Hinglish and Nenglish. URL: https://www.academia.edu/6182717/English_Hinglish_and_Nenglish [As of 17.02.2016], p.1.

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2.5 A Plausible Version of Linguistic Relativity

Arguments and counterarguments for and against relativism have been

explored and the general tendency, also in academic circles, is that linguistic

relativism does exist: However, surely not in any determinist or radical way, nor in

the minimalistic sense described in Section 2.3. Common sense would suggest that

there has to be some kind of middle ground.85 But what exactly is this middle

ground and what principal positions are plausible?

George Lakoff, who is a cognitive linguist, has given a very specific account of

his version of relativism,86 which, when accompanied by the considerations

discussed so far, could lead to a plausible and internally coherent version of

relativism such as the following:

“[P]eople share a general conceptualizing capacity regardless of what

differences they may have in conceptual systems.”87

Conceptualizing the world in different ways has an effect on behavior, as

“the ways we use concepts affects the way we understand experience” 88

and, obviously, how we understand experience influences how we react to

this experience.

Commensurability between conceptual systems should be based on four

criteria: use, framing, organization and understanding.89 The last one

seems always to be the case at least generally as one is generally able to

acquire other conceptual systems, because that would require

understanding.90

85 cf. Appendix I.

86 cf. LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 334-337.

87 ibid, p. 311.

88 ibid, p. 335.

89 cf. ibid, pp. 322.

90 cf. ibid, p. 312.

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A conceptual system corresponds roughly to one language with the

following additions:

o It might be more accurate to say that language is the lowest

common denominator across conceptual systems of individuals who

speak a language and whose actual conceptual system is unique,

akin to an idiolect, which stands for “[...] a person’s specific, unique

way of speaking.”91

o Nevertheless, multilinguals may use different conceptual systems

sector-specifically for different aspects of their lives.

o And, just like there are multiple ways of conceptualization within a

single language, a person can even understand the same domain of

experience in different ways. For example, one can be thinking of

electricity both as a stream and as particles.92

Given these four criteria, variation across different conceptual systems

should be substantial but not radical because there exists a common core

shared by most, if not all, languages.93

These fundamental aspects that all languages have in common include

kinesthetic image schemas, basic-level concepts for things, activities and

states in a person’s immediate experience and fundamental metaphorical

concepts, as will be shown in the second part of this paper. Obviously also

the ability to use language at all, which necessarily entails grammar.

91 Vocabulary.com: Idiolect. URL: https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/idiolect [As of 17.02.2016].

92 cf. LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 305.

93 cf. ibid, p. 311.

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2.6 An Arch from Relatives to Universals

"Every language is different AND [e]very language is the same."94 Paradoxes

like this one, where everything is somehow different and still the same, are

commonplace in anthropology and other areas where one deals with the importance

of the relative and the universal aspects of a certain topic.95 In the field of

linguistics, the case for a strong variation between languages, or more precisely

between conceptual systems, as discussed in Section 2.4.1, has already been made;

however there are certainly also universal aspects to language.96

2.6.1 Universals in Language

The belief in language universals, which can be detected by studying various

grammars in comparison, has first been established in the linguistic community by

Noam Chomsky, who proposed a Universal Grammar, which is fundamental to all

human languages and on the basis of which children learn their native tongue:

"Universal Grammar is understood not only as a characterization of the core

properties of all languages, but also as the initial state of the language faculty."97

Although in recent years the theory was under heavy attack, especially with

respects to first language acquisition,98 many researchers still believe in aspects of

languages that are universal.99 A commonly shared conceptual capacity and a

fundamental common cognitive structure are both a case in point. Finding language

universals, which are generally looked for in particular with reference to the

grammatical aspects of a language, would be a strong argument for the existence of

for such a shared part of cognition.

94 ISAC, Daniela; REISS, Charles: I-Language. An Introduction to Linguistics as a Cognitive Science. 2

nd Edition.

Oxford: Oxford University Press 2013, p. 16. 95

cf. Appendix I. 96

cf. ibid. 97

ISAC, Daniela; REISS, Charles: I-Language, p. 237. 98

cf. EVANS, Vyvyan: Real Talk. URL: https://aeon.co/essays/the-evidence-is-in-there-is-no-language-instinct [As of 17.02.2016]. 99

cf. Appendix I.

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Up to this day, however, there is not much evidence for Universal Grammar

in the languages of the world. Only one has so far been found, and even this one is

not conclusively proven.100

Nonetheless, as pointed out in Sections 2.4 and 2.5, two such universal

aspects would lead to the assumption that it is possible to express anything in any

language and that one is generally able to understand other conceptual systems

respectively.

2.6.2 Idiolect

At the other extreme, variations exist even within a single language, as has

already been hinted at in Section 2.5. After all, "[t]he participants in one language

and one culture are not, of course, cognitively uniform."101 A plausible analogy could

be that, much like every individual is unique by DNA, one is also unique in their

usage of language. Although humans share more than 99% of their DNA, the other

one percent still matters.102 By the same token, one could say that although two

speakers of, for example, German, share 99% of their language usage, the

remaining one percent accounts for an individual personal language.

In more general terms, the argument would go like this:

"A language, for linguists, is a system of representations and rules [... and ...] each language

corresponds to information in a particular mind. Since each person has at least slightly different

experiences of language acquisition, it is not surprising that each ends up with different grammars,

different bodies of information.”103

These minds have been shaped by unique experiences and, consequently,

been exposed to a unique set of words and phrases. Therefore, each speaker of a

language has their own personal quirks and peculiarities of in their language usage,

called idiolect.

100 cf. O’GRADY Cathleen: MIT claims to have found a “language universal” that ties all languages together. A

language universal would bring evidence to Chomsky’s controversial theories. URL: http://arstechnica.com/science/2015/08/mit-claims-to-have-found-a-language-universal-that-ties-all-languages-together/ [As of 17.02.2016]. 101

BROWN, Roger: Words & Things, p. 262. 102

cf. HIGHFIELD, Roger: DNA survey finds all humans are 99.9 pc the same. URL: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1416706/DNA-survey-finds-all-humans-are-99.9pc-the-same.html [As of 17.02.2016]. 103

ISAC, Daniela; REISS, Charles: I-Language, pp. 15.

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2.6.3 Spanning the Arch

Between the extremes of unique idiolects and commonly shared linguistic

universals there is a large middle ground, as indicated in the graphic below. One

such middle level includes subgroups of a language:

"Even within a single language, there is always diversity in the ways it is used. These differences in

usage may be associated with subgroups in the language community (social dialects - e.g. class-

characteristic modes of speech) [...]."104

Taken all together, one might be able to draw a complete hierarchy of

resemblances of conceptual systems that could form an arch connecting both

extremes – the unique and the universal levels – as can also be seen in the graphic

below:

Figure 1: Arch of Linguistic Resemblances105

104 GUMPERZ, John; LEVINSON, Steven: Rethinking Linguistic Relativity. Studies in the Social and Cultural

Foundations of Language. Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press 1996, p. 52. 105

POSSERT, Jakob: Arch of Linguistic Resemblances [own illustration].

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Starting on the left side with the idiolect, which is unique to a single

individual only, one could go on to the speaking habits common to a family and

continue to shared features in the previously-mentioned social dialects of an

economic class, which are in many ways on par with regional dialects and specific

versions of a language commonly bound to a certain area in terms of variation. Only

then can one speak of common features of a standard language, such as English or

German, and then go on to what a standard language has in common with other

standard languages, similar or distantly related. Finally, one would reach the

language universals, which are found in all languages, on the right-hand side of the

arch.

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2.7 Does language equal thought?

Finally, the question which has been set out to answer in the introduction,

can be answered clearly and decisively, as today there exists a consensus that we do

not actually think in language due to a variety of reasons:

“If we did [think in language]: we would not search for the right word to express a thought; we could

not think as preverbal infants; we would not have integrated thought if we were bilingual – and on and

on.”106

Furthermore, empirical evidence has been found that thought concepts and

the words that are used to express these concepts are not directly correlated. A

recent case study, for example, has shown that across languages there exists a

spectrum of words for certain locomotions, which vary greatly in terms of breadth of

category from language to language, as has also been the case for the domain of

forestry, demonstrated in Section 2.2. Participants of the study were shown video-

clips and were supposed to name what the person they were seeing was doing. The

same clips have elicited fourteen words as possible descriptions in English and

eleven in Dutch but only five in Spanish. The Spanish participants, although

naming them in a rather narrow way, have nonetheless certainly been able to make

nuanced distinctions between the locomotions in the same way that as the English

or the Dutch have.

This can be taken as proof that human thought is more tacit than can be

expressed in words, as it leads to the conclusion that "[...] speakers of all the

languages are, in various ways, making many more distinctions among the actions

than those reflected in the conventional names."107

106 KWASNIAK, Janet: Do we think in language? URL: http://charbonniers.org/2013/07/04/do-we-think-in-

language/ [As of 17.02.2016]. 107

Malt, Barbara; Gennari, Silvia et al.: Where Are the Concepts? What Words Can and Can’t Reveal. In: The Conceptual Mind. New Directions in the Study of Concepts. Edited by Eric Margolis; Stephen Laurence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2015, pp 291-326, p. 301.

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3 Structures of the Mind

If we do not think in language, what do we think in instead? Or, to rephrase

the question, if the structure of thought does not equal the grammar of a language,

what could this structure look like? Naturally, it is very difficult to make

statements about how the mind operates, because not only is the conscious part of

the mind difficult to account for, but a lot also happens below the level of

consciousness.108 However, in this part of the paper, a number of theories, studies

and models will be laid out, in order to better understand the workings of the mind.

3.1 The Language of Thought

The popular fallacy that one thinks in one’s mother tongue has been proven

wrong above (in Section 2.7). Instead, many scholars believe that we think in what

is called the “language of thought”. Although there have been others before him who

believed in such a concept, Jerry Fodor was the first to make a strong case for such

a hypothetical language of thought.109 However, it was Steven Pinker who

popularized the idea under the name of mentalese, which is, to him, “[t]he

hypothetical language of thought, or representation of concepts and propositions in

the brain, in which ideas, including the meanings of words and sentences, are

couched.”110

Thus, instead of thinking in German or English, for example, one would be

thinking in a “language” where the substance of one’s thoughts are not words but

something very much like meaning. In this sense, expressing one’s thought only

happens in a natural language.111 However, so many people believe that they think

in words due to their experience of internal speech, also known as subvocalization,

which could be taken as somehow “pre-expressional”.

108 cf. Appendix I.

109 cf. MACNAMARA, John: Linguistic Relatvity. In: The Influence of Language on Culture and Thought. Edited by

Robert Cooper; Bernard Spolsky. Berlin et al.: De Gruyter 1991, pp. 48. 110

PINKER, Steven: The Language Instinct, p. 509. 111

cf. Appendix I.

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3.1.1 Does Language Limit Thought?

With this information, it is possible to conclude that one’s language does not

limit thought or, more precisely, that a language limits thinking only in the sense of

how all languages limit thinking, as has been pointed out in Section 2.4.2. In this

sense, it might be true that one is more prone to think in the categories of one’s

language; but just because one is more prone to it does not mean that one cannot

think beyond these categories at all. The notion that thought could be constrained

by language is only viable if language equals thought; but, as has just been shown,

this is not the case.

Rather, as pointed out in the previous section, thinking operates in

mentalese; and thus, it seems likely that the constraints experienced in connection

to language stem from the natural languages in which one expresses oneself, not

from thought itself. It could arguably be stated, therefore, that language does not

limit thinking, but rather that it limits expression, or at least that it is a crude

facilitator of expression, because it is not able to capture the richness of the texture

of thought.112

3.1.2 Proof for Mentalese

Although the notion of a language of thought seems to be highly

counterintuitive, there is a lot of common sense proof for such a hypothesis:

“We have all had the experience of uttering or writing the sentence, then stopping and realizing that it

wasn’t exactly what we meant to say. To have that feeling, there has to be a “what we meant to say”

that is different from what we said. [...] When we hear or read, we usually remember the gist, not the

exact words, so there has to be such a thing as a gist that is not the same as a bunch of words. ”113

The “tip of the tongue”-phenomenon is another common sense proof of this

kind. This is the feeling when one is lacking the words to express a thought; but in

order for this to be possible, thought has to be something different than its

expression in the form of words.114

112 cf. CHOMSKY, Noam: Grammar, Mind and Body. A Personal View. URL:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMQS3klG3N0 [As of 17.02.2016 / Video]. 113

PINKER, Steven: The Language Instinct, p. 57. 114

cf. Appendix I.

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Furthermore, there is no ambiguity or double-meaning in the world of

thought, of which there is plenty in spoken language. It is only by putting thought

into words that misunderstandings arise; they do not exist in the mind.115 This

suggests that a characteristic of mentalese is unequivocalness.

3.1.3 A Synthesis of Relativism and Mentalese

Notably, linguistic relativity and mentalese have often been taken as being

mutually exclusive. Pinker and many other linguists have taken the existence of a

language of thought as proof that there can be no linguistic relativity.116 Likewise,

scholars who are strong advocates of linguistic relativity are at least reluctant to

admit a language of thought.117

As there exists strong evidence for both of these hypotheses, it seems

reasonable to think that there exists a framework where both may find their place.

However, this new framework might not include the exact implications that Fodor

originally suggested, which are, for example, that a large number of concepts in the

human mind are innate, which is “[...] manifestly false.”118

By accepting that both of these positions are true, one also has to assume

that the language of thought is not independent of the language used in a particular

situation by the individual.119 Thus, it is suggested that there exist variations of

mentalese, even within an individual, as has been shown for bilinguals120 and as is

suggested by the non-monolithic nature of conceptual systems described in Section

2.4.6. Therefore, it is suggested that when thinking, and thus using mentalese, one

adopts a conceptual system of thought at the exclusion of others, as described in the

same Section (2.4.6).

115 cf. MISHLOVE, Jeffrey; PINKER, Steven: Language and Consciousness Part I. Are Thought constrained by language. URL: http://www.williamjames.com/transcripts/pinker1.htm [As of 17.02.2016]. 116cf. PINKER, Steven: The Language Instinct, pp. 58. 117 cf. Appendix I. 118 KAYE, Larry: The Language of Thought. URL: http://host.uniroma3.it/progetti/kant/field/lot.html [As of 17.02.2016]. 119 cf. KAYE, Larry: The Language of Thought. 120 cf. Edited by TODEZVA, Elka; CENOZ, Jasone: The Multiple Realities of Multilingualism.

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3.2 Means of Mentalese

The next important question to ask addresses the nature of the objects of

thought in mentalese. Are they simply word-like concepts or are they more like

images or even sounds? Pinker himself believes that “[...] we think in visual images,

we think in auditory images, we think in abstract propositions about what is true

about what.”121

Thus, the idea is that there is not just one kind of material used in thought,

but that there are several. Parallels to this kind of theory might be seen in theories

of kinds of intelligences, of which humans allegedly have several.122

Mentalese might be seen as a way of unifying different kinds of thinking into

one, which would obviously be of huge evolutionary advantage, as the combination

of thinking processes enables one to take into account several kinds of information

and cognitive functions. This unifying aspect is thought to be something different

than what can be observed however:

“Our cognition works so fast because the process of world-learning implies different structures than

linguistic ones. They are epistemic, so mentalese as a fundamental means of our thinking works in a

different way than operating symbols or representations.”123

Thus, it might be possible to claim that various kinds of thought are only

manifestations of one central kind of thought, which is of a different quality

altogether, as will be suggested in Section 3.3.

