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Thinking about Thinking:
Assessing Foundations for Social-Emotional
Development
Carol Westby, PhD, CCC-SLP
Bilingual and Multicultural Services
Albuquerque, NM
Disclosures
• Financial
– Carol Westby receives an honorarium for this workshop.
– She is a consultant for Bilingual Multicultural Services in
Albuquerque, NM
• Nonfinancial
– She has edited an issue of Topics in Language Disorders on
theory of mind
– She has a chapter on theory of mind and literacy in children
with hearing loss in a book, Promoting Language and Literacy
in Children who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing by Mary Pat
Moeller
Objectives
• Summarize current research documenting neural bases
for emotional understanding and Theory of Mind
• Describe the developmental stages of ToM from infancy
through adolescence
• Assess ToM skills in children from infancy through
adolescence
Thinking about Thinking
Pragmatic-Theory of Mind Relationships
Pragmatic Competence:
Dealing with language and its use in the given
context
ToM Competence:
Dealing with the mental & emotional states that may help explain such
use of language
Kronenberger, W.G., & Pisoni, D.B. (2019). Neurocognitive functioning in deaf children with cochlear implants. In H. Knoors & M. Marschark (Eds.). Evidence-based practices in deaf education (pp. 363-396). New York: Cambridge University Press.
CELF-5 Pragmatics Profile
• Using rituals
• Following conversational rules
– Making/responding to greetings to/from others
– Beginning/end conversations
– Observing turn-taking rules in the classroom or in social
interactions
– Maintaining eye contact/gaze
– Introducing appropriate topics of conversation
• Understanding humor/jokes
• Participation
• Giving/asking for information
• Understanding/expressing complex interactions
• Awareness/use of prosodic cues
• Sharing/responding to reactions
• Reading/using body language
How often does the
student demonstrate the
skill:
• Never/almost never
• Sometimes
• Often
• Always or almost
always
TOPICC
Adams, C., Lockton, E., Gaile, J., & Freed, J.
(2011). TOPICCal applications: Assessment of
children’s conversation skills. Speech and
Language Therapy in Practice, Spring, 7–9.
http://research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk/scip/topicc.pdf
3 marked evidence of that behavior across
conversation; makes a marked impact on
the interaction
2 makes a moderate but still significant
impact on the interaction
1 is noticeable occasionally but makes only
a slight impact on the interaction
0 is never observed and the behavior is
typical of mature interaction style
https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:83594
Classic Definition of Theory of Mind
The ability to attribute mental
states— beliefs, intents, desires,
pretending, knowledge, etc. —to
oneself and others and to
understand that others have
beliefs, desires, and intentions that
are different from one's own
Cognitive Theory of Mind
Premack, D., G., & Woodruff, G. (1978). “Does the chimpanzee have a
theory of mind?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 515-526.
Classic Assessment of Cognitive ToM
False Beliefs Contents (pass)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I0zTg65aaCY
Gopnik, A., & Arlington, J.W., (1988). Children’s understanding of representational
change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality
distinction. Child Development, 59, 26-37.
Classic Assessment of Cognitive ToM
Sally-Anne False Belief Location (fail)
Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a `theory of
mind'? Cognition, 21, 37-46.
Affective Theory of Mind
Shamay-Tsoory, S., et al (2010). The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in affective theory of mind
deficits in criminal offenders with psychopathic tendencies. Cortex, 46, 668-677.
Walter, H. (2012). Social cognitive neuroscience of empathy: Concepts, circuits, and genes.
Emotion Review, 4, 9–17.
• Affective cognitive ToM (Cognitive empathy):
• Awareness and reflection on one’s own emotions
• Ability to recognize or infer what others are feeling
(understanding the emotions of others cognitively)
• Affective empathy: drive to respond appropriately to
others’ emotions
Cognitive ToM
Shamay-Tsoory, S., & Aharon-Peretz, J. (2007). Dissociable prefrontal networks for cognitive and affective
theory of mind: A lesion study. Neuropsychologia, 45, 3054-3067.
