Thinking Critically

Most people associate “critical” with faultfinding, nit-picking, and negativity.

Critical comes from a Greek word meaning “to discern or perceive, to separate, to understand.”

To be critical means to look carefully at something, to discover its parts and what it’s made of, and then, sometimes, to evaluate—positively or negatively.

I’m inquisitive. I ask questions of myself or others. I ask questions while I’m reading or looking at things.

I like to be well informed about all kinds of topics.I trust my powers of reasoning to help me think

clearly.I’m open minded. I like to hear what others have to

say, even when I disagree with them.I’m flexible. I’m willing to reconsider and even,

sometimes, to change my mind.I’m usually honest about myself—what I think, want,

and feel.I challenge my own assumptions.

What goes into your writing may come from your own knowledge or experience, or from a book or some other source. Wherever they come from, these details, ideas, and opinions need to be evaluated for accuracy, meaning, and value.

To sort things out, see the connections, and decide what things add up to, employ the four methods of critical thinking: analyzing, interpreting, evaluating, and synthesizing.

When you analyze something, you take it apart and describe it, part by part, to understand it.

There are three methods of analysis: descriptive analysis, process analysis, and causal analysis.

A descriptive analysis describes a subject in terms of its parts.

Example: The roles played by the various characters in a short story or the various parts—root, stem, leaves, and flower—of a particular plant.

Try it out: Write a brief descriptive analysis of this classroom.

To divide an event or activity into stages or steps and then describe their relationships is to make a process analysis.

Example: A recipe for chicken enchiladas—first do this, then this, then this—or a play-by-play account of a basketball game.

Try it out: Write a brief process analysis about coming to class.

To examine events as patterns of cause and effect is to make a causal analysis.

Example: A study about why the polar ice caps are melting or a look at traffic congestion at a particular intersection.

Try it out: Write a brief causal analysis describing why you are in this class.

To interpret means to explain, decode, or bring to light.

When you interpret something, you’re reading between the lines and looking for “hidden meanings” that will remain hidden until you reveal them through interpretation.

These “hidden meanings” can often be found by examining assumptions, patterns, and implications.

To read printed texts—or people—successfully, try to discover their assumptions, the basic, often untested beliefs that influence their outlook, opinion, or behavior.

Example: A person who argues that “The US government should temporarily halt legal immigration because our economy cannot absorb any more new immigrants” is assuming but not actually saying that immigrants drain economic resources rather than adding them or having no effect.

When you’re trying to understand something, look for patterns—regularities or repetitions in information, design, language, or occurrence. Patterns often reveal the meaning of what you’re studying.

Example: Imagine you have an acquaintance who constantly speaks about money: how much he has or doesn’t have, other people’s salaries, the cost of this or that, etc. You probably would base your interpretation of his personality on his overriding concern with money, guessing his values and predicting his future behavior accordingly.

An implication is a connection, usually unstated, between one thing and another.

Often printed texts and people don’t come right out and say exactly what they mean. Instead, they imply something—that is, they suggest or point in a certain direction.

To discover implications, ask yourself, “Where is this train of thought going? What is the next logical step?”

When you evaluate, you measure something against widely shared standards of value that indicate whether something is good or not good.

To write effectively, you’ll evaluate all that goes into your writing to see that it is useful and trustworthy.

Facts and statistics, opinions, and examples and anecdotes all need to be evaluated before they are included in your writing.

A fact is something that can be verified.

To decide whether you or other writers are using facts effectively, apply these four standards (known as Rules of Evidence):1. Sufficiency—are there enough facts to

support the point being made?2. Relevance—do these facts actually apply to

the situation being considered?3. Timeliness—are these facts up to date?4. Variety—do these facts come from or are

they verified by a variety of sources?

An opinion is a statement of belief or a conclusion.

In your writing, you’ll use both facts and opinions, and you’ll have to distinguish between them. When you identify an opinion, evaluate its usefulness with these questions:1. Is this opinion supported by sufficient facts?

Mistrust any opinions that aren’t.2. Is the source of this opinion an expert or

eyewitness? Be careful with opinions from unqualified sources.

3. What are the opinions of other experts or eyewitnesses? See how they compare.

An example describes one member of a group in order to explain the whole group.

An anecdote is a brief story that makes a point.

To use examples and anecdotes effectively, ask yourself this question: Does my example or anecdote really represent what it is supposed to illustrate?

Synthesis comes from a Greek word meaning “to put together, to integrate, to blend.”

When you synthesize facts, ideas, and opinions, you choose among them and put together your choices to express your ideas and support your opinions. Your thinking becomes the focus.

To synthesize effectively, follow these guidelines:o Make a working bibliography. When you take

materials from two or more sources, list your sources, including complete publication information.

o Compare sources. Notice similarities and differences in your sources’ use of key terms, in their thinking, and in there use of facts and opinions.

o Choose the best sources. Consider how your readers will respond to the sources you’ve chosen. Decide how to respond to sources you disagree with.

o As you write, blend your sources smoothly, so they support your ideas and opinions clearly and coherently.

Survey the Writing Situation

Before you begin writing any document or assignment, you must consider what you are writing (scope), why you are writing (purpose), and who you are writing it for (audience).

Scope focuses on the written product and includes questions about the topic, genre, and the size of the project.

When thinking about the scope of your writing project, ask yourself the following:o Has the topic been given to you as part of an assignment?

Can you adapt the topic to your interests? If you have to choose a topic, what is a suitable topic for the assignment?

o What kind of writing does the assignment require: a letter, essay, report, review, or some other form?

o Do you have to cover a broad topic? How focused must your writing be because of reader interest or length and time restrictions? How much detail will you have to use?

o What do you know about the topic? What kinds of information need to be included: personal experience, facts and figures, or expert opinions? Where will you get your information: from memory, observation, reading, discussion?

The purpose of a document is the reason it was written.

When evaluating your purpose consider the following:o What purpose does the wording of the assignment set for

you? Consider instructions such as “Write a personal narrative,” “Write an informative essay,” “Explain,” “Evaluate,” and “Take a position.”

o What writer’s role do you need to take? Can you play the role of an autobiographer writing about yourself, a reporter informing readers, a teacher explaining ideas or procedures, a critic making an evaluation, or a persuader arguing for a position?

The audience is who you are writing the project for. The teacher is not a sufficient audience.

All members of an audience bring to their reading specific knowledge, expectations, opinions, and experiences that influence how they read. As you plan your writing, envision the people in your target audience:o Who are they? What do they know about your

topic? What do they want or need from you?

1. Classify your readers. Are they (1) allies who will accept almost anything you write, (2) potential allies who need only to be informed to accept your ideas, (3) disinterested observers who want information above all else, (4) skeptics who expect careful reasoning and detailed support, (5) opponents who require abundant proof and may not accept your ideas even if you provide it?

2. Identify what these readers know about your topic. What assumption, biases, or knowledge gaps will influence their responses?

3. Determine what your readers expect from you: personal experience, information, explanation, evaluation, proof, or entertainment. What writing style is appropriate for addressing them, informal or formal?

4. Consider what these readers believe about your sources of information. Which ones will they accept as authoritative? Which might they reject as superficial, biased, or inaccurate?