3.2.1 Visual Thinking

Humans have a large imaginative capacity, which is largely visual; in fact,

the word “imagine” literally means “to form a mental picture or image”.124 This

mental image is thought to be the mental representation of the physical world

exterior to a person125 and is derived from memory.

121 cf. MISHLOVE, Jeffrey; PINKER, Steven: Language and Consciousness Part I.

122 cf. GARDNER, Howard: Intelligenzen. Die Vielfalt des menschlichen Geistes. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta 2008, p. 59.

123 PRZYWARA, Pawel: Thinking about Mentalese. In: Studia Humana. Edited by Jan Woleński (Vol. 2 No. 2). Berlin

et al.: De Gruyter 2013, pp 49-53, p. 52. 124

The Free Dictionary: Imagine. URL: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/imagine [As of 17.02.2016]. 125

cf. EYSENECK, Michael: Fundamentals of Cognition. 2nd

Edition. New York: Psychology Press 2011, pp. 53.

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However, modern image theory suggests that there is something more

abstract than concrete mental pictures, which has more to do with a concept than

with a photograph. Kant, who was the first to explore such an idea in depth, called

it a schema. The term, known as scheme in its abbreviated version, has diverged

considerably from its original meaning in popular usage. Originally, it referred to a

kind of quasi-image that is inside one’s head and is related to, or stands for, a

category or concept.126 In contemporary literature schemata are described in the

following way:

“ [... I]mage schemata are not rich, concrete images or mental pictures [...]. They are structures that

organize our mental representations at a level more general and abstract than that at which we form

particular mental images. [... And t]here is a growing body of experimental evidence in support for the

thesis that there is a distinctive image-schematic level of cognitive processing that must be

distinguished from rich images or mental picturing.”127

In the same line of thought, it has been suggested that coding of information

is “both abstract and concrete”128. Thus, when one is memorizing faces for example,

one does so both for a particular face, as well as for a generic one. In the graphic

below one can see what such a difference could look like in the schematization of a

face:

Figure 2: Schema and Concrete Picture side by side129

On the left can be seen the approximation of an image-schemata, which,

although consisting only of four ovals, can be recognized as a face. An example with

concrete and rich features is shown on the right hand side.

126 cf. KANT, Immanuel; edited by HARTENSTEIN, Gustav: Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Leipzig: Leopold Voss 1868,

pp. 143. 127

JOHNSON, Mark: The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reasoning. Paperback Edition. Chicago et al.: University of Chicago Press 1990, p. 24. 128

HOFSTADTER, Douglas; SANDER, Emmanuel: Surfaces and Essences, p. 158. 129

POSSERT, Jakob: Schema & Concrete Picture side by side [own illustration].

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3.2.2 An Introspective Account of Thought

Obviously visual imagination is an important part of thinking. Some radical

proponents like Titchener have even claimed that all thought is visual, which he

based on observations of his own mind. This process is called introspection130 and is

“idiosyncratic”,131 thus producing varying results from person to person. This

unique mental vocabulary, which is akin to a person’s idiolect, again suggests the

importance of individual experience for one’s personal conceptual system.

In the following paragraphs, I will give my personal account of the

introspective nature of thought as images. I will readily admit that I have not been

professionally trained to do so; but nonetheless, I believe that such an account of

mental vocabulary, visual or otherwise, could be of value here:

Words are often linked to images as Titchener famously observed. In my case,

the word-picture link is particularly true for nouns – and not only concretely observable

ones like car or tree, but also for abstract ones such as democracy or decay. The

former, which are isolated and visually observable, I experience schematically, whereas

the latter, which are more complex and without concrete visual reference, I normally

experience as images, but in a constellation form. So democracy would be, to me, a

somewhat vague circle of people with a ballot box in the middle. But these nouns may

also be a short film or rather a series of pictures, one after another. I see decay, for

example, as a building whose walls lose bricks from frame to frame until, finally, it looks

like a barren ruin.

130 cf. ARNHEIM, Rudolf: Visual Thinking. 35

th Anniversary Ed.. London: University of California Press 1997, pp. 107.

131 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Edward B. Titchener. The Complete Iconophile. URL:

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-imagery/edward-titchener.html [As of 17.02.2016].

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Verbs, in my observation, are often linked to gestures or a mini-film. To me, the

word to grasp, for example, is symbolized by a hand that is starting to close around

something that I cannot make out yet, as it is beyond my visual field. At the same time, I

imagine my hand actually grasping for something. Again, more complex ones are

different in nature and I often see metaphors being used. To interrogate, for example, is

a short movie, where I can see and feel myself shoving a microphone towards the face

of a mildly intimidated person, who shrinks back in an attempt to evade the questions.

Adjectives appear to me to always be comparative. So, I would experience two

unidentified objects with one in the fore- and one in the background, whereby the one in

the foreground would have somehow more of the particular feature meant by the word.

Thus, for example, the object in the foreground would be taller or darker than the one in

the back. With certain adjectives, I observe some kind of “special effect”, so when I think

of important, for example, the object has an exclamation mark next to it and is radiating

energy, which I see as rays of light emerging from the center.

Linking words to me are again represented visually by these two unidentified

objects. So, for example, the word but is represented by the second object replacing the

first one and moving into the center of attention. Similarly, then feels like a slow

movement of these two objects passing by, like boats on a slow river, which go by one

after the other.

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Very basic words appear to me as placed within a void, and in this void there are

featureless objects. To be, is an object radiating rays of unidentified color, and one

cannot really be sure whether it is a ball or a cube. Meanwhile, in the background there

is “nothingness”, represented by black intertwined with mist.

Less straightforward concepts I usually picture in an appropriate exemplary

situation, which is blurred beyond what is essential to the concept. Thus fair, as in

beautiful, would be a smiling female face with unclear features slowly moving away in

one direction, with something resembling long hair trailing behind it. For the European

Union I see the map of Europe with all the member states highlighted and a focus on

central Europe. The short film is slowly zooming in, and the political buildings in

Brussels appear flickeringly in rough shapes.

Overall, these images, mini-films and even gestures are not experienced as

something static or unchangeable but rather as something fluid and moldable. However,

I have to mention that I do not experience words in this way all the time, but only when I

focus my attention on them very concentratedly. Usually, I do not think of one word

alone, but instead of ideas or whole sentences. Nevertheless, I feel that these

visualizations are just beneath the level of consciousness and are constantly

influencing, or even constituting, part of my thinking. In addition, these mental

associations of visual or kinesthetic nature are not always the same, especially not over

the course of various months or years; presumably because I constantly add new facets

and connotations to these concepts through experience.

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Introspective evidence is no proof that all thought is visual and/or kinesthetic

however, as it is clear that “[…] there is much more representation than just

occurrent thought,”132 which is the only thing that introspection might account for.

Nevertheless, introspection shows how concepts can be, and maybe on a

subconscious level constantly are, visualized. This might be referred to as

subvisualization, or internal imaging analogous to internal speech.

3.3 Concepts and Categories

In the course of this paper, a lot has been said about concepts and

conceptualization; the following section will finally attempt to define what a concept

actually is and how it operates. For this, Kant’s assumption, which is that

categories are pure concepts,133 is important, because it shows how any remark

about “category” is simultaneously a remark about “concept”.

One might start by assuming that, just like a conceptual system roughly

correlates to a language, a single concept roughly correlates to a single word.

However, concepts do not equal words, nor do they equal images. Rather, scholars

have suggested that “[c]onceptual thought [...] occurs in its own proprietary inner

code, not in images or words.”134

This description suggests that there are certain entities, consisting of the

most fundamental substance of thought, to which words and sensory images –

which include not just visual ones but also auditory, olfactory and kinesthetic ones,

as well as “images of how forces act upon us”135 – are attached. In the sense that

these attached elements are both abstract and concrete, they would not only be

associated with these schematic images, but also with personal experiences and rich

mental pictures. This code, which constitutes the core aspects of thought, does not

manifest itself in conscious thought, but rather through subvocalization and

introspective accounts of visual thought, among other forms.

132 cf. KAYE, Larry: The Language of Thought. 133

cf. KANT, Immanuel; edited by HARTENSTEIN, Gustav: Kritik der reinen Vernunft., p. 131. 134

WEISKOPF, Daniel: Words, Images and Concepts. In: Analysis Edited by Michael Clark (Vol. 75 No. 1). Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015, pp 99-109, p. 99. 135

LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 444.

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3.3.1 Analogy

In their book “Surfaces and Essences”, Douglas Hofstadter and Immanuel

Sander explain how categories are not only formed by analogy, but also how they

are nothing but analogy.136 They understand a category in the following way:

“[A] category is a mental structure that is created over time and that evolves, sometimes slowly and

sometimes quickly, and that contains information in an organized form, allowing access to it under

suitable conditions.”137

The ability to make analogies between certain situations is what lets this

category evolve and expand; it is only thanks to analogy that humans can think in

the way they do. After all, intelligence is considered the ability to make predictions

about the future,138 which would be impossible if humans were not able to make

abstractions about their past experiences and subsequently, to make analogous

conclusions from them to foresee future events and how they should react to them.

3.3.2 Metaphor

Linguist George Lakoff completely agrees to the claim that analogy is at the

core of our thinking: According to him, especially the most prominent examples of

analogies, metaphors, are vital to one’s understanding of the world and to the

workings of the mind. Metaphor is what makes abstract thought concrete.

Lakoff points out, that there are certain metaphors which pervade our

thinking and, in so doing, lead us to take certain actions.139 Prominent examples of

this claim are “Argument is War” or “Time is Money”140; but more important are

certain fundamentals such as “Up-Down” specialization metaphors, which bring

forth phrases such as “More is Up” and “Less is Down”. Saying “More is Down” or

“Less is Up” does not sound right, as it is not coherent with these specializations. 141

136 cf. HOFSTADTER, Douglas; SANDER, Emmanuel: Surfaces and Essences, pp. 463.

137 ibid, p. 24.

138 cf. HAWKINS, Jeff: How brains science will change computing. URL:

https://www.ted.com/talks/jeff_hawkins_on_how_brain_science_will_change_computing [As of 17.02.2016 / Video]. 139

cf. LAKOFF, George; JOHNSON, Mark: Metaphors We Live By, p. 55. 140

cf. ibid, pp. 4. 141

cf. ibid, pp. 22.

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3.3.3 Categories without Words

Given that humans think by analogy and that they survey their environment

unconsciously, constantly and effortlessly making analogies and forming

categories,142 it is not surprising that there are many categories we do not have a

name for. Philosopher Nassim Taleb expresses this when he states that

“[t]here are many things without words, matters that we know and can act on but cannot describe

directly, cannot capture in human language or within the narrow human concepts that are available to

us.”143

Kant also mentioned that sometimes we lack an expression fitting a certain

notion.144 Especially small nuances in meaning are very hard to capture in words

and sometimes go even beyond the largest personal thesaurus.

The best studied phenomenon of such categories without words are so called

ad hoc categories. It has been stated that in general, "[p]eople construct ad hoc

categories to achieve goals.”145 For example, they may make up a category for

“something to stand on in order to change the lightbulbs” or for “something to kill a

spider with”. It is supposed that most, if not all categories have been an “ad hoc

category” at one time in one’s life, as “[...] any category, abstract or concrete, is

launched by a first experience and then builds up gradually, as, over one’s life, one

runs into various analogous entities.”146 Thus, through frequent usage, the category

becomes established, as described in Section 2.4.3

This is also the answer to the question of whether it is possible to think

something without having a word for it: Of course, humans do it all the time. If

there is no word for something and this concept is needed for thinking, the category

is simply invented in the mind. However, as suggested by the conscious-attention

principle formulated in Section 2.4.2, it is far more difficult to deal with wordless

concepts because one is not able to relate to them as easily.

142 cf. HOFSTADTER, Douglas: Analogy as the Core of Cognition. URL:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n8m7lFQ3njk [As of 17.02.2016 / Video]. 143

TALEB, Nassim: Antifragile. Things that Gain from Disorder London: Penguin Books 2012, p. 301. 144

cf. KANT, Immanuel; edited by HARTENSTEIN, Gustav: Kritik der reinen Vernunft., p. 255. 145

BARASLOU, Lawrence: Ad hoc categories. In: Memory & Cognition. Edited by Robert Greene (Vol. 11 No. 3). Heidelberg et al.: Springer 1983, pp 211 – 227, p. 211. 146

HOFSTADTER, Douglas; SANDER, Emmanuel: Surfaces and Essences, p. 472.

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3.3.4 Characteristics a Category

An ad hoc category, like every other category, has certain traits. The most

important of these traits, which have given us important clues as to how the mind

works and were even able to shake the pillars of objectivism,147 are listed here:

Categories possess “Graded Structure”, which means that:

o Some things are better examples of a category than others, also

referred to as the prototype effect.148 For example “raven” is a

better example for “bird” than is “penguin”.

o And non-members of a category also have varying degrees of

similarity. For example,"[...] ‘bat’ takes longer to reject as a member

of ‘birds’ than does "chair’.”149

Furthermore, Family Resemblances is “[t]he idea that members of a

category may be related to one another without all members having any

properties in common that define that category.”150

In addition, there are “Basic Level Categories”, which is

“[t]he idea that categories are not merely organized in a hierarchy from the most general to the most

specific, but are also organized so that the categories that are cognitively basic are “in the middle” of a

general specific hierarchy.”151

o A good example would be that “dog” comes easiest to mind in its

taxonomic hierarchy, where on the superordinate level it would be

”animal”, on the basic level it would be ”dog” and on the

subordinate level it would be, for example, “Retriever”.152

And finally, categories are embodied, which means that they are based on

bodily experience.

147 cf. LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 265.

148 cf. ibid, p. 56.

149 cf. BARASLOU, Lawrence: Ad hoc categories, p. 211.

150 LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 12.

151 ibid, p. 13.

152 cf. ibid, p. 46.

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These are all vital algorithms of how categories are organized and how they

operate, which is so important because “[t]here is nothing more basic than

categorization to our thought, perception, action and speech.”153

3.3.5 Experientialism

Based on the notion that categories are embodied, a whole new ontological

philosophy has come into existence, which is referred to as experientialism.154 the

last characteristic outlined in the previous section, that categories are embodied, a

whole new ontological philosophy has come into existence, which is referred to as

experientialism.155 It was formulated in opposition to objectivism, which claims that

categories and logic exist outside of the human mind. Experientialists claim that

categories, and thus, thought overall, are embodied and imaginative, which means,

among other things, that they employ metaphor and mental imagery.

In the parlance of conceptual systems this means that:

“[...] the structures used to put together our conceptual system grow out of bodily experience and

make sense in terms of it; moreover, the core of our conceptual systems is directly grounded in

perception, body movement, and experience of a physical and social character.”156

However, that is not to say that all thoughts are subjective and everything

can be taken to be somewhat true. Experientialism and objectivism share a common

ground, called basic realism, which demands, among other aspects, the following:

- “a commitment to the existence of a real world, both external to human beings and

including the reality of human experience

- a link of some sort between human conceptual systems and other aspects of reality […]

- a commitment to the existence of stable knowledge of the external world

- a rejection of the view that “anything goes” - that any conceptual system is as good as

any other.”157

153 LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 5.

154 cf. ibid, p. xv.