Shamay-Tsoory, S., et al (2010). The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in affective theory of mind deficits in
criminal offenders with psychopathic tendencies. Cortex, 46, 668-677.
Affective Cognitive ToM (Cognitive Empathy)
Shamay-Tsoory, S., & Aharon-Peretz, J. (2007). Dissociable prefrontal networks for cognitive and
affective theory of mind: A lesion study. Neuropsychologia, 45, 3054-3067.
Shamay-Tsoory, S., et al (2010). The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in affective theory of mind deficits
in criminal offenders with psychopathic tendencies. Cortex, 46, 668-677.
Cognitive False Belief
Shamay-Tsoory, S., Tibi-Elhanany, Y., &
Aharon-Peretz, J. (2007). The ventromedial
prefrontal cortex is involved in understanding
affective but not cognitive theory of mind
stories. Social neuroscience, 1, 149-166,
Joe and Anna are setting the table for a festive
dinner at the dining room. Anna pours Joe a glass
of water, but some water spills on his new shirt.
Joe says: ‘‘It’s nothing, I will change the shirt later.’’
Anna puts the glass on the table and goes to look
for a paper towel to dry Joe’s shirt. When she
leaves the dining room, Joe takes his handkerchief
and dries the shirt and the table. Anna peeks into
the dining room, sees what Joe is doing, and so
she doesn’t bring a paper towel. Anna returns to
the dining room.
1. What does Joe think that Anna thinks about the
shirt’s condition, when she returns to the dinning
room?
2. What does Anna think of the shirt’s condition?
3. What is the shirt’s condition?
4. What were Joe and Anna doing?
Affective False Belief
Shamay-Tsoory, S., Tibi-Elhanany, Y., &
Aharon-Peretz, J. (2007). The ventromedial
prefrontal cortex is involved in understanding
affective but no cognitive theory of mind
stories. Social neuroscience, 1, 149-166,
Joe and Anna are setting the table for a festive
dinner at the dining room. Anna pours Joe a glass
of water, but some water spills on his new shirt.
Joe says: ‘‘It’s nothing, I will change the shirt
later.’’ Anna puts the glass on the table and goes
to look for a paper towel to dry Joe’s shirt. When
she leaves the dining room, Joe gets furious about
the wet shirt and kicks the table. Anna peeks into
the dining room, sees what Joe is doing and feels
guilty. Anna comes back to the dining room.
1. What does Joe think that Anna feels about the
wet shirt, when she returns?
2. What does Anna think Joe feels about the wet
shirt?
3. How does Joe feel?
4. What were Joe and Anna preparing for?
Interpersonal
Cognitive ToM
• Mary plays a trick on
Sam, whose favorite
snack is M&Ms. Mary
puts M&Ms in toothpaste
box and puts box on
Sam’s table.
• What did Sam think was
inside the toothpaste box
before opening it?
Intrapersonal
Cognitive ToM
• Ask child if he/she prefers for
a snack M&Ms or toothpaste.
C says M&Ms and is then
handed a wrapped box. C
unwraps and sees
toothpaste box. C opens box
and finds M&Ms.
• What did you think was
inside the toothpaste box
before opening it?
Lucariello, J., Le Donne, M., Durand, T., & Yarnell, L, (2006). Social and intrapersonal
theory of mind. In A. Antonietti, Liverta-Sempio, & Antonella Marchetti (Eds.), Theory of
mind in language and developmental contexts. (pp. 149-171). New York: Springer.
Interpersonal
Affective ToM
• How did Sam feel about
what was inside the box
before opening it?
Intrapersonal
Affective ToM
• How did you feel about
what was inside the box
before opening it?
Lucariello, J., Le Donne, M., Durand, T., & Yarnell, L, (2006). Social and intrpersonal theory
of mind. In A. Antonietti, Liverta-Sempio, & Antonella Marchetti (Eds.), Theory of mind in
language and developmental contexts. (pp. 149-171). New York: Springer.