155 cf. ibid, p. xv.

156 ibid, p. xiv.

157 ibid, p.158 .

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3.4 Foundations of Thinking

After accepting that categories are the vehicles of thought, there still remains

the question of the framework in which they work. In this paper, the assumption

that somehow humans think in language has been rejected, and instead, a

“language of thought” has taken its place. And although it might be misleading to

think of mentalese as a system that is similar to an actual “language”,158 there are

nonetheless many clues that language plays an important part in the fundamental

aspects of human thought.

Overall, the importance of language in thought, not just in relative terms, but

for all of human thinking, is not seriously questioned by anyone. However, some,

like Noam Chomsky – who believes that language enables logic, as it is embedded

into language at a very deep level – go further to suggest that the purpose of

language far exceeds the capability of communication. Instead, language has

supposedly evolved as a complex reasoning framework that made it possible for

human beings to cognitively function in the way they do, including the ability to

think rationally.159 Previously, Von Humboldt already thought of language as the

“formative organ” and “necessary condition” of human thought160 and also stated,

much like Chomsky, that the purpose of language goes beyond communication:

“The bringing-forth of language is an inner need of human beings, not merely an external necessity

for maintaining communal intercourse, but a thing lying in their own nature, indispensable for the

development of their mental powers and the attainment of a worldview [...].” 161

It is safe to assume, then, that the common cognitive structure, introduced in

section 2.3.2, is in part made up of universal components of language, which, to a to

large extent, resemble Chomsky’s Universal Grammar.

158 cf. BRADDON-MITCHELL, David; FITZPATRICK, John: Explanation and the Language of Thought. In: Synthese.

Edited by Otávio Bueno et al. (Vol. 83) Heidelberg et al.: Springer 1990, pp 3-29, p. 4. 159

cf. CHOMSKY, Noam: Language and Thougth. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEmpRtj34xg [As of 17.02.2016 / Video]. 160

cf. VON HUMBOLDT, Wilhelm; Edited by LOSONSKY, Michael: On Language, p. xvi. 161

ibid, p. 27.

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3.4.1 Without Language

The previous claims about the importance of language for thinking are

further reinforced by the demonstrated extreme effects that a lack of representation

has beyond the difficulty of communication. There is the case of two men, for

example, who were deaf and remained without sign language until early adulthood

but then learned to sign and were able to recount the time before they had

language. The first one,"[...] Desloges, though obviously a highly gifted man, could

scarcely entertain "ideas", or engage in "logical discourse", until he had acquired

sign language."162 Similarly, Ildefonso, the other deaf-mute, who had not learned to

sign by the age of adulthood, related to the time before he had language as the

“dark time” of his mind.163 It has been suggested that these accounts of people

without language are explained by the fact that

“[h]uman thought, for the majority, is not simply the individual outcome of our evolved neural

architecture, but also the result of our borrowing of the immense symbolic and intellectual resources

available in language.” 164

Thus, there seems to exist a core property of grammar that is fundamental to

rich rational thought, and which might be universal to all human beings in its

capacity to bring forth such thought.

162 SACKS, Oliver: Vintage Sacks. New York et al.: Random House 2004, p. 90.

163 cf. Radiolab: New Words, New World. URL: http://www.radiolab.org/story/91730-new-words-new-world/ [As

of 17.02.2016 / Podcast]. 164

DOWNEY, Greg; LENDE, Daniel: Life without language. URL: http://neuroanthropology.net/2010/07/21/life-without-language/ [As of 17.02.2016].

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3.4.2 Language and Meaning

Apart from the grammatical structures that are inherent in language, it is

suggested that there is another property that is vital for rational thought: “Inner

speech [or mentalese in this context, which] is to a large extent thinking in pure

meanings.”165

It is natural therefore to suppose that having a lot of these pure meanings

enriches thought in considerable ways: “Since intellectual life depends on

possession of a store of meanings, the importance of language as a tool of preserving

meanings cannot be overstated.” 166

In this sense, words are of considerable importance for thinking, because

although they may often not be very nuanced or pinpoint an exact meaning, one’s

knowledge of the existence and meaning of a word facilitates the use of this

meaning in thought, as suggested in Section 2.4.2. Along these lines, “[p]utting

things into writing or speech helps us to organize and clarify our thoughts.”167

3.5 Unconscious

As mentioned at the beginning of this part of the paper, it is very difficult to

make statements about the structure of the mind and one should be very cautious

to do so only with great certainty. There are doubtlessly areas one is not able to

penetrate in any way. Indeed, Noam Chomsky makes it very clear that a prime

error when thinking about the way cognition works, is to assume that all of the

mechanisms of the mind that are there have to be consciously experienceable.168

However, there are several plausible claims one can make, especially about

categories of thought, as explained in Section 3.3.

165 VYGOTSKY, Lev; Edited by KOZULIN, Alex et al.: Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA et al.: MIT Press 2012, p.

264. 166

DEWEY, John: How We Think. Boston: D.C. Heath 1910, p. 174. 167

. SCHUH, Russell: Reply to Boroditsky “How Language Shapes Thought”, p. 2. 168

cf. CHOMSKY, Noam: Grammar, Mind and Body. A Personal View.

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Just to illustrate how resourceful the unconscious actually is relative to the

conscious part of our mind, here is a table that lists the different sense organs,

contrasting the total amount of information that is processed unconsciously with

the part we are actually consciously aware of:

Table 2: Total relative to Conscious Perception169

In the case of our visual organs, the discrepancy between the total range of

perception and the conscious one is more than five orders of magnitude, while for

our skin it is even more than six. Overall, one can see that senses can detect far

more impulses than can be consciously perceived.

The unconscious mind is not only receptive, however. Vast parts of

conversations are unconsciously processed, both verbally – in terms of the words

and also the tone one uses – and nonverbally – via gesturing or other physical

activity.170 It has also been found that “[h]alf of our decision-making seems to be

predicted by th[e non-linguistic] unconscious channel.”171

169 cf. ZIMMERMANN, Manfred: Das Nervensystem. Nachrichtentechnisch gesehen. IN: Physiologie des Menschen.

Edited by Robert Schmidt; Gerhard Thews. Berlin: Springer 1993, pp 176-183, p. 182. [own illustration]. 170

cf. CHANDLER, David: Tuning in to unconscious communication. MIT researchers discover clues in conversation. URL: http://news.mit.edu/2008/signals-1021 [As of 17.02.2016]. 171

ibid.

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3.5.1 The Layers of Consciousness

When attempting to understand this issue, the iceberg-model – in particular

the way in which Freud has used this metaphor – comes readily to mind, and also

seems to be a very useful approach to thinking about the workings of the mind.172

Most theories of the unconscious which use this model split the mind up into three

parts, as can also be seen in figure 3 below. These three parts are:

Things that are conscious, include those which one is directly aware of

in the present moment: “The conscious mind includes everything that

is inside of our awareness. The contents of the conscious mind are the

things we are aware of or can easily bring into awareness.”173

Things that are subconscious include those one is usually not aware of

but could be. On the one hand, one is able to observe in several active

ways, although in varying degrees of clarity and directness, the content

of the subconscious: imagination, remembering and introspection. On

the other hand, subvocalization and subvisualization also arise from

the subconscious. These two, however, are emergent, that is, they come

into consciousness without active effort. They are the murmurings of

the mind, which can only be heard if one pays attention to them.174

Things that are unconscious cannot be penetrated. Here we find

forgotten or repressed memories, but also deep motivations and

desires.175 Also, it is here that the actual mechanisms of the brain are

located, which are taken to be largely universal. Beyond a certain part

that scientists claim to know about, there is also a large part about

which nothing, or only very little, is known.176

172cf. MISHLOVE, Jeffrey; PINKER, Steven: Language and Consciousness Part I.

173 CHERRY, Kendra: What is Psychoanalysis? The Psychoanalytic Approach to Psychology. URL:

http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/psychodynamic.htm [As of 17.02.2016]. 174

cf. MISHLOVE, Jeffrey; PINKER, Steven: Language and Consciousness Part I. 175

cf. CHERRY, Kendra: What is Psychoanalysis? 176

cf. CORSINI, Raymond; WEDDING, Danny; edited by SCHREIBER, Linda et al.: Current Psychotherapies. 9th

Edition. New York et al.: Brooks/Cole 2010, p. 24.

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Figure 3: Iceberg Model of Freud177

A lot of what has been discussed in the first part of this paper revolves

around the subconscious, or things that we normally do not pay attention to, but

could, such as how the gender of an object can influence the way we think about it

(see Section 2.2.1) or what a specific language forces one to say (see Section 2.4.2).

However, the second part of this paper is more concerned with categories,

which are all supposed to be in the unconscious. This includes not only those parts

of categories that are universal, and thus part of the common cognitive structure, as

discussed in Section 2.3.2, but also specific conceptual systems, as one can safely

assume that “[m]uch of our conceptual system is used unconsciously and

automatically, in ways that we don’t even notice.”178

177 cf. CHERRY, Kendra: What is Psychoanalysis? [own illustration].

178 LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, p. 337.

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3.6 A Model of Conceptual Thought

It is astounding that in all these years of cognitive and neuroscience there

has not yet been developed a generally accepted theory of how the mind works,

which can account for the various phenomena for which empirical evidence has been

found.179 However, this is with good reason; it is a daring proposition to devise a

comprehensive model of thought and there is little doubt that anyone who tries will

be wrong in certain aspects.

Nonetheless, in the following sections, such a comprehensive model will be

formulated which is coherent with all of the theories and assumptions laid out in

this paper. As a word of caution: the concrete interactions and transitions between

the separate entities is largely, if not completely, speculative. Furthermore, because

this is a model of conceptual thought, emotions, motivations and other important,

but non-conceptual aspects of thought are not included. An illustration of the model

can be found at the end of this chapter.

3.6.1 In Isolation

At the close of Section 3.6.3, one can see the model, which is rater complex, as

any comprehensive model of the mind is destined to be. To better explain this

model, the elements, in isolation and with reference to where they have been

touched upon in this paper, will be explained first.

The model is based on the iceberg-model and can be split up into the

conscious, subconscious and unconscious parts (3.5.1). The various elements are

further separated by a distinction of the aspects of thought that are universal, thus

part of a common cognitive structure (2.3.2), and individual, as suggested by

linguistic relativity (2). At the bottom of the model is a portion symbolizing that

there are even more aspects of thought that we do not know about (3.5), referred to

here as “unknown unconscious mind”.

179 cf. HAWKINS, Jeff: How brains science will change computing.

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On the right hand side, language is placed with its universal parts, including

Universal Grammar (2.6.1), on the bottom and the vocabulary of a natural language

on the top. Apart from language, the unconscious is made up of the mechanisms of

categories. The characteristics of categories include not only that they are embodied

and possess a graded structure (3.3.4), but also that they share a mental code (3.3)

with language in the form of Universal Grammar. Another completely unconscious

part of the mind is the operation of categories, which includes detection or seeing

something (2.4.5), making analogies (3.3.1) and further processes. The organization

of categories is the final part in this model of the mind, which is universal in terms

of a conceptual capacity to form conceptual systems (2.4.1). These components all

share a common core (2.5), but are individual to every person and are used

depending on specific domains or situations (2.4.6). Finally, the model also shows

parts of memory which are located in the unconscious, such as deep memories –

those which are forgotten or repressed (3.5.1) – and abstract image-schemata

(3.2.1).

The subconscious mind is comprised of memories, which are both concrete

(3.2.1) and abstract images of visual, auditory, kinesthetic and other sensory

impressions (3.3). Mentalese is the language of thought in which one thinks (3.1)

and its means are abstract images and schemata (3.2). It emerges to the conscious

mind in the forms of subvocalization (3.1) and subvisualization (3.2.2), when

constant attention is paid (2.4.2). However, by introspection (3.2.2), imagination

and remembering one is also able to take a look at parts of the subconscious –

though one does so actively via a searching process (3.5.1). In this sense, the

conscious part of the mind is a mental space, which is filled with whatever one’s

attention is focused on at the moment (3.5.1). This conscious part has both active

and receptive aspects; however, there is no link between the two, as the process

takes place in the subconscious or the unconscious, but not in the mental space of

attention itself.

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3.6.2 In Process

In the following section, the process of how impressions lead to expressions,

or how the mind interacts with the outside world, will be discussed, using the

elements described in the previous section.

When an impression is first created, it might be recognized by the conscious

part of our brain, although the vast majority of sensory input is not (3.5). If it is

paid attention to by the conscious part of the mind, it will not be understood directly

but only experienced: in other words, one has only looked on it but not seen it

(2.4.5). These experiences will be stored as uncategorized memories.

Categorization – the actual processing – takes place in the unconscious,

where the impression is first detected and recognized, or seen (2.4.5), and then, by

analogy, compared to schemas of previous experiences of this impression (3.3.1).

After further processing, which includes assigning a frame (2.4.5), this impression

will be passed into memory, structuring the conscious experiences of before and

creating or reinforcing images and schemas (3.2.1). Within a conceptual system,

which is applied at the exclusion of other systems (2.4.6), the processed impression

will be pondered in mentalese (3.1) by means of sensory images (3.3) and schemata

(3.2.1). These ponderings will, on the one hand, emerge to the conscious part of the

mind through subvocalization (3.1) and subvisualization (3.2.2), which are based on

mental vocabulary, where they will lead to actively intended expression; on the

other hand, they will lead to unconscious and unintended expression (3.5). This

process unconsciously occurs constantly many times a second (3.5).

Finally, there is one last important process in this model, which, as already

stated in the previous section, is the possible interaction between the conscious and

subconscious mind through introspection (3.2.2), imagination or remembering.

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3.6.3 A Fictional Account: On Vacation

In order to further clarify what such a possible mental procedure could look

like when employed in the “real world”, the situation of “checking into a hotel” will

be given as an example. The fictional account is written from a hypothetical first-

person perspective:

I, husband and father of two little children, am arriving as a tourist with my family

at a hotel in Spain, whose language I speak natively like German, having been raised

bilingually. Standing in front of the entrance, which I have recognized unconsciously as

such by first making out the contours of the objects and then by analogies of other

entrances I have seen in my life, I enter, moving by subconsciously putting one foot in

front of another, to the hotel reception, the table of which I have again recognized by

analogy and which I, as a hotel guest, now interpret as serving the purpose of reception.

Until now, I have spoken to my family in German; but now, the lady at the

reception is addressing me in Spanish. I hear the sentence and single out the words in it

by analogies of instances in which I have heard similar tone frequencies in this order. I

switch to my conceptual system of Spanish and think in my language of thought by

using visual and auditory images from my memory. What I think comes to my conscious

mind in the form of murmuring and I tell the receptionist what I have just subvocalized

through my mental vocabulary. In the meantime, I have also communicated

subconsciously via my posture, gestures and intentions, and am, simultaneously,

constantly taking in many million units of sensory data.