IntrapersonalAffective Cognitive
Reflect on one’s
own emotions
Regulate one’s
own emotions
and motivation
InterpersonalAffective Cognitive
Recognize
emotions of
others
Infer emotions
of others
Infer behavior
based on
emotions
Types of
Theory of Mind
Cognitive Affective
Interpersonal
Understand that
others can have
thoughts,
beliefs, desires
different than
my own
Infer mental
states of others
Infer behavior
based on
thoughts
Intrapersonal
Reflect on one’s
own mental
states
Plan one’s
behavior
Use
metacogntive
learning
strategies
Intrapersonal
Reflect on
one’s own
mental states
Plan one’s
behavior
Use
metacognitive
learning
strategies
Affective
Empathy
Empathize with
others
Metacognition:
Intrapersonal Cognitive ToM
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of
cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906-911.
Emotions in context
Vermeulen, P. (2009). Autism as context blindness. AAPC Publishing.
Data has a cognitive ToM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQoJOAbAsRM
But…
Data does not have an affective ToM
Friendship involves all aspects of ToM
Sheldon tries to approach friendship using his intrapersonal
cognitive ToM https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0xgjUhEG3U
Deficits in Intrapersonal Affective ToM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QhZLQsJg9U
Cognitive intrapersonal ToM: I know that in books, foxes are usually bad.
Cognitive interpersonal ToM: The goose doesn’t know the fox is there but we do. We
know fox’s intention is to eat a goose and duck.
Affective interpersonal ToM: We realize that goose is nervous/worried.
Affective empathy: We might feel worried/frightened for goose and duck.
Affective intrapersonal: I remember 3 of my ducks that were killed by predators.
Neural Networks Subserving ToM
Cognitive ToM Affective ToM
Abu-Akel, A., & Shamay-Tsoory, A., (2011). Neuroanatomical and neurochemical bases of theory of mind.
Neuropsychologia, 49, 2971-2984.
Shamay-Tsoory, S., et al (2010). The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in affective theory of mind deficits in
criminal offenders with psychopathic tendencies. Cortex, 46, 668-677.
think, know, believe feel (emotions)
Dorsal
lateral
prefrontal
Dorsal
medial
prefrontal
Temporal
parietal
junction
Inferior
lateral
frontal
Ventral
medial
prefrontal
Orbital
frontal
Neural Networks Facial Processing
• Inferior occipital gyri
– Early perception of facial
features
• Fusiform gyri
– Invariant aspects of faces
– Facial identification
• Superior temporal sulci (STS)
– Changeable aspects of
faces
– Perception of eye gaze,
expression, lip
movements
Pelphrey, K.A., Perlman, S.B., & Vander Wyk, B.C. (2013). Brain mechanisms for social perception dysfunction in
autism. In M.A. Just & K.A. Pelphrey (Eds.), Development and brain systems in autism (151-178). New York: Psychology
Press.
Ward, J. (2012). The student’s guide to social neuroscience. New York: Psychology Press.
Intrapersonal ToM
• Cortical Midline
structures
– Medial prefrontal
– Anterior, middle,
posterior cingulate
– Precuneus
Evaluative and self-reflective aspects of self
Kana, R.K., et al (2013). Neural representations of self versus other: Lessons from autism. In
M.A. Just & K.A. Pelphrey (Eds.), Development and brain systems in autism (pp. 179-201). New
York: Psychology Press.
Northoff, G., et al (2006). Self-referential processing in our brain – a meta-analysis of imagining
studies on the self. NeuroImage, 31, 440-457.
Insula
Affective Empathy
Limbic system
Inferior frontal
Amygdala
Shamay-Tsoory, S., et al (2010). The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in affective theory of
mind deficits in criminal offenders with psychopathic tendencies. Cortex, 46, 668-677.
Walter, H. (2012). Social cognitive neuroscience of empathy: Concepts, circuits, and genes. Emotion Review, 4, 9–17.
Mirror Neuron System
A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts
and when the animal observes or hears the same action
performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of
the other, as though the observer were
itself acting.
• Visual mirror neurons
• Auditory mirror neurons
Rizzolatti, G., et al. (1996) Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions. Cognitive Brain
Research 3 131-141.