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Having completed checking-in this way, I accompany my family up to our rooms,

which I am already subvisualizing based on the receptionist’s description. By now, I

have already switched to the conceptual system of German again and my kids are

excitedly telling me what a nice time we will have at the beach, which triggers both

memories of other vacations and my imagination of what will happen in the beautiful six

days ahead of us.

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Possert, Thinking in and beyond Language 54

Figure 4: Model of Conceptual Thought180

180 POSSERT, Jakob: Model of Conceptual Thought [own illustration].

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4 Conclusion

The first part of this paper concerned itself with the relation of language and

thought and the question of if and how language determines, influences, equals or

limits thought. It has been concluded that language neither determines nor is

equivalent to thought for obvious reasons, such as language change and language

learning. Furthermore, it was determined that language does not limit thought, but

if anything it is a strain on the expression of thought, and that a plausible version

of linguistic relativity can be formulated.

The second part of this paper has aimed to explore how the mind brings forth

conceptual thought and how conceptual thought operates. A range of topics has

been touched upon to investigate the matter, from which a coherent model of

conceptual thought has been proposed.

The research for this paper has shown that humans think in concepts, which

have a variety of properties: Firstly, they are organized in conceptual systems,

which stem from a universal conceptualizing capacity and are markedly influenced

by language. Secondly, concepts are formed by analogy and are recognized by the

same mechanism. Thirdly, concepts have certain characteristics, the most

important of which is that they are embodied. Fourthly, concepts seem to have an

inner code to which sensory images and memories in general are attached. Fifthly,

these concepts are embedded in a language of thought and grounded in linguistic

foundations in order to bring forth structured conceptual thought. And finally, the

conscious part of our mind is only a tiny fraction of its actual resourcefulness and it

is very difficult to make exact statements about the sub- and unconscious part of

the human mind. It was, however, possible to lay out a comprehensive of conceptual

thought at the end of the paper.

Taken together, the research presented in this paper suggests that language

is indeed a key gateway to the human mind, but also that language alone is not

enough to explain its workings.

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5 Index of Sources

5.1 Monografies

AHEARN, Laura: Living Language. An introduction to linguistic anthropology. Oxford: Wiley-

Blackwell 2012.

ALLAN, Keith: Natural Language Semantics Oxford: Blackwell Publishers 2001.

ARNHEIM, Rudolf: Visual Thinking. 35th Anniversary Printing. London: University of California

Press 1997.

BROWN, Roger: Words & Things. An Introduction to Language. 10th Edition. Toronto: Collier-

Macmillan 1968.

CORSINI, Raymond; WEDDING, Danny; edited by SCHREIBER, Linda et al.: Current

Psychotherapies. 9th Edition. New York et al.: Brooks/Cole 2010.

DEUTSCHER, Guy: Through the Language Glass. Why the world looks different in other

languages. New York: Metropolitan Books 2010.

DEWEY, John: How We Think. Boston: D.C. Heath 1910.

EVERETT, Daniel: Don’t Sleep There Are Snakes. Life And Language In The Amazonian Jungle.

New York et al.: Vintage Books 2009.

EYSENECK, Michael: Fundamentals of Cognition. 2nd Edition. New York: Psychology Press 2011.

FORMIGARI, Lia: A History of Language Philosophies. Philadelphia et al.: John Benjamins 2004.

FRANCK, Frederick: Zen in der Kunst des Sehens. German Edition. Kreuzlingen: Ariston Verlag

1998.

GARDNER, Howard: Intelligenzen. Die Vielfalt des menschlichen Geistes. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta

2008.

GLADSTONE, William: Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age (3 vol.s). Oxford: Oxford

University Press 1858.

GUMPERZ, John; LEVINSON, Steven: Rethinking Linguistic Relativity. Studies in the Social and

Cultural Foundations of Language. Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press 1996.

HOFSTADTER, Douglas; SANDER, Emmanuel: Surfaces and Essences. Analogy as the Fuel and

Fire of Thinking. New York: Basic Books 2013.

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Possert, Thinking in and beyond Language 57

ISAC, Daniela; REISS, Charles: I-Language. An Introduction to Linguistics as a Cognitive Science.

2nd Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2013.

JOHNSON, Mark: The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and

Reasoning. Chicago et al.: University of Chicago Press 1990.

KANT, Immanuel; edited by HARTENSTEIN, Gustav: Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Leipzig: Leopold

Voss 1868.

LAKOFF, George: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about the Mind.

Chicago: Chicago University Press 1987.

LAKOFF, George; JOHNSON, Mark: Metaphors We Live By. London: University of Chicago Press

1980.

MCWHORTER, John: The Language Hoax. Why the World Looks the Same in Any Language.

Oxford: Oxford University Press 2014.

ORWELL, George: 1984. 35th Edition. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company 1961.

PINKER, Steven: The Language Instinct. How the Mind Creates Language. London: Penguin

1995.

SACKS, Oliver: Vintage Sacks. New York et al.: Random House 2004.

TALEB, Nassim: Antifragile. Things that Gain from Disorder London: Penguin Books 2012.

Edited by TODEZVA, Elka; CENOZ, Jasone: The Multiple Realities of Multilingualism. Personal

Narratives and Researchers’ Perspectives. Berlin et al.: De Gruyter 2009.

TOMLINSON, Sally: The Politics of Race, Class and Special Education. The Selected Works of

Sally Tomlinson. London et al.: Routledge 2014.

VON HUMBOLDT, Wilhelm; Edited by LOSONSKY, Michael: On Language. On the Diversity of

Human Language Construction and its Influence on the Mental Development of the Human

Species. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999.

VYGOTSKY, Lev; Edited by KOZULIN, Alex et al.: Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA et al.:

MIT Press 2012.

WHORF, Benjamin: Language, Thought, and Reality. Selected Writings of Benjamin Whorf.

Edited by John Carroll; Steven Levinson; Penny Lee (2nd Edition). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,

2012.

WITTGENSTEIN, Ludwig: Tractatus Logico-philosophicus. In: Werkausgabe Band 1. Edited by

Joachim Schulte Franfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp 1984.

YULE, GEORGE: The Study of Language. 2nd Edition. New York et al.: Cambridge University

Press 1996.

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ZIMMERMANN, Manfred: Das Nervensystem. Nachrichtentechnisch gesehen. IN: Physiologie

des Menschen. Edited by Robert Schmidt; Gerhard Thews. Berlin: Springer 1993, pp 176-183.

5.2 Papers

BARASLOU, Lawrence: Ad hoc categories. In: Memory & Cognition. Edited by Robert Greene

(Vol. 11 No. 3). Heidelberg et al.: Springer 1983, pp 211 – 227.

BORODOTSKY, Lera; SCHMIDT, Lauren; PHILLIPS, Webb: Sex, Syntax and Semantics. In:

Language in Mind: Advances in the Study of Language and Thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press

2003, pp 61-79.

BRADDON-MITCHELL, David; FITZPATRICK, John: Explanation and the Language of Thought. In:

Synthese. Edited by Otávio Bueno et al. (Vol. 83) Heidelberg et al.: Springer 1990, pp 3-29.

BROWN, Roger: Reference in memorial tribute to Eric Lenneberg. In: Cognition. Edited by

Steven Sloman et al. (Vol. 4, No. 2). Melbourne et al.: Elsevier 1976, pp 125-153.

FISHMAN, Joshua: Whorfianism of the Third Kind. Ethnolinguistic diversity as a worldwide

societal asset. In: Language in Society. Edited by Dell Hymes et al. (Vol. 11 No. 1) Cambrige et

al.: Cambridge University Press 1982, pp 1-14.

HILL, Jane; MANNHEIM, Bruce: Language and Worldview. In: Annual Review of Anthropology.

Edited by Richard Gallagher et al. (Vol. 21) Palo Alto et al.: Annual Reviews 1992, pp 381-404.

JAKOBSON, Roman: On Linguistic Aspects of Translation In: Language in Literature. Edited by

Krystyna Pomorska; Stephen Rudy. Cambridge et al.: Belknap Press 1987. pp 428-436.

MACNAMARA, John: Linguistic Relatvity. In: The Influence of Language on Culture and Thought.

Edited by Robert Cooper; Bernard Spolsky. Berlin et al.: De Gruyter 1991.

Malt, Barbara; Gennari, Silvia et al.: Where Are the Concepts? What Words Can and Can’t

Reveal. In: The Conceptual Mind. New Directions in the Study of Concepts. Edited by Eric

Margolis; Stephen Laurence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2015, pp 291-326.

PRZYWARA, Pawel: Thinking about Mentalese. In: Studia Humana. Edited by Jan Woleński (Vol.

2 No. 2). Berlin et al.: De Gruyter 2013, pp 49-53.

ROZIN, Paul: Five potential principles for understanding cultural differences in relation to

individual differences. In: Journal of Research in Personality. Edited by Richard Lucas et al. (Vol.

37 No. 4). Melbourne et al.: Elsevier 2003, pp 273-283.

SAMPSON, Geoffrey: Gladstone as linguist. In: Journal of Literary Semantics. Edited by Michael

Toolan (Vol. 42 No. 1). Berlin et al.: De Gruyter, pp 1-29.

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SAPIR, Edward: The Status of Linguistics as a Science. In: Language. Published by the Linguistic

Society of America (Vol. 5 No. 4), pp 207-214.

VALDES, Joyce: Language, thought and culture. In: Culture Bound. Bridging the Cultural Gap in

Language Teaching. Edited by Joyce Merrill Valdes (11th Edition). Cambridge et al.: Cambridge

University Press 2001.

WEISKOPF, Daniel: Words, Images and Concepts. In: Analysis Edited by Michael Clark (Vol. 75

No. 1). Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015, pp 99-109.

5.3 Internet

5.3.1 Articles

BORODITSKY, Lera; Edited by BROCKMAN, John et al.: How Does Our Language Shape The Way We Think? URL: https://edge.org/conversation/lera_boroditsky-how-does-our-language-shape-the-way-we-think [As of 17.02.2016].

CHANDLER, David: Tuning in to unconscious communication. MIT researchers discover clues in conversation. URL: http://news.mit.edu/2008/signals-1021 [As of 17.02.2016].

DEUTSCHER, Guy: Does Your Language Shape How You Think? In: New York Sunday Times. Edited by Jake Silverstein et al.. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/29/magazine/29language-t.html [As of 17.02.2015].

EVANS, Vyvyan: Real Talk. URL: https://aeon.co/essays/the-evidence-is-in-there-is-no-language-instinct [As of 17.022.2016].

HIGHFIELD, Roger: DNA survey finds all humans are 99.9 pc the same. URL: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1416706/DNA-survey-finds-all-humans-are-99.9pc-the-same.html [As of 17.02.2016].

Liechtensteiner Vaterland: Sprechen wir noch Deutsch? URL: http://www.vaterland.li/liechtenstein/vermischtes/Sprechen-wir-noch-Deutsch;art171,154108 [As of 17.02.2016].

O’GRADY Cathleen: MIT claims to have found a “language universal” that ties all languages together. A language universal would bring evidence to Chomsky’s controversial theories. URL: http://arstechnica.com/science/2015/08/mit-claims-to-have-found-a-language-universal-that-ties-all-languages-together/ [As of 17.02.2016].

VisualThesaurus: When “Cool” Got Cool. URL: http://www.visualthesaurus.com/cm/wordroutes/when-cool-got-cool/ [As of 17.02.2016].

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5.3.2 Websites

CHERRY, Kendra: What is Psychoanalysis? The Psychoanalytic Approach to Psychology. URL: http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/psychodynamic.htm [As of 17.02.2016].

DOWNEY, Greg; LENDE, Daniel: Life without language. URL: http://neuroanthropology.net/2010/07/21/life-without-language/ [As of 17.02.2016].

KAYE, Larry: The Language of Thought. URL: http://host.uniroma3.it/progetti/kant/field/lot.html [As of 17.02.2016].

KWASNIAK, Janet: Do we think in language? URL: http://charbonniers.org/2013/07/04/do-we-think-in-language/ [As of 17.02.2016].

Linguistic Society of America: Language and Thought. URL: http://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/language-and-thought [As of 30th of January 2016].

MISHLOVE, Jeffrey; PINKER, Steven: Language and Consciousness Part I. Are Thought constrained by language. URL: http://www.williamjames.com/transcripts/pinker1.htm [As of 17.02.2016].

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Edward B. Titchener. The Complete Iconophile. URL:

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-imagery/edward-titchener.html [As of 17.02.2016].

StudySpanish.com: Ser and Estar. Part I. URL: http://www.studyspanish.com/lessons/serest1.htm [As of 17.02.2016].

5.3.3 Videos

CHOMSKY, Noam: Grammar, Mind and Body. A Personal View. URL:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMQS3klG3N0 [As of 17.02.2016 / Video].

CHOMSKY, Noam: Language and Thougth. URL:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEmpRtj34xg [As of 17.02.2016 / Video].

HAWKINS, Jeff: How brains science will change computing. URL:

https://www.ted.com/talks/jeff_hawkins_on_how_brain_science_will_change_computing [As

of 17.02.2016 / Video].

HOFSTADTER, Douglas: Analogy as the Core of Cognition. URL:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n8m7lFQ3njk [As of 17.02.2016 / Video].

EVERETT, Daniel: Language. The Cultural Tool. URL:

http://library.fora.tv/2011/11/01/Language_The_Cultural_Tool [As of 17.02.2016 / Video].

LAKOFF, George: Idea Framing, Metaphors, and Your Brain. URL:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S_CWBjyIERY [As of 17.02.2016 / Video].

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Possert, Thinking in and beyond Language 61

5.3.4 Other

FAIRALL, Gaige: Theories of Social & Cultural Reality. The Social Construction of Reality. URL:

http://slideplayer.com/slide/1421113/ As of 10.02.2016.

HÄRTEL, Holden: Pitfalls in the language-thought distinction. A view on studies of linguistic

relativity. URL: https://www.uni-

kassel.de/fb02/fileadmin/datas/fb02/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Anglistik_Amerikanistik/Dateien/Ling

uistik/Presentations/Pr%C3%A4sentation_KogWis.pdf [As of 17.02.2016].

Radiolab: New Words, New World. URL: http://www.radiolab.org/story/91730-new-words-

new-world/ [As of 17.02.2016 / Podcast].

Radiolab: Why Isn’t the Sky Blue? URL: http://www.radiolab.org/story/211213-sky-isnt-blue/

[As of 17.02.2016 / Podcast].

RAI, Vishnu: English, Hinglish and Nenglish. URL:

https://www.academia.edu/6182717/English_Hinglish_and_Nenglish [As of 17.02.2016].

SCHUH, Russell: Reply to Boroditsky “How Language Shapes Thought”. 2011. URL:

http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/schuh/lx001/Discussion/d01_response_to%20Borodits

ky.pdf [As of 17.02.2016].

The Free Dictionary. URL: http://www.thefreedictionary.com [As of 17.02.2016].

Vocabulary.com: Idiolect. URL: https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/idiolect [As of

17.02.2016].

5.4 Appendix I

POSSERT, Jakob: Interview. Über Gemäßigten Relativismus und Conceptual Systems. Conducted

with Manfred Kienpointner. Graz, 18th of December 2015. [Transcript / own interview].

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6 Register of Illustrations

Figure 1: Arch of Linguistic Resemblances .......................................................................... 27

Figure 2: Schema and Concrete Picture side by side ............................................................ 34

Figure 3: Iceberg Model of Freud ....................................................................................... 48

Figure 4: Model of Conceptual Thought ............................................................................. 54

Table 1: Words in the Domain of Forestry in four European Languages ................................... 9

Table 2: Total relative to Conscious Perception ................................................................... 46

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Appendix I

Über Gemäßigten Relativismus und Conceptual Systems

Als Teil der Recherche für die VWA – “Thinking in and beyond Language: On Linguistic

Relativity and a Model of Conceptual Thought”, wurde Prof. Markus Kienpointner von Jakob

Possert interviewt. Der Professor, geboren 14.4.1955, beschreibt sich selbst als „gemäßigter

Relativist“ und verfasste das Paper „Whorf and Wittgenstein Language, World View and

Argumentation“1 womit er Experte für Linguistischen Relativismus ist.

Das Gespräch fand am 18.12.2015 von 15:01 bis 16:07 auf Skype statt. Die Aufzeichnung ist

leider an einigen Stellen unterbrochen, weil das Aufnahmeprogramm nur eine Laufzeit von

fünf Minuten hatte.

Das Gespräch selbst ist nur einmal von einer dritten Person unterbrochen worden. Die Kürzel

entsprechen jeweils Herrn Professor Kienpointner (Prof.) und Jakob Possert (Jakob), wobei

die fett markierten Abschnitte jenen entsprechen, welche besonders interessant für eine

mögliche Zitation sind.

1 KIENPOINTNER, Manfred: Whorf and Wittgenstein. Language, world view and argumentation. In:

Argumentation. Edited by Frans van Eemeren et al. (Volume 10 Issue 4). Heidelberg et al.: Springer 1996, pp.

475-494.

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15:01

1 Jakob Possert: w u n d e r b a r – ok so ähm Ich ich weiß nicht wie auf was Sie sie

jetzt gefasst sind – sonst eben ich ich schreib an meiner VWA ich hab sie vor mit hier

liegen ähm und eben das Thema ist Thinking Beyond Language ich schreib auf

Englisch ähm und ich bin über Ihren ähm über Ihr Paper auf Sie aufmerksam

geworden ähm genau

2 Prof. Kienpointner: Wittgenstein, ja

3 Jakob: genau, genau, genau ähm und eben d-d-dass Paper ist, bei m-mir zumindest ist

s-so ähm aufgebaut zuerst versuch ich eben irgendwie auf Whorfianism einzugehen,

inwiefern Whorf, doch äh unter Anführungszeichen doch richtig war, weil ja, weil ja

sehr sehr viel in in der derzeitigen Literatur zum Beispiel bei McWorther zum Beispiel

hab ich gelesen das Buch ähm the Language Hoax ähm eben sehr sehr gegen gegen

Whorf ist und gegen Linguistic Relativity ähm und inwiefern-inwiefern das aber doch

irgendwie einen-nen Bestand hat und irgendeine Richtigkeit

4 Prof: mhm

5 Jakob: wie gesagt, ich habdieses dieses Buch hier ähm

6 Prof: ja

7 Jakob: haben Sie das gelesen?

8 Prof: Ich hab’s zu großen Teilen gelesen ja, ja

9 Jakob: ähm, ich bin ein, muss ich wirklich sagen, ein großer Fan von Lakoff

und und ich bin seiner Meinung mehr oder weniger, dass die Diskussion über

Whorfianism sehr confused irgendwie war ähm und g-ganz besonders glaub ich eben,

dass-dass ein ein gute Art das zu beschreiben inwiefern Whorf Recht hatte ist, d-dieses

conceptual capacity versus conceptual system

10 Prof: mhm

11 Jakob: aber ich bin, hab mich da jetzt irgendwie überschlagen und bin da

hineingekommen ähm ganz konkret, was was, ich hab mir natürlich Fragen überlegt

einen ganzen Zettel hier vollgeschrieben, den ich selber fast nicht mehr lesen kann

(holt Luft)

12 Prof: ((lacht))

13 Jakob: ähm, äh genau das ist der erste Teil der Arbeit, über Whorfianism und

der zweite Teil der Arbeit is ist a Spekulation, die mich selber sehr beschäftigt und

zwar ähm inwiefern ähm denken wir in Sprache ähm

14 Prof: mhm

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15 Jakob: denken wir in Sprache denken wir nicht in Sprache, wenn es so etwas

gibt wie, wie MENTALESE, was-was der Herr Pinker beschreibt, ähm wie schaut

mentalese aus, wie-wie kann mentalese beeinflusst werden selbst und dann gibt es

theoretisch so etwas das UNTER mentalese ist, also d-dass eine-eine so was wie-wie

Chomsky mehr oder weniger der das so andeutet, vielleicht keine ahnung auch mit

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR

16 Prof: mhm, mhm

17 Jakob: dessen sind so grob, d-d-die zwei teile

18 Prof: mhm, ok

19 Jakob: würden sie gerne jetzt schon was dazu sagen, sonst würde ich anfangen

mit meinen Fragen

20 Prof: jo, na i kann amal so was allgemeines sagen aber trotzdem auch ein

paar speziellere Punkte, dann schon ahh, Antwort geben oder Bezug nehmen, also

zunächst einmal find ich recht schön, dass George Lakoff den Whorf so bewundernd

gelten lässt, jemand der mehr als ein halbes Jahrhundert her ist und ich glaub ich zitier

das sogar: „to my mind Whorf was the most interesting Linguist of his days

21 Jakob: mhm

22 Prof: und das halt ich auch für gerechtfertigt also whorf bei allem was man

inzwischen widerlegt hat von seinen kühnen annahmen ah, hat da großes

bahnbrechendes geleistet, das glaub ich kann man auf alle fälle festhalten, i mein was,

worüber sich glaub ich die ganze neue literatur egal ob whorf befürwörter oder

whorfgegner einig sind ist dass man das linguistic relativity principle nicht in seiner

ganz strengen fassung [fest erhalten kann

23 Jakob: [genau,

genau

24 Prof: da für ich auch in dem aufsatz ein paar argumente an und das liest man

ähnlich in fast der ganzen literatur, andererseits aber widerum wenn man die These

etwas schwächer formuLIERT Sprache beeinflusst unser denken und auch beeinflusst

unser verhalten äh dann würd ich sogar des so sehn dass die letzten zwanzig johre

eingentlich viel bestätigung für so eine abgeschwächte äh relativitätshypothese

gebracht haben u n d dse geht eben in die richtung kognitive linguistik Lakoff ähm

dann geht’s aber auch in die Richtung ((schluckt)) ähm steven levinson ich weiß nicht

ob Ihnen der untergekommen ist in der Literatur

25 Jakob: w-wie d buchstabieren viel-leicht den nachnamen vielleicht

26 Prof: L-E-V-I-N-S-O-N levinson

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27 Jakob: der ist Direktor des Max Planck Institut in Nijmegen und ähm macht äh

seit ungefähr zwanzig jahren so forschung zur saphir whorf hypothese und hat äh

besonders zum raum in den sprachen besonders äh sehr äh in zusammenarbeit mit

einem großen team natürlich zu sehr vielen sprachen auf allen kontineneten ähm

experimente gemacht, die äh diese schwächere saphir whorf hypothese eigentlich

meines erachtens eindrucksvoll bestärken äh also nur ein

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

28 Prof: äh auch äh das nicht unser verhalten beeinflusst das bestätigt eigentlich

eine so abgeschwächte saphir whorf hypothese ((holt luft)) und dann gibt’s eine

forscherin Lera Boroditsky

29 Jakob: mhm

30 Prof: ist Ihnen untergekommen

31 Jakob: ja

32 Prof: die macht in den letzten zehn fünfzehn jahren eine fülle von

experimenten, die meines erachtens, da wird dann zwar auch entgegnet darauf und es

wird da evidenz angeführt desweitere ich glaube die große richtung ist ganz klar so

eine abgeschwächte saphir whorf hypothese lässt sich halten. jetzt zu der frage

gibt’s dann ein denken ohne sprache überhaupt das würd ich auch bejahn obwhols

angesichts dieser ganzen forschungen ähm eigentlich nicht so wahrscheinlich klingt,

ah es gibt da auch noch ein s e h r äg witziges und geistreiches gedankenexperiment

von wittgenstein in seinen philosophischen untersuchungen wo er einen auffordert, er

redet ja da die leser mit du an die äh so denke dir einen satz was weiß ich das buch

liegt auf dem tisch und jetzt versuche dir vorzustellen den gedanken ohne den satz

ähm und da würd man würd ich sagen als normaler erwachsener sprecher einer

beliebigen natürlichen sprache in gewisse schwierigkeiten kommen

33 Jakob: mhm

34 Prof: das zeigt eben auf der einen seite unser eben ganz äh starkes äh

sprachgebungenden sein ä h m aber es gibt eben für diese hypothese das es so eine

schicht des denkens ohne sprache gibt gibt es auch sehr viel gute empirische evidenz

beispiele wären d-dass tip of the tongue phenomenon

35 Jakob mhm

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36 Prof: dass man also nach wörtern sucht aber in dem moment in dem man

nach wörtern sucht da ist aber etwas das muss aber eben so ein gedanke sein, denn

man den man nur noch nicht äh formulieren kann, dann muss man auf kleine kinder

schauen als mit ein jahr ungefähr im durchschnitt beginnen die die ersten wörter zu

sagen lange vorher schon können sie schon die umgebungssprache die muttersprache

verstehen aber wenn man weit genug nach unten geht also sagen wir ein kind von drei

oder vier monaten hernimmt zum beispiel dann ist keine frage diese babys die denken,

die können auch schon alles mögliche machen mit drei vier monaten haben also ganz

sicher kognition aber noch keine sprache weder aktiv noch passiv ((holt luft)) und

dann gibt’s solche dinge wie musik die in gewisser weise ein sehr interessantes

kognitives phänomen sind aber weigehend sprachunabhängig bis zu einem gewissen

grad auch sprachübergreifend man kann viel leichter die musik einer fremden kultur

genießen und verstehen unter anführungszeichen als eben die betreffende fremde

sprache

37 Jakob: mhm

38 Prof: dann eben gibt es wieder so etwas wie die mathematik was z- bis zu

einem gewissen grad jetzt natürlich gibt’s eine ganze fülle von sprachspezifischen

strukturierungen des zahlenraums da ist auch wieder viel sprache dabei aber das

phänomen selber ist etwas was zumindest was so weiter von der formulierung weg ist

als jetzt alltagssprachliche formulierung von gedanken aus alledem würd ich eben

ableiten, dass es so etwas wie ein denken ohne sprache gibt glaub ich die große

schwierigkeit ist wie fasst man das jetzt und wenn jetzt zum beispiel in der

linguistik versucht wird strukturen von mentalese mit ausdrücken und deren

netzwerkartiger verbindung und so weiter äh zu äh darzustellen, dann ist das halt

zumindest in der agelsäsischen literatur so das einfach englische wörter einfach

groß geschrieben werden und dann sind sie plötzlich ein konzept

39 Jakob: ja ((lacht))

40 Prof: da kann man dann mit wittgenstein schmunzeln und sagen ja was ist

jetzt eigentlich mit dem aber das ist auch nicht glaub ich so schlecht oder so schwach

äh so versuche eben eine-eine gedanken äh welt zu notieren unabhängig wies

ausschaut denn äh bei den versuchen die gemacht werden zum beispiel in der

psycholinguistik wo man versucht produktionsmodelle aufzustellen wie wir vom

gedanken so quasi bis zum ausgesprochenen satz kommen da versucht man am anfang

eben auch vor der formulierung bevor der wortschatz und die grammatik da zu

arbeiten beginnt und zum schluss die phonetik philologie versucht ma eben auch

((schluckt)) mit irgendwelchen proportionalen netzwerken diese ähm

ausdrucksabsichten zu fassen und d-dass wird dann auch mit groß geschriebenen im

bekanntesten wissenschaftlichsten produktionsmodell von willhelm leevelt einem-

einem niederländischen psycholinguist einem sehr renommierten ähm Leevelt L-E-V-

E-L-T

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41 Jakob: mhm

42 Prof: der arbeitet dann auch mit groß geschriebenen englischen wörtern in

einem buch speaking from intention to articulation so ein klassiker der

psycholinguistik ende der 80er Jahre die erste auflage und ähm d-dass erscheint auf

den ersten blick eben hilflos man nehme eine natürliche sprache erkläre sie zu

gedanken in netzwerken andererseits zeigt aber levelt ganz schön, dass diese

netzwerke von ganz ganz vielen einzelsprachlichen netzwerken absehen können also

man kann versuchen zumindest ein stück wegzukommen zumindest von der

ausformulierten natürlichen sprache und so werden eben solche netzwerke dann

unterschiedslos für aktiv wie passivsätze verwendet

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

43 äh unabhängig von wortstellung also sehr sehr viele aspekte von formulierungen also

von denen kann man abstrahieren sodass ich sagen würde auch so was wie mentalese

ist jetzt nicht nur äh ein verkapptes englisch oder irgendeine andere natürliche sprache

die man dann hilflos dann für die kognitiven strukturen hernimmt also so würde ich

als fazit sagen man kann sprache und denken trennen äh äh man kann aber den

einfluss – den einfluss nicht das determinieren des denkens nicht den einfluss aber das

determinieren von sprache auf denken und verhalten inzwischen durch sehr viel

empirische forschung nachweisen sodass in abgeschwächter form whorf äh recht hat

meines erachtens ähm noch etwas muss man dazu sagen seine berühmten aussagen

über das hopi da wo ich die neue literatur von leuten die jahrelang dort feldforschung

gemacht haben die native speaker sind zum teil selber gelesen habe ist einfach viel

von dem was er da behauptet falsch

44 Jakob: mhm ja

45 Prof: also es stimmt definitiv nicht dass es keine äh also raummetapher

für zeit gibt im hopi und die neuere literatur schreibt dass es ein tempussystem

gibt futur und nicht futur, dass ist natürlich ganz anders als was wir von deutsch

oder englisch oder französisch oder russisch oder anderen indogermanischen

sprachen kennen aber es ist ein tempus-system dieselbe literatur gesteht ihm aber

zu dass seine beschreibung von hopi sehr ernst zu nehmen ist gerade weil er ja nur

mit einem native speaker gearbeitet hat der für ihn an der ostküste da verfügbar war er

hat ja-er hat ja nicht jahrelang da feldforschung in der reservation machen können also

so gesehen war er auch ein sehr guter empirischer linguist der sich halt geirrt hat naja

also irren wenn man alle wissenschaftler wissenschaftlerinnen die sich jemals

irgendwo irren also so so für versager erklären würde dann würden sich unsere räume

hier rasant leeren auf der universität, ja das wär mal was ich sagen würd

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46 Jakob: wunderbar vielen vielen dank-vielen dank ich hab da mal schon notizen

gemacht i-ich schau da immer ein bissl weg weil ich grad gemerkt hab dass mein

aufzeichnungstool nur eine testversion ist und da muss ich immer wieder erneuern

ähm ok ähm ganz konkret hab ich mir gedacht dass wunderbar vielen vielen dank das

hat mir sehr geholfen ähm dass dass ich vi-vielleicht meine überlegungen ihnen kurz