Iacoboni, M., Woods, R.P., et al (1999). Cortical mechanisms of human Imitation. Science 286,
2526–2528.
Keysers, C., & Gazzola, V.(2010). Social neuroscience: Mirror neurons recorded in humans.
Current Biology 20, 353–354.
Mirror neurons & emotional contagion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IAbTDlVTIqE
Affective cognitive ToM
2-year old watching a movie
and crying because a
dinosaur fell down
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_-CRP_B1Zs
Beaudoin, C. et al., (2020). Systematic review and inventory of theory of mind measures for young children.
Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2905. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6974541/
ATOMS: Abilities in Theory of Mind Space ToM in Communication Disorders
• All aspects of ToM significantly affected
• Cognitive ToM tends to develop in children with high-functioning autism or Asperger
Autism
• Delays in development of most aspects of ToM
• Fewer mental state & emotional words than typical children
Language Impairment
• May have delays in ToM development
• Higher levels of inter- and intrapersonal ToM affected
• Particular deficits in intrapersonal ToM for self-regulation of behavior and emotions
Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder
ToM in Communication Disorders
• Delays in cognitive ToM (particularly for Deaf of hearing parents)
• Reduced affective ToM: Poor identification of emotions and recognizing causes of emotions
Deafness
• Delays in cognitive ToM
• Delays, ongoing difficulties with affective ToM
• Difficulties identifying emotion in tone of voice
Blindness
• Deficits in accurately recognizing negative emotions
• ToM deficits in affective empathy often most marked
Abuse/
Neglect
Development of Theory of Mind
Infant/toddler foundations
Primary & secondary
intersubjectivity
Preschool foundations
Symbolic skills (play & language)
1st order ToM
Predicting what
someone is thinking/ feeling
2nd order ToM
Predicting/
knowing what one person
thinks another person
thinks/feels
Higher order ToM
Lies
Figurative language
Sarcasm
Infant/Toddlers Foundations of ToM:
Birth – 17 monthsAttunement: Foundation for ToM
• Affective coordination between the gestures and expressions of the
infant and those of caregivers with whom they interact
• Likely related to mirror neurons
Gaze following: Foundation for ToM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JkkJrqKnmcw&list=PL8XV
POU-7gtyLcPGoqo2Qx0tnTEpmk3_4&index=3
Affective cognitive ToM: Referencing
• Borrowing the perspective
of another person
• Using other’s reactions as
a reference point
• Determining the emotional
meaning of an unfamiliar
person or object
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_UHkFUzHQA
Conversation/Coordination
Referencing while engaging in ongoing interaction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9FhImmxcwbs&list=PL8XVPOU-7gty78Z5rhTa-
PAoQ78cJirKT&index=5
Coordination/Coregulation
• Taking regulatory actions to preserve coordination during parallel and complementary activities
• Referencing while engaged in ongoing activity
Preschool ToM Foundations:
(18 months – 5/6 years)
• Development of Symbolic Skills/Mental Representations
– Sense of self
– Pretend play
– Developing descriptive and narrative language
Intrapersonal Cognitive ToM: Sense of Self
Uddin, L.Q. (2011). The self in autism: An emerging view from neuroimagining. Neurocase, 17,
201-208.
Rochat, P. (2003). Five levels of self-awareness as they unfold in life. Consciousness and
Cognition, 12, 717-731.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2I0kwSua44
Interpersonal Cognitive ToM
Recognizing likes & dislikes of others
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GhJJPnSqU_k&index=
6&list=PL8XVPOU-7gtyUhWZ9A8T0eSrogadvX7CF
Intrapersonal Cognitive ToM: Pretend Play
• A step to theory of mind
• Awareness of
pretend/ideas/thoughts of self and
eventually others
• Taking on roles involves making
inferences essential for
comprehension
Goldstein, T.R., & Winner, E. (2012). Enhancing empathy and theory of mind. Journal of Cognition &
Development, 13, 19-37.
Kavanaugh, R.D (2011). Origins and consequences of social pretend play. In. A. Pellegrini (Ed.),
The Oxford handbook of the development of play (pp. 296-307). New York: Oxford University Press.