darleg und ungefähr sag wie ich mir des denk

47 Prof: ja

48 Jakob: und sie das bestätigen oder nicht bestätigen ähm eine sache ist dass d-

das ich in den papers also i-ich hab von hofstadter über analogy the heart of cognition

glaub ich heißt das gelesen und ähm und bin selber zu dem vielleicht naiven schluss

gekommen ähm wir thinken ((lacht)) ähm wir denken in analogien welche man sowas

wie schematisch denken kann vielleicht im kantischen sinne soweit ich dass richtig

verstanden hab und dass ist vielleicht so eine ebene vor dem ausdruck

49 Prof: mhm

50 Jakob: das heißt eine ebene vor dem ausdruck ähm genau und die ist eben wie

sie sagen netzwerk basiert und ähm interessant is vielleicht das wenn wir uns selbst

beobachten wir diese nicht sehen können wir können sie nicht genau festlegen wir

können sie uns nicht vorstellen es ist so etwas wie ein latentes vorstellen

51 Prof: mhm

52 Jakob: also mhm man man kann sie nicht direkt sehen irgendwie also wenn ich

beispielsweise diesen satz den ich jetzt sage mir überlegen würde ähm also

tschuldigung was ich mein wenn man denkt denkt man ja auch in einer inneren

stimme die ja normalerweise in schönen sätzen ist wenn man-wenn man sie

beobachtet

53 Prof: mhm

54 Jakob: das heißt ähm d-d-die these die ich aufgestellt hab war äh und genau z-

zu des da auf der einen seite ähm wenn man sich selbst beobachtet seine gedanken

beobachtet dann sind das sehr wohl strukturierte sätze ähm das ist das erste das zweite

wäre beispielsweise im spanischen gibt es eine klare unterscheidung zwischen „ser“

und „estar“

55 Prof: und „estar“ mhm

56 Jakob: und-und d-des interessant ist inzwischen kann ich so gut spanisch i-ich

hab s-sechs monate in Ec-cuador gewohnt ((holt luft)) das dieses ser und estar das mir

der unterschied nicht mehr auffallt

57 Prof: mhm

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58 Jakob: also wie jeder native speaker und ich hab da mit ein paar geredet

würden mir sagen ser und estar sind einfach zwei wörter ja na und ich verwend die

halt wenn ich krank bin des eine und des andere wenn zum beispiel wenn ich die

uhrzeit sage ja keine ahnung und mir selber als speaker fällt das nicht auf allerdings

wenn man wenn man pay attention wenn man aufmerksamkeit dem gibt dann

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

59 Jakob: wird das sehr wohl in d-das bewusste unter anführungszeichen gebracht

und und dann kanns sehr wohl sein

60 Prof: mhm

61 Jakob: dass es einen beeinflusst also das erste buch war eben von mcworther

the langauge hoax wo er sagt nein dass stimmt alles gar nicht whorfiamism ist alles

komplett falsch und hat nur einen minimalistischen impact und so weiter und so fort

und da war ich irgendwie so wie kann ich das irgendwie funktionieren lassen d-diese

these stehen lassen

62 Prof: mhm

63 Jakob: und das hineinbringen ähm und da hab ich eben mehr oder weniger

diese these aufgestellt ähm wenn wir dem aufmerksamkeit schenken dann hat das eine

wirkung und es ist merklich anders und wir kommen raus aus mentalese

64 Prof: mhm

65 Jakob: i-i-ich weiß ich verwirre da gerade die zwei konzepte whorfianism und

mentalese

66 Prof: ja genau weil i-ich glaube man könnte es aber auf beides anwenden

man kommt aus dem da würd ich zustimmen äh auch Lakoff das meistens unsere ähäh

meistens unsere ganzen kognitiven prozesse auch wenn wir sie versprachlichen

eben ((holt luft)) äh weitgehen unbewusst ablaufen äh besonders glaub ich bei

einsprachigen menschen bei zwei oder mehrsprachigen menschen vielleicht etwas

weniger und man kann aber diesen sagen wir mal naiven sprachrealismus überwinden

und dann ist man schon nicht mehr gefangen im käfig einer muttersprache wies bei so

überzogenen formulierungen der sapir whorf hypothese ausschauen könnte und

dasselbe kann man aber auch auf sozusagen dahinter liegende kognitive

strukturen anwenden man kann auch durch diese reflexive perspektive kann man

auch denkgewohnheiten überwinden

67 Jakob: mhm

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68 Prof: mann kanns also auf-auf beides sozusagen kann man das glaub ich

anwenden und ähm und es ist ja so weil sie zuerst die analogie erwähnt haben in dem

berühmten buch des ja sieben jahre vor women fire and dangerous things ist nämlich

metaphors we live by was lakoff …

69 Jakob: genau ja

70 Prof: …mit johnson zusammen geschrieben hat ist ja der vielzitierte satz

drinnen our thinking is fundamental metaphorical oder so ähnlich

71 Jakob: ja genau genau das ist mit

72 Prof: und da würd ich auch sagen ist viel dran also eine der wichtigen lehren

die man aus lakoffs kognitiver linguistik ziehen kann, wo ich aber nicht ganz

übereinstimme oder da kommts aber auch drauf an wie radikal ich das formuliere es

gibt an gewissen stellen außer sagen wir bei physische bezogene objekte aber im

abstrakten bereich gibt es praktisch gar keine wörtliche deutung da ist alles immer

metaphorisch und das geht mir wieder zu weit denn ich galube schon dass es möglich

ist dass so etwas wie freiheit oder demokratie oder wie auch immer beliebige

abstraktausdrücke ähm auch die emotionen über die lakoff und die ganze

folgeforschung sehr viel geschrieben haben also liebe hass furcht und so weiter

nicht metaphorisch zu erfassen und zu definieren was jetzt nicht heißt dass diese

konzepte weitgehend unabhängig von metaphern gegeben wären, wir – eben durch

dieses nicht ständig bewusst reflektieren bewegt man sich eben in diesen vielen vielen

konventionalisierten metaphern mit denen wir auch auf die abstrakten begriffe bezug

nehmen ähm und das beeinflusst uns natürlich ungeheuer gar keine frage ich würde

aber trotzdem sagen dass es zumindest im prinzip möglich ist so eine wörtliche

bedeutung zu bekommen

73 Jakob: ((holt luft))

74 Prof: vielleicht mit ausnahme da wo wir des gibt’s ja oft ohne einen

metaphorischen begriff gar nichts mehr haben ich mach da manchmal in

lehrveranstaltungen weil das schon in der antike von quintillian und aristoteles

festgestellt wurde gibt es manchmal gar keinen alltäglichen ausdruck obewohl die sie

die metapher so definieren dass sie die metapher so ersetzt wobei manchmal gar nichts

da ist was ersetzt werden könnte und das beispiel das quintillian bringt ist ein rauer

charakter und man würde sich wahrscheinlich nicht ganz einfach tun das nicht

metaphorisch auszudrücken das muss man Lakoff und Johnson durchaus zugestehen

aber trotzdem wenn man vielleicht von denen absieht dann da wo es eine wörtliche

bedeutung gibt ist die auch fassbar nicht metaphorisch nicht leicht fassbar weil wir es

ja so gewöhnt sind weil heftige emotionen sind feuer sind wahnsinn sind flüssigkeiten

sind äh kochende flüssigkeiten in gefäßen es ist sehr schwer da rauszugehen, und es ist

sehr schwer weil ich das buch von hofstadter nicht kenne ob das auch

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

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75 Prof: es ist meistens ja schon so in der literatur dass man analogien dass man

metaphern einfach als elemente von analogierelationen sieht und dass würde das in

dieselbe richtung sozusagen gehen

76 Jakob: ja mhm ja genau also die a-als ich die i-ich hab beide bücher gelesen

und metaphors we live by und es sind sehr ähnliche ideen sind sehr ähnliche ideen

77 Prof: ah ok

78 Jakob: genau ja ahm wunderbar wunderbar danke dass sie das so bestätigen

vielleicht auf das conceptual system jetzt hinauszukommen und vor allem auf diese

diskrepanz zwischen conceptual capacity und conceptual sys-system eben ähm

mcworther als-also i-i-ich hab vil-vil-viel meines denkens das ich dort hineingepackt

hab kommt v-v-von dieser richtung man muss whorfianism klar negieren w-wie kann

man dass machen und mcworther sagt eben ganz klar nein wir haben alle eine

common cognitive structure wir haben alle eine universal structure was vielleicht auch

irgendwie was mit einer universal grammar

79 Prof: mhm mhm

80 Jakob: VIELLEICHT zu tun hat gen- und w-was ich jetzt gemacht hab und das

h-hab ich erst h-heute wieder gemerkt ich hab da eigentlich keine basis keine source

dafür ähm aber an sich würde ja lakoffs conceptual capacity dem common cogntive

structure entsprechen also wir haben eine common cognitive structure diese entspricht

der capacity allerdings was nicht stimmt und was wo wir eben bei der linguistic

relativity sind ist das die structure common structure mögliche variationen hat und

81 Prof: mhm

82 Jakob: und diese eben verschiedene systems sind das wär des erste des

ZWEITE wär ähm w-wie ich mir das denke ist das jeder mensch ein komplett

eigenens conceptual system hat es sind eigene kategorien geschaffen ja wie-wie auch

sehr gut von hofstadter auch wieder sehr schön dargelegt ähm die ganze zeit machen

wir irgendwelche analogien und und analogien sind gleichbedeutend mit kategorien

83 Prof: mhm

84 Jakob: ist ein und dasselbe

85 Prof: mhm

86 Jakob: das heißt die ganze zeit erschaffen wir irgendwelche kategorien die ja

mehr oder weniger und conceptual system aus-aus-aus auf dem basieren sind aus dem

sind sie gemacht dahingehend jeder mensch hat unique conceptual systems die sich

auch verändern

87 Prof: mhm

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88 Jakob: im laufe der zeit einfach einfach grundgegeben durch die erfarhungen

die er macht

89 Prof: mhm

90 Jakob: so, ähm und dazu würd man so-sowas w-wie ein keine ahnung i-ich

denkmir das immer als fundament der-d-das die sprache gibt um-um-um dieses

conceptual system auf i-irgendwas z-zu grounden i-irgendwo ein-ein-ein dem einen

grund zu geben

91 Prof: mhm

92 Jakob: also, Lakoff spricht sehr sehr vor allem in diesem kapitel über

whorfanism sagt mehr oder weniger das eine sprache ein conceptual system hat und

eine andere sprache hat ein anderes wenn man jetzt dieses unique conceptual system

da hinein nehmen würde i-in diese überlegung k-könnte man sagen d-dass stimmt

schon jede sprache hat t h e o r e t i s c h sofern das eine sprache ist ein conceptual

system

93 Prof: mhm

94 Jakob: allerdings ist das nur grundlegend un-und die unique conceptual

systems m-m sprießen unter anführungszeichen dann dort hinaus

95 Prof: mhm

96 Jakob: ähm genau das wär einmal das erste

97 Prof: ja das wirft natürlich eine ganze fülle von riesigen fragen auf

letzendlich die grunddebatte die ja in vielen wissenschaften geführt wird zwischen

universalismus und relativismus

98 Jakob: mhm ja

99 Prof: also bei weitem nicht nur in der linguistik aber ich versuch jetzeinmal

weil nur da bin ich ja so wirklich zuständig die linguistik zu betrachten und äh da ähm

ah ist eben die frage ob nach den sprachlichen universalien also eben den kategorien

die-die in allen sprachen vorhanden sind und d-da tobt im grunde genommen derselbe

streit wie um die sapir whorf hypothese es gibt allen voran noam chomsky die

universalistische position und dann eben eine radikal relativistische der neigt

übringens eher stephen levinson zu also der eben diese äh der eben diese vorstellungs

und orientierungsexperimente gemacht hat und ähm ich nach so dem alten

hausverstand die wahrheit muss irgendwo in der mitte sein würde sagen also dass es

schon irgend so etwas wie sprachliche universalien gibt

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

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100 Prof: schwierige detailfragen wo eben dann gefragt wird ob zum

beispiel eine kleine indigene sprache in amazonien die seit ein paar jahren weltweit

diskutiert wird

101 Jakob: ja

102 Prof: sprecher ja irgendwie ausgleichende gerechtigkeit wie diese

großen universitäten der welt erzittern weil der linguist everett der der einzige ist der

dort jahrelang geforscht hat behauptet die würde von allem abweichen was chomsky

als kern der universalgrammatik aufstellt jetzt kann man natürlich das nicht

unabhängig beurteilen weil man da auf die darstellung von everett angewießen ist äh

in dem fall würd ich einfach mal vorsichtig eher chomsky rechtgeben weil das was

chomsky als so fundamental anders also angibt das also vor allem in einem punkt

nämlich zahlen und zählfähigkeit hab ichs mir für einen aufsatz ein bisschen genauer

angeschaut da sind auch experimente gemacht worden von everett und anderen aber

auch von unabhängigen forschungsteams die dort waren und da glaub ich everett

erzählt das wird auch so stimmen dass er die haben wesentlich keine zahlwörter in

ihrer sprache und er hat ihnen dann versucht auf portugiesisch zählen beizubringen

103 Jakob: mhm

104 Prof: und ist monatelang da gescheitert das glaub ich ihm auch aber

das heißtnicht dass die keine zählfähigkeit haben oder dass das nicht eine universale

von menschlicher sprachfähigkeit oder-oder noch abstrakter gesehen denkfähigkeit ist

weil es hat dann weitere versuche gegeben die dann teilweise diese experimente von

everett in diese richtung wo man die einfach objekte hat zählen lassen adieren hat

lassen und da sind sie jenseits von kleinen zahlen so wie drei schon gescheitert des ist

mir schon deswegen ähm wenig plausibel vorgekommen weil es inzwischen gute

experiment gibt mit primaten die es immerhin schon fast bis zehn hinaufschaffen zu

zählen

105 Jakob: ja

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106 Prof: und geh jetzt einfach mal davon aus dass die Piraha so gut

rechnen können wie die primaten und wahrscheinlich besser und in diesen folgenden

experimenten die sehr SORGfältig durchgeführt worden sind um irgendwelchen

störenden faktoren auszuschlißen die beim ersten experiment da waren äh da haben sie

dann plötzlich zumindest bis zehn ziemlich fehlerfrei zählen können und was höhere

zahlen betrifft oder experimente wo gedächtnisbelastung dazu kommt also dass- man

zeigt etwas und dann deckt mans zu und dann fragt man wie viel war das und so

weiter solche dinge da haben sie dann sehr schlecht abgeschnitten da sind die everett

experimente bestätigt worden was kann man daraus jetzt allgemein ableiten den einen

punkt des is ja- da gibts ja ganz viele solche empirische darstellungen von sprachen

und generalisierungen und widersprüche gegen die generalisierungen aber in dem

einen punkt kann man dann glaub ich so festhalten ähm also sicher hat everett

hier recht also im whorfianischen sinn da haben wir ein praktisch nicht

existierendes zahlensystem also in früheren publikationen hat man eher nur

angenommen das solche sprachen wie piraha nur so etwas haben wie eins zwei und

viele äh aber glauben wir mal everett er sagt nicht einmal das ist da also gar keine

zahlen ähm und dass das auswirkungen hat zeigen eben diese experimente dass diese

offenkundig schwierigkeiten haben größere wie wir in sprachen mit zahlensystemen

ausgebauten sich ziffern zu merken und das hat dann eben einen einfluss auf das

denken und das verhalten aber es determiniert es eben nicht wenn man eben ein

sorgfältiges experiment vorbereitet wo ein paar störende faktoren wie in den früheren

everett experiment ausgeräumt worden sind dann – da haben sich nämlich diese

objekte bewegt und des natürlich für die vorstellung für identität und nicht identität

von zahlen und von mengen von objekten ziemlich wichtig ah außerdem ha-hat diese

zweite gruppe von forschern und forscherinnen die haben die piraha trainiert und

nachdem ja die primaten für diese experimente ja montage und jahrelang trainiert

werden ist da so ein kleines training eine trainingsstunde vorher auch nicht schlecht, ja

wie dem auch sei man sieht beides glaub ich also

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

107 Prof: herauszuholen 1971 ist wahrscheinlich auf hopi bis zu diesem

zeitpunkt nie gesagt worden aber es war möglich und insofern würde ich eben sagen ja

natürlich ist unbefriedigend zu sagen ja universalismus hat teilweise recht relativismus

hat teilweise recht wo ist dann diese mitteposition wie der hausverstand sagt eben von

meinem ähm linguistischen grundverständnis her würd ich sie eher ein bisschen näher

relativismus schieben ich hab in einem neueren buch ein interview mit chomsky hab

ich gelesen da sagt er solche sätze wie das konzept river ist so also für alle praktischen

zwecke dasselbe in allen sprachen der erde und da ((lacht auf)) steigen mir dann schon

ein bisschen die haare zu berge denn äh da-dass fährt so drüber

108 Jakob: mhm

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109 Prof: über diese unterschiedlichen lexikalischen systeme der sprachen

es gibt unterscheidungen zwischen großen flüssen zwischen kleinen flüssen es gibt

alle möglichen mythologischen vorstellungen von belebten größen hinter den flüssen

und einfach zu sagen das ist überall dasselbe das ist mir zu sweeping generalization

ähm und das ist glaub ich immer die gefahr der universalisten das sie die unterschiede

für zu wenig wichtig nehmen

110 Jakob: mhm

111 Prof: und jetzt vielleicht noch einmal zu dem punkt denn des nennt

man in der linguistik IDIOLEKT also die ganz individuelle sprache ähm auch da

würde ich äh sozusagen einen bogen sehen den man vom individuum bis zu allen

menschen soannen kann, es gibt irgendwo bei humboldt leider weiß ich das genaue

zitat nicht mehr bei wilhelm von humboldt gibt’s irgendwo den satz man könnte

mit der gleichen berechtigung sagen jeder mensch spräche eine eigene sprache

wie alle menschen sprechen dieselbe sprache da ist das eigentlich wunderbar

zusammengefasst

112 Jakob: aso

113 Prof: denn wenn man jetzt ähm sozusagen eine individualistischen

relativismus übertreiben würde kommt man zur philosophischen position des

sollypsismus also dass wir halt in unseren eigenen welten leben und dass es da

eigentlich keinen weg heraus gibt und siehe scheidungsraten so ist es halt einmal

114 Jakob: ((lacht))

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115 Prof: es ist alles ein traum womöglich ein philantropischer od-oder

man-manischer traum ähm und das halt ich aber auch für übertrieben in diese richtung

gehen manche philosophischen strömungen und in der swischen-wissenschaft die ganz

stark die relativistischen zur letzten konsequenz müsste man ziehen soweit fort denken

nicht dass ich nicht glaube dass das stimmt natürlich verwenden wir alle die

lexikalischen eigenheiten die grammatischen strukturen in individueller weise

ähm ((holt luft)) aber es gibt sozusagen einen gemeinsamen nenner und das ist eben

das was man eine historische sprache nennt das deutsche das ist so etwas auf dass sich

alle verlassen können die in deutschland kommunzieren auch wenn sie sich auch wenn

sie sich dann individuell durch den einen oder anderen ausdruck durch die biografie

durch assoziationen die man hat durch metaphern die man kreativ im laufe seines

lebens bildet und wo plötzlich dasselbe sprachlich ausgedrückte konzept dann mit

anderen dingen in verbindung gebracht wird und da kriegt dieser ausdruck dann eine

andere färbung also lakoff gibt ja dieses beispiel dieses argument is war ja vielzitiert

inzwischen man könnte aber argumentieren auch als ein äh kreatives soziales spiel

ansehen oder etwas ästetisches was man gemeinsam kreiert wenn man sich diesen

argumentationsbegriff zu eigen macht dann sieht man die welt ein bisschen anders und

wahrscheinlich ziemlich individuell weil eben das gängige in den äh alltagssprachen

äh sind eben diese kriegsmetaphern aber trotzdem über dieses individuelle

hinausgehen würde ich sagen gibt es etwas gemeinsames und das würde ich eben

die wörtliche bedeutung nennen ah es ist ja auch so das man bei ausdrücken wie

faschismus oder stalinismus oder so da wird man es nicht schaffen sich darauf zu

einigen was da wirklich in der welt darunter gemeint ist und das wird ja oft als

argument der relativisten angewendet ja seht ihrs ihr redet da von der objektiven

wirklichkeit die gibt’s gar nicht und so weiter das sprachspiel da wird’s dann auf

wittgenstein verwiesen macht aus was wahr oder falsch ist aber jenseits dieser

streite äh streitigkeiten über wahr oder falsch oder über die welt gibt’s eben einen

gemeinsamen bedeutungskern mit dem man eben über freiheit und gleichheit und

faschismus und so weiter diskutiert der ist gemeinsam also ich glaube an so was wie

eine grundbedeutung und das ist natürlich da sind wir natürlich auf der ebene des

ganzen systems quer durch alle individuen durch und dann kann man natürlich sagen

wenn man natürlich an universalien glaubt und ich glaube schon auch an

universalien ich wäre nur viel vorsichtiger als chomsky mit universalien äh dann

gibt’s eben quer durch alle sprachen durch noch einmal so eine schicht die dann

eben allen äh individuen der spezies homo sapiens gemeinsam ist und wenn man

dann eben noch eine denkschicht annimmt jenseits der sprachen dann wär das

eben auch etwas spezies spezifisches was allen individuen gemeinsam ist und ich

glaube mit dem satz von [Humboldt]

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

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116 Prof: zusammengefasst dass das alles stimmt also vom SUPER

individuellen der eigenen sprache des idiolekts bis zu den universalien ist alles

irgendwo real und ich glaube schlecht ist eben so wie es die radikalen parteien

machen also zu sagen das universale gibt’s nicht oder das relative das bestreitet ja im

grunde ja niemand also da wird ja so gesagt dass es da so unterschiede gibt aber wenn

ich dann mit linguisten diskutiere die universalistisch denken dann sagt der das ist

unwich t i g das ist marginal das ist aber bitte das räumliche orientierungssystem der

aboriginee sprachen die da ihren kompass sozusagen eingebaut haben das halt ich

nicht für marginal das halte ich für ganz wesentlich im zweifelsfall auch für

wesentlicher als eben die universale das ist eben mein punkt so gemäßigter

relativismus da … mhm

117 Jakob: mhm vielen dank noch einmal vielen dank ähm also ähm ganz

konkret würde das eben die conceptual system erklären für mich ah w-w-was eben für

mich jetzt noch sehr interessant ist ist ob das haben sie schon einmal angedeutet

118 Prof: ja

119 Jakob: ob sie das bestätigen könnten dadurch dass man verschiedene

sprachen spricht

120 Prof: mhm

121 Jakob: und jetzt bezie- bin ich eine person die i-ich lese viel in englisch

ich schreibe eigentlich auch in englisch man könnt fast sagen dass ich vom denken her

i-ich also wenn ich mein eigenes denken beobachte eben ähm w-wie-wir haben schon

gesagt des is dieses denken und wenn man sich selbst beobachtet dann ist das sehr

wohl in sprache ((schluckt)) dann wär das in englisch

122 Prof: mhm

123 Jakob: inwiefern-inwiefern mehr oder weniger das-das ähm conceptual

system von englisch ähm mehr oder weniger über mein conceptual system von-von

deutsch drübergestülpt ist

124 Prof: mhm

125 Jakob: od-oder wie man sich das vorstellen kann und eben m-meine

idee und abgesehen davon wie das in spanisch hineinpasst dass ich fließend spanisch

beherrsche die idee eben meine idee ob sie das bestätigen könnten ist das eben wir

lernen einen gewissen idiolekt den man so auch auf diese mentalese auf d-diese

gedankenebene mehr oder weniger übertragen kann

126 Prof: mhm

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127 Jakob: wo-wo sich gewisse conceptual systems also gewisse

kategorien formen die sind grundgegeben durch sprache durch den erwerb einer

neuen sprache erlangt man ein neues conceptual system

128 Prof: mhm

129 Jakob: das man allerdings-allerdings bis zu einem gewissen grad also

vor allem wenn man so sagen: für mich ist englisch eine fremdsprache und die

verwend ich nur dann und dann zum beispiel ich lerne französisch die lern ich nur

dann und dann

130 Prof: mhm

131 Jakob: ähm dann ist es natürlich: ich bin mir dieses conceptual systems

bewusst verwende es aber nicht ((holt luft)) ich glaube inzwischen das englisch für

mich einen viel näheren teil und viel größeren teil meines denkens ausmacht also

meiner kognition

132 Prof: mhmh

133 Jakob: und das mehr oder weniger das-dass keine ahnung eine

vermischung stat-tgefunden hat bis zu einem gewissen grad und dass ich unter

anfürhungszeichen beide gleichzeitig verwende wie das so schön beschrieben wird mit

den bilingualen

134 Prof: mhmh mhm mhm

135 Jakob: also von der idee her

136 Prof: ja wie gesagt die grundschwierigkeit um da an-vorzugehen

ist eben dass es uns so schwer fällt über nicht sprachliches also kognitive systeme

zum beispiel sprachlich zu sprechen das ist di-di-die grundkrux quasi bei dieser

ganzen fragestellung ähm ich würde – eben grundsätzlich geh ich wie gesagt davon

aus es gibt praktisch ein grund hinter dem sprachen befindliches denken das eben dann

quer durch die sprachen – auch da glaub ich eben also zumindest grundsätzlich an

universalien man darf da aber eben auch nicht wieder übertreiben denn eben ein

indigenes volk das denkt eben auch bis zu einem gewissen grad kulturspezifisch

anders da braucht man noch gar nicht in die sprache und die lexikalischen strukturen

hineingehen wie eben meinetwegen ein mitteleuropäisches volk ähhh aber so was eine

sprachenübergreifende schicht die nehm ich an, die eben jetzt aber von den sprachen

abzulösen ist etwas ungeheuer heikles, was man leichter sagen kann also was jetzt

sozusagen allgemein was jetzt mehrsprachigkeit oder bilingualismus oder

multilingualismus sei es erworben sei es eben ähhh ähh also natürlich erworben sei es

im fremdsprachenunterricht erworben dass das sozusagen in einem steigenden ausmaß

also bis zu dieser

((Tür geht auf))

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137 Unbekannte weibliche Stimme: Ich triff die ….

138 Prof: aha ok sagst du einen ganz schönen gruß

((Tür fällt zu))

139 Prof: das das bis zu einem gewissen grad ähm natürlich in diese

denkschicht eingreift weil wir zumindest als normalsterblicher jetzt kann man

natürlich in die mystik gehen und die esoterik und so weiter normalsterbliche sind

natürlich ungeheuer was das denken betrifft

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

140 Prof: ja wie finden wir denn dann die wörter die wir suchen und erst

dann können wir sie benennen also wir können zu dieser schicht äh vorstellen-

vorstoßen aber wenn wir jetzt einmal hernehmen die muttersprach oder eben den

bilingualismus, ich ähm sind Sie zweisprachig englisch deutsch aufgewachsen?

141 Jakob: nein, gott nein

142 Prof: ach

143 Jakob: aber einfach

144 Prof: [also wenn der] einfluss sehr intensiv sehr intensiv mit englisch

befasst, dass dann natürlich dann naja ich würde sagen [zur zweiten Heimat] werden

man ist das so gewöhnt in den bahnen einer sprache und wenn man viel zeit damit

verbracht hat zwei oder drei sprachen zu denken äh dass sich das dann ä h h ä h h ja

kaum mehr ablösen lässt j a GLEICHZEITIG muss man aber sagen äh is-ist es aber

auch wieder ein argument des radikalen sprachrelativismus weil whorf selber als

kronzeuge in dem punkt sagt an irgendeiner stelle ah: jene menschen die also jenseits

des rahmens äh ä h h frameworks ah relativity principle ihrer muttersprache denken

können äh sind eben die die viele sprachen gelernt haben auf sehr hohem niveau

verstanden haben dass heißt man kann sich da heraus lösen aus diesem ah ah system

aus dem man da hineingeboren wird äh in fällen wo man bilingual aufwächst äh es

gibt ja viele äh hauptsächlich sind sie kleine sprachen indigene äh kulturen wo

menschen mit drei vier fünf sprachen normalerweise aufwachsen

145 Jakob: aha

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146 Prof: also dass ist in westafrika habe ich in der literatur gelesen in

baku und in der nähe ist das eher der normalfall also das model als der spezialfall aber

wenn man mit diesen vielen äh aufwächst dann hat man sozusagen immer gelegenheit

aus dem rahmen der muttersprache wenn man sie jetzt wirklich nur so auffassen die

sprache der mutter eben äh äh wo man aus dem heraustreten kann und das betont das

sehr deutlich auch das ist äh eingentlich auch eine super-intellektuelle großtat von

Sapir und Whorf ist der hat äh des äh des weltbild-hypothese ja auch aufgestellt aber

gleichzeigt kulg wie er ist gesagt es ist nicht SO unüberwindbar diese sprache j a a a

und jetzt wenn man jetzt so man so [...] ist vom mehrsprachigen individuellen ja ich

selber kanns leider nicht beurteilen weil ich alle meine fremdsprachen erst relativ spät

in der schule gelernt hab und äh nicht äh oder erst als erwachsener und da auch nicht

in die NÄHE von deutsch gekommen bin aber wenn man jetzt literatur äh da gibt es

relativ viel literatur dazu äh selbstzeugnisse von multilingualen äh das wär vielleicht

etwas wo sie, wenn sie noch zeit haben, hineinschauen könnten i kann ihnen auch

vielleicht äh eins zeigen wenn ichs ja da herhalte haben sies ja da gleich abgefilmt