Leslie, A.M. (1994). Pretending and believing: Issues in the theory of ToMM. Cognition, 50, 211-238.
Pretend Play: 19-22 months
Pretend on dolls/puppets/stuffed animals
Inter and Intrapersonal Cognitive and Affective
ToM: Taking on roles in pretend play
Affective ToM: Identifying Nonsocial Universal Emotions
happy
sad
mad
surprised
disgusted
afraid
Affective ToM: Associating Emotions
(nonsocial) and Situations
Michalson, L., & Lewis, M. (1985). What do children know
about emotions and when do they know it. In M. Lewis &
C. Saarni (Eds.), The socialization of emotions. New York:
Plenum.
Affective ToM: Understanding diverse desires
Tom hates lettuce Peter likes lettuce very much
2 persons have different desires about the same object
Pons, R. Harris, P., & M. de Rosnay (2004). Emotion comprehension between 3-11
years : Developmental periods and hierarchical organization. European Journal of
Developmental Psychology, 1, 127-152
Tom Peter
NIMH Child Emotional Faces
http://devepi.duhs.duke.edu/NIMH_Pictures.html
Cognitive ToM: Diverse Beliefs
Linda wants to find her cat. Her cat might be hiding in the bushes or it
might be hiding in the garage. Where do you think the cat is? In the
bushes, or in the garage? (own-belief question)
If child chooses bushes: “Well, that a good idea, but Linda thinks her
cat is in the garage. So where will Linda look for her cat?”
Cognitive ToM: Knowledge Access
“Here’s a chest. What do you think is inside the drawer?” Open the drawer and show child the
contents: Let’s see. There’s a toy duck inside.
“Jim has never seen inside this drawer. Does Jim know what is inside this drawer?” (target
question) “Did Jim see inside the drawer?” (memory question)
Wellman, H.M. & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of theory-of-mind tasks. Child Development, 75, 523-541.
https://successforkidswithhearingloss.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/The-Theory-of-Mind-Scale.pdf
Cognitive ToM:
Talking about mental states
Westby, C.E., & Wilson, D.J. (2016). Reading the world: Supporting theory of mind development in
deaf or hard-of-hearing students. In M.P. Moeller, D.J. Ertmer, & S. Stoel-Gammon (Eds.), Promoting
language and literacy development in children who are deaf or hard of hearing (pp. 297-328).
Baltimore: Brookes.
Affective ToM:
Talking about feelings
Westby, C.E., & Wilson, D.J. (2016). Reading the world: Supporting theory of mind development in
deaf or hard-of-hearing students. In M.P. Moeller, D.J. Ertmer, & S. Stoel-Gammon (Eds.), Promoting
language and literacy development in children who are deaf or hard of hearing (pp. 297-328).
Baltimore: Brookes.
Affective Cognitive ToM:
Interpreting character feelings
Westby, C.E., & Wilson, D.J. (2016). Reading the world: Supporting theory of mind development in
deaf or hard-of-hearing students. In M.P. Moeller, D.J. Ertmer, & S. Stoel-Gammon (Eds.), Promoting
Language and Literacy Development in Children Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing (pp. 297-328.
Baltimore: Brookes.
The Language of ToM
Character When Feeling Why
Farmer Brown The cows left a note Surprised Because cows
can’t type
Farmer Brown The cows went on
strike
Mad/angry/furious Because he did not
have milk to sell
The cows Farmer Brown
wouldn’t give them
blankets
Upset Because they were
cold
Autobiographical Memory
• Memory of autobiographical events (times, places
associated emotions, and other contextual knowledge)
that can be explicitly stated
• Properties of autobiographical memory:
– Semantic: Knowing is more factual
– Episodic: Remembering is a feeling that is
located in the past
• Involves intrapersonal Theory of Mind
– Sense of subjective (emotional) self in time
Anger, M., et al., (2019). Positive effect of visual cuing in episodic memory and episodic future thinking in
adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1-12.
Fivush, R. (2011). The development of autobiographical memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 2, 559-582.