147 Jakob: ja bitte

148 Prof: ok ((steht auf, kehr mit dem buch zurück und hält es in die

kamera)) äh das wäre dieses buch hier

149 Jakob: ja multiple realities of multilingualism ja

150 Prof: ja da sind ganz viele ganz viele selbstzeugnisse drinnen und äh

solche literatur hat es schon früher gegeben äh und da liest man dann zum beispiel

dass stark mehrsprachig - ich kenn das jetzt nicht so von denen die relativ sprachfluss

haben - sagen dass äh da ganze tagesablauf also da muss man wohl auch annehmen

denken und verhalten äh von äh von bestimmten sprachen in einem bestimmten

sektor beeinflusst wird also so quasi die eine sprache x ist in der familie die zweite ist

die berufssprache die dritte ist die sprache für einen ganz bestimmten freundeskreis

mit ganz bestimmten interessen äh kunst architektur und so weiter u n d das gibts

einmal also so eine spezialisierung ä h wo man dann ganz intensiv nur in einem

bereich in den sprachen xyz drinnen ist, dann gibts solche dinge wie ähm das träumen

in fremden sprache das ist sicher dann etwas wo-wo das geht dann schon tiefer in die

essenz in unserer persönlichkeit, also ich hab

151 Jakob: ((holt luft))

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152 Prof: mein ganzes leben noch nicht - nur wenn ich einmal im ausland

für ein paar monate war in einem fremden sprachraum das ich mich ein zweimal

erinnern kann in fremdsprache geträumt zu haben oder wie sie jetzt sagen dass

gedankenprozesse in der fremdsprache - das ist wahrscheinlich so die intensivste

stufe dies es so äh gibt äh und dann gibts natürlich äh auf der anderen seite das andere

extrem äh wenn man fremdsprachen nur schwach erwirbt dann gibt es halt zumindest

würde ich sagen so ein paar so äh so kleine isolierte einflächige gewohnheiten wo man

ganz stark in der fremdsprache drinnen ist also ich lerne jetzt sein ziemlich vielen

jahren zeit türkisch weil ich mal eine nicht indoeuropäische sprache lernen wollte -

nebenbei ich hab jetzt in zehn minuten dann die türkisch stunde da müsst ma dann

abbrechen

153 Jakob: ja natürlich

154 Prof: ah ah und jetzt ist aber meine lebensgefährtin tschechin und

jetzt lern ich seit drei jahren tschechisch, des is aber alles sehr sektoral also türkisch

verwend ich äh türkischstunde mit

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

155 Prof: proben gestimmt also äh das ist nicht sprachliches handel

einfluss auf handeln und so wieter ähm und da geht’s eben jetzt schon über das hinaus

und das ganze auf die kultur verschieben ist –ja da muss ich massiv

widersprechen weil einfach kultur und sprache viel zu schlecht zu trennen ist ,

ich will übringens auch wieder nicht sagen das das ein und dasselbe ist das sagen dann

auch wieder manche kultur ist sprache sprache ist kultur ah es gibt ja die kultur der

gegenstände und dann gibt’s eben wieder so was wie musik äh und so weiter was man

eben nichts alles auf die kultur reduzieren kann aber eben ganz entscheidende dinge

von kultur sind eben versprachlicht und nicht zuletzt ist ja das dramatische

sprachensterben in unseren tagen welches – die pessimistischen schätzungen gehen

davon aus das ende dieses jahrhunderts neunzig prozent aller sprachen weg sein

werden sicher alle ganz kleinen und das ist natürlich eine katastophe für uns in der

linguistik sowieso aber auch für die menschheit ähm und diese kulturen man müsste ja

wenn das stimmt was er behauptet dann müsste es so sein dass die kulturen die werden

ja heute nicht mehr ausgelöscht der genozid ist glücklicherweise in unserer zeit relativ

selten geworden früher sind natürlich auch die völker im kolonnialzeitalter physisch

ausgelöscht worden aber im endeffekt bestehen diese kulturen ja weiter nur

verlieren sie massenhaft ihre sprache bleiben diese kulturen dann bestehen?

NEIN die bleiben nicht bestehen innerhalb von einer zwei höchstens drei generation

sind sie aufgessaugt von der mehrheitskultur ja bitte, mcworther ist da…

156 Jakob: McWorther

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157 Prof: äh äh wie erklärt er das bitte wenn wenn die kultur also von

sprache etwas relativ unabhängiges sein soll es gibt also um das klarste beispiel zu

sagen es gibt diese unübersetzbaren wörter die sind eben dann ganz typisch für einen

sprach und kulturkreis äh das ist dann sozusagen nicht mehr äh von einander zu

trennen, und äh ((schlckt)) äh und darüber hinaus gibt’s eben dann –sind eben

wesentliche momente der weltanschauungen der familien der

verwandtschaftswortschatz das hat alles ganz eng mit kultur zu tun ähm äh äh das

kann man nicht abtrennen von meiner auffassung ja also da würde ich sehr

protestieren dagegen ja

158 Jakob: ja

159 Prof: mhm

160 Jakob: ganz-ganz zum schluss noch ich hab mir da etwas unglaubliches

gescheites zumindest hab ich das gedacht aufgeschrieben ähm ja genau ähm inwiefern

ist äh spielt diese äh die-wovon der lakoff diese embodied experience

161 Prof: ja ja mhm

162 Jakob: also dieses auf der einen seite gibt es diese basic level structures

auf der anderen seite diese

163 Prof: ja

164 Jakob: wie sagt man kinestetic image schimatic structures di-die mehr

oder weniger di-die conceptual capacity grundlegen

165 Prof: ja ja ja

166 Jakob: in-inwiefern erklären sie des und vor allem für des

167 Prof: ja da würde ich ähm auch wieder mal grundsätzlich – es ist ja

verknüpft sehr eng mit einer universalistischen hypothese in diesem punkt da würde

ich einmal sagen ja äh da ist natürlich auch was plausibles dran keine frage alle

angehörige der species homo sapiens haben gewisse physilogische eigenschaften

blutdruck gewicht köper-äh-teil und so weiter standardpositionen und so weiter

grundbedürfnisse biologische wachen schlafen hunger durst und so weiter und

das ist universal keine frage und es wäre eben schon sehr sonderbar wenn man

jetzt nicht in vielen kulturen so embodied concepts finden würde angesichts

dieser tatsache das ist das eine, das andere aber wieder und da geh ich jetzt wieder in

die relativistische richtung ist jetzt wieder die frage wie stark gewichtet man das also

ist das jetzt ungeheuer prägend und das was es jetzt einzelsprachlich gibt oder weiter

in einzelnen kulturen wenn man auch darüber ein bisschen hinausgehen ist das dann

peripher marginal denn in der ganzen an-an Lakoff anschließenden forschung

168 Jakob: ((holt luft))

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169 Prof: ist ja nie bestritten worden dass sich metaphern von sprache zu

sprache unterscheiden können dass sie kulturspezifisch sein können äh nur haben halt

die einen dass dann – ich habe in buch gelesen von einem chinesischen native speaker

der geglaubt hat eben zu zeigen dass d i e chinesische sprache und kultur sich mit

dieser hypothese gut verträgt dass es zwar individualle unterschiede gibt und auch

unterschiedliche metaphern aber im großen und ganzen wird eben die universalistische

hypothese eben bestätigt, und DAS glaub ich wieder NICHT also ich glaube man

muss das gewicht ein bisschen stärker richtung sprachenkultur relativität da

verschieben muss, das heißt NICHT das die annahme falsch ist aber das sie nicht so

dominant ist und das liegt an der sprache und am kulturellen unterschied scheinbar

zwei beispiele weil ich eben selber ähm auch einmal [Feldforschung betrieben habe]

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

170 Prof: aber ein AUFSATZ ist herausgekommen und da hab ich äh eben

welche befragt von vier indigenen sprachen native speakers zwei davon immerhin

auch linguistinnen die also auch über alle diese dinge nachdenken ich hab natürlich

nicht die zeit gehabt da in drei monaten hunderte leute zu befragen das wär eine viel

tollere basis gewesen UND ich hab eigentlich erwartet – ich hab sie über metaphern

von liebe und hass ausgefragt und ich war eigentlich – ich war eigentlich unterwegs

um Lakoff zu bestätigen weil ich mir gedacht habe die werden jetzt auch

daherkommen mit feuer mit kochenden flüssigkeiten mit wahnsinn mit bestien und so

weiter ((schluckt)) für heftige emotionen, und dass war dann eine ganz interessante

empirische lektion die ich da erhalten habe ERSTENS einmal haben sie gesagt na ja

wir reden in unseren sprachen über gefühle nicht mit substantiven weil ich wollte ich

von ihnen eine liste und ich hab ihnen die englische substantive gegeben und sie sollen

mir da die navaho hopi sotohonoham ahm äh äh entsprechungen die metaphern dazu

sagen ähm und das scheint für mehrere nordamerikanische indianersprachen

zuzutreffen dass sehr viel was wir im deutschen oder ähnlich vielen zumindest

indoeuropäischen sprachen in europa mit substantiven ausdrücken das es dort mit

verben ausgedrückt wird also ihre emotionen sind ein prozess die kann man nicht als

dinge also auffassen PUNKT EINS PUNKT ZWEI diese heftigen emotionen die sind

in ihren kulturen kaum benannt also des is dort fast so was wie ein tabu a h h h

LODERNDER HASS verrückt nach jemandem sein also irrwitzige liebe und so

weiter, das hat schon einmal keine benennung sondern das spektrum geht eher so von

mögen bis nicht mögen sozusagen

171 Jakob: ((lacht))

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172 Prof: auch einmal schon die nächste lektion aber die massivste lektion

war dass sie sagen kein feuer keine kochenden flüssigkeiten in gefäßen und so weiter

und da war ich dann schon groß überrascht, NICHT das ich jetzt damit sage damit ist

Lakoff widerlegt nein überhaupt nicht also dieses embodiment da ist etwas dran und

das halt ich auch für universal aber diese beispiele haben gezeigt und ich könnte mir

vorstellen es könnte noch hunderte sprachen geben wo es nicht so ist wie in den vielen

wo man bisher geglaubt hat man kanns bestätigen

173 Jakob: mhm

174 Prof: das ist ja auch genau untersucht worden für viele

indoeuropäische sprachen und auch nicht indoeuropäische sprachen um äh das zweite

beispiel ist eben dann dieses chinesische wo ich mir erwarten würde dass ein

muttersprachler ja das besondere der eigenen sprach e und der kultur ja so willig war

zu sagen: ja embodiment das funktioniert es sind vielleicht ein paar andere organe im

chinesischen aber im prinzip laufts genau so ab, und ähm am entsetztesten war ich

dann wie ich einen aufsatz gelesen habe von traditioneller chinesischer medizin und

wo ich die übersertzung gelesen habe von solchen termini englisch chinesisch wo die

auch gesagt haben man kann im wesentlich eigentlich zwischen der weslichen

anatomie also auf englisch deutsch oder was auch immer ausgedrückt da sehr gut hin

und her übersetzen, aus meiner sicht wo ich eben gemäßigter relativist bin soweit

bestürzend dann habe ich aber ein bisschen genauer versucht nachzulesen über was

dieser chinese über – muss i a sagen er selber hat mir die argumente geliefert über

chinesische grundtermini die ganz zentral sind für die kultur die eben deswegen kaum

übersertzbar sind was er darüber schreibt und auch interessant was dann eben da die

zwei translationswissenschaftler da über die ausdrücke der traditionellen chinesischen

medizin schreibt, das sind nämlich teilweise konvergierend sachen weil im

chinesischen anscheinend ausgegangen wird chí glaub ich heißt das so vierter ton

fallender ton ist so eine art lebensenergie die nicht materiell ist

175 Jakob: mhm mhm

176 Prof: also nichts mit strom zu tun hat auf der beruht aber die gesamte

akupunktur letztenendes und das ist wiederum tief mit der yingyang lehre äh ver-

verknüpft und verwurzelt

177 Jakob: taoismus, taoismus ist das glaub ich das ganze system da oder

könnte das sein

178 Prof: ja ich glaube schon bin ich jetzt selber nicht gut genug

eingelesen äh jedenfalls das hat ein chinesischer kollege in den usa aber eben

chinesisch stämmig alles dokumentiert aber da kann ich doch nicht mehr so einfach

sagen: ja die universalistische hypothese hat sich bestätigt wenn so ein fundamentaler

unterschied ist

179 Jakob: mhm

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180 Prof: wenn hinter diesen emotionen, weil zorn ist dann eben

zumindest eben äh von der chinesischen kultur und traditionellen sprache her gesehen

ist eben eine art blockade dieses äh äh also äh also dieser lebensenergie und daraus

können krankheiten entstehen und so weiter das ist ja schon mal was ganz anderes wie

eben in-in indoeuropäischen sprachen wo äh so heftige emotionen metaphorisch

gesprochen wird und des beste war eben nachdem die translationswissenschaftler eben

die längste zeit nur gesagt haben lässt sich übersetzen lässt sich parallel darstellen lässt

sich parallel darstellen lässt sich parallel darstellen sagen sie dann zum schluss: na bis

auf chí und äh ying und yang das soll man unübersetzt lassen das ist nicht übersetzbar

na gut na-da leit ich aber was ganz anderes ab wenn [so fundamentale begriffe nicht

übersetzt werden können]

[Aufnahme unterbrochen]]

181 Prof: [wenn strukturen wie embodiment] in den metaphernsystemen

eine rolle spielen dann würd ich sagen ja dann gibt’s zwar trotzdem des universale

aber das muss man ein bisschen bescheidener sehen

182 Jakob: mhm

183 Prof: also ist eine eher dünne schicht ähm und ähm ich habe dann

zum schluss in amerika begonnen diese kolleginnen dann nicht mehr auszufragen was

ich von der literatur her eigentlich erwartet hätte von metaphern sondern ich hab sie

dann ganz anders gefragt: na wie wird denn dann in navaho äh metaphorisch von liebe

und hass gesprochen und dann hat sie natürlich ganz anders begonnen nachzudenken

und hat dann gesagt zum beispiel äh äh ein paar in einer langen ehebeziehung oder

sonst sehr engen beziehung da sagt man sie sitzen nebeneinander naja da sind wir

schon wieder im raum und irgendwie embodiment nur anders

184 Jakob: mhm

185 Prof: und äh deswegen würd ich ja ist meine grundüberzeugung es

gibt diese universale schicht aber sie ist nicht so massiv wie da die radikalen

universalisten annehmen und eher hab ichs mit den relativisten aber nicht so

weit wie die gehen das die ja universalien überhaupt bestreiten das geht mir zu

weit ja

186 Jakob: mhm

187 Prof: jetzt muss ich das gespräch beenden

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188 Jakob: natürlich natürlich ähm Herr Professor Kienpointner mir wärs-

ich bin generell bei solchen sachen eine person die an solchen sachen ganz-ganz-ganz

lange arbeitet und sich immer so viele sorgen macht und vor allem in die richtung dass

ich jetzt beispielsweise was vergessen was ich sie gefragt hätte wärs möglich dass ich

ihnen immer wieder mal unter anfürhungszeichen oder wenn mir noch was einfällt

eine Mail schreiben dürfte?

189 Prof: so auf Mail basis des funktioniert also so wie heute eine ganze

stunde stunde das geht schwer weil ich hab ja meine vorlesungen und-und

abgabetermine aufsätze und vorträge und so aber so eine mail das geht schon

190 Jakob: wunderbar dann

191 Prof: dann alles gute also sie haben sich ganz ganz großartig sich mit

dem auseinandergesetzt des hab ich schon gesehen und ähm alles gute für die

vollendung der arbeit ja

192 Jakob: vielen vielen dank noch einmal für das gespräch und-und viel

spaß und freude bei ihrem türkisch kurs

193 Prof: ((lacht)) D A N K E

194 Jakob: wiederschaun wiederschaun

195 Prof: Ba

16:07