Weigle, T.W., & Bauer, P.J. (2000). Deaf and hearing adults’ recollections of childhood and beyond. Memory,
8, 293-309.
AFFECTIVE
Feelings,
emotional states
COGNITIVE
Knowing facts & details
Autobiographical Memory:
Space Mountain
Quotes about AM from adults with ASD
• I don't have any personal memories. I just remember everything semantically.
• I have next to no memory at all.
• I have only a few memories which I can recollect well. Most other things I forget or become a blur.
• I remember very intricate sensory details…particularly visual and tactile details.
• I remember things I saw or heard, but not what I did.
• If it’s the same temperature/weather outside on a certain day, I might remember something that happened to me…but usually only when the exact same conditions are present.
Autistic adults commenting on the quality of their episodic memories (Hutchins, Prelock, & Lewis, 2019)
Quotes about AM
from adult with hearing loss
• Everything gets confused or muddled together, mushed together. I
have a vague idea of where I was but when people talk about actual
specific places, like a highlight of a trip, it didn’t really stick with me.
All the camping trips we took became one big camping trip even if
they didn’t happen in the same year.
• Every once in a while there is like a splinter of a memory that comes
in. It just pops up out of nowhere. I didn’t even know it was there. I
remember remembering, but the memories are not connected;
they’re like floating unattached. How do you capture a memory that
doesn’t have a time or place to attach it to. It’s just free floating.
Brien, A., Hutchins, T., & Westby, C. (in press). Autobiographical memory in ASD, ADHD, hearing
loss, and childhood trauma: Implications for social communication intervention. LSHSS.
Eliciting Semantic & Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory Episodic Memory
Who is one of your friends? Tell me about something you have done that was exciting.
What is the name of your favorite
superhero/TV/movie?
Tell me about your first day of school.
Where do you go to school? Describe something you did at school this past week.
What is your teacher’s name? Tell me about something you and your friend play at recess.
What grade are you in? Tell me about a time you were scared.
Where do you live? (After looking a photos or a video) Tell me about a time you saw
those animals in real life.
Evaluating Autobiographical Memories
• Recall accuracy
• Recall detail
• Recall amount
• Perspective (first person or observer)
• Elicitation (free or cued recall)
First person Observer Michaelian, K., & Sutton, J. (2019). Collective mental time travel: Remembering the past and
imagining the future together. Synthese, 196, 4933–4960.
Assessing Episodic Memory (8-12 Years)
• Autobiographical interview: generate details about a past or
future event in response to a cue word
– Describe a specific time a few months in the past that you
think of when you hear…
– Imagine a time in the next few months the word … makes you
think of:
• Words
– Positive: friend, easy
– Negative: naughty, tired
– Neutral: bath, book
Terrett, G., Rendell, P.G., et al (2013). Episodic future thinking in children with autism spectrum disorder.
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(11), 2558-68.
(Dr. Who’s tardis time machine)
Deficits in mental time travel for the future may
explain behavioral inflexibility in autism
Cognitive/Affective Intrapersonal ToM
Regulating Behavior: The Marshmallow Test
Mischel, W. (2014). The marshmallow test. Little, Brown.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yo4WF3cSd9Q
First Order Interpersonal ToM: 4-5 years
• Predicting/knowing what another
person thinks/feels
I’m scared. I
hope I win the
contest.
I think I’ve
practiced
enough
First Order Intrapersonal ToM: 4-5 years
• Thinking about what I know/don’t know; how I feel
I don’t understand
what the teacher
wants
I’m getting
frustrated
First Order Cognitive Interpersonal ToM
Predicting/knowing what someone else is thinking/feeling
False Belief Task
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RibbgbQ6wbk
First Order Affective Interpersonal ToM: False Belief
Belief influences emotions
How does the rabbit feel?
Happy
Alright
Angry
Scared
Pons, R., Harris, P., & de Rosnay, M. (2004). Emotion comprehension between 3-11 years:
Developmental periods and hierarchical organization. European Journal of Developmental
Psychology, 1, 127-152.
Affective Intrapersonal ToM: Regulating Emotions
Pons, R., Harris, P., & de Rosnay, M. (2004). Emotion comprehension between 3-11 years:
Developmental periods and hierarchical organization. European Journal of Developmental
Psychology, 1, 127-152.
Affective Intrapersonal ToM:
Regulating Emotions
Pons, R., Harris, P., & de Rosnay, M. (2004). Emotion comprehension between 3-11 years:
Developmental periods and hierarchical organization. European Journal of Developmental
Psychology, 1, 127-152.
Photo of friend
Photo of rabbit
Affective Intrapersonal ToM: Regulating EmotionsIntrapersonal Affective ToM:
Emotion Regulation/Hiding Emotions
Brinton, B., Spackman, M., Fujiki, M., & Ricks,
J. (2007). What should Chris say? The ability of
children with specific language impairment to
recognize the need to dissemble emotions in
social situations. Journal of Speech, Language,
Hearing Research, 50, 798–811.
Mixed Emotions
Kim is looking at the new
bicycle she has just gotten for
her birthday. But at the same
time, Kim thinks she might fall
off and get hurt because she
has never ridden a bicycle
before.
How does Kim feel?
Happy
Sad and scared
Happy and scared
Scared
Social Emotional Evaluation
Point to the face that is surprised
Wiig, E. (2008). Social emotional evaluation. Greenville, SC: Super Duper
Social Emotional Evaluation (nonsocial emotion)
Wiig, E. (2008). Social emotional evaluation. Greenville, SC: Super Duper.
Social Emotional Evaluation (nonsocial emotion)
Wiig, E. (2008). Social emotional evaluation. Greenville, SC: Super Duper.
Second order: Interpersonal ToM
Wow, you’re
doing a
fantastic job!
Pons,R. Harris, P., & M. de Rosnay (2004). Emotion comprehension between 3-11 years :
Developmental periods and hierarchical organization. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1,
127-152
Wellman, H.M. & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of theory-of-mind tasks. Child Development, 75, 523-541.
Predicting/knowing what one
person thinks another person
thinks/feels
Second-Order False Belief (Cognitive Interpersonal ToM)
• John and Mary are together in the park. In
the park there is also an ice cream man in
his van.
• Mary would like to buy an ice cream but
she has left her money at home. She is
very sad. “Don’t be sad,” says the ice
cream man, “You can fetch your money
and buy some ice cream later. I’ll be here
in the park all afternoon.” “Oh, good,” says
Mary, “I’ll be back in the afternoon to buy
some ice cream. I’ll make sure I won’t
forget my money then.”
Second-order False Belief (Cognitive Interpersonal ToM)
• So Mary goes home…. She lives in this house. She goes
inside the house. Now John is on his own in the park. To
his surprise he sees the ice cream man leaving the park
in his van. “Where are you going?” asks John. The ice
cream man says, “I’m going to drive my van to the
church. There is no one in the park to buy ice cream; so
perhaps I can sell some outside the school.”
• The ice cream man drives over to the school. On his way
he passes Mary’s house. Mary is looking out of the
window and spots the van. “Where are you going?” she
asks. “I’m going to the school. I’ll be able to sell more ice
cream there,” answer the man. “It’s a good thing I saw
you,” says Mary. Now John doesn’t know that Mary
talked to the ice cream man.
Second-Order False Belief (Cognitive Interpersonal ToM)
• Now John has to go home. After lunch he
is doing his homework. He can’t do one of
the tasks, so he goes over to Mary’s house
to ask for help. Mary’s mother answers the
door. “Is Mary in?” asks John. “Oh,” says
Mary’s mother, “She’s just left. She said
she was going to get an ice cream.”
• Test question: So John runs to look for
Mary. Where does he think she has gone?
• Justification question: Why does he think
she has gone to the____?
Theory of Mind Inventory-2
https://www.theoryofmindinventory.com/
Theory of Mind Inventory-2
https://www.theoryofmindinventory.com/
Parent Rating of the Adolescent
Adolescent Self-Rating
Theory of Mind Inventory
Tom Task Battery
Tiffany L. Hutchins, Ph.D.
Patricia A. Prelock, Ph.D., CCC-SLP
REV: 2/16/13
The Theory of Mind Task
Battery http://www.theoryofmindinventory.com/task-battery/
2nd Order Intrapersonal ToM: 5-7 years
I’m so
embarrassed
.
Social emotions: awareness of one’s own feelings and how they are based on what they think others think of them
Social Emotions
• Social emotions - depend upon the thoughts, feelings or actions of other people
– Embarrassment
– Guilt
– Shame
– Jealousy
– Envy
– Pride
• Children with ASD can cite examples of pride, guilt, embarrassment; but stereotyped, less personal, e.g.,
– Pride: finish homework, win game
– Guilt: stealing cookies, running away
– Embarrassment: being teased
Hobson, R.P. (2014). Autism and emotion, In F.R. Volkman, et al (Eds.) Handbook of autism
and pervasive developmental disorders, Vol. 1. Hoboken, NJ Wiley.
Not Understanding Jealousy
Social Language Elementary: Making Inferences
Pretend you are this boy.
What are you thinking?
What do you see that tells you
what he’s thinking?
Pretend you are this girl.
What are you thinking?
What do you see that tells you
what he’s thinking?
Bowers, L, Husingh, R., & LaGiudice, C., (2010). Social language development test
elementary. Pro-Ed.
Social Language Adolescent
Pretend you are this girl (beige
sweater, left).
What are you thinking?
What do you see that tells you
what she’s thinking?
Pretend you are this man .
What are you thinking?
What do you see that tells you
what he’s thinking?
Bowers, L, Husingh, R., & LaGiudice, C., (2010). Social language
development test adolescent. Pro-Ed.
Counterfactual Reasoning
• Thinking about how an event might have turned out differently
– Envision a different future – future mental time travel
• Enables us to learn from our mistakes
If I hadn’t been texting, I
wouldn’t have wrecked the car.
If I turned off my phone in the
car, I wouldn’t be tempted to
use it.
Counterfactual Reasoning
• Types of counterfactual reasoning:
– Subtractive: “If only I had not done….”
• Narrowly confined to undoing elements from the
original situation
– Additive: “If only I had done….”
• Involve the imagination and increased creativity and
flexibility with regard to future situations.
• Changes with age:
– Children with high-functioning ASD had increased
subtractive reasons
– Control children had increased additive reasons
The Hatchet
by
Gary Paulsen
Begeer, S., Terwogt, M.M., Lunenburg, P., Stegge, J. (2009). Brief report: Additive and subtractive
counterfactual reasoning of children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism
and Developmental Disorders, 39 (11), 1593-1597.
Effects of Counterfactual Reasoning
Counter-factual
reasoning
Emotion reflection
Behavior regulation
Beck, S.R., Weisberg, D.P., Burns, P., &
Riggs, K.J. (2014). Conditional reasoning
and emotional experience: A Review of the
development of counterfactual thinking.
Studia Logica, 102, 673–689
Noel, K. (2913). Social problem solving: Making best plans. Chippewa Falls, WI: The Cognitive Press.
Telling Your Story
9 year-old with Asperger
Persons with autism spectrum disorders have greater
deficits in personal narratives than fictional narratives
likely due to deficits in autobiographical memory
Visual Cues for AM
autumn winter spring summer
Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug
Holidays
Timelines
Anger, M., et al. (2019). Positive effect of visual cuing in episodic memory and episodic future
thinking in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in Psychology, July 9.
Visual Cues for AM
What colors, sounds, smells, tastes, tactile feelings were associated with the event?
What when where who took part
How did you feel at this point? 6-point Likert-like scale
Higher Order ToM: 7 + years
• Predicting/knowing what person A
thinks that person B thinks that person
C thinks…
• Awareness that a person can say one
thing but be thinking something else,
e.g.,
– Lies: He knows that they think he
will lie.
– Figurative language
– Sarcasm and Faux Pas
Multiple Levels of ToM
Liddle, B., & Nettle, D. (2006). Higher-order theory of mind and social competence in
school-age children. Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology, 4, 231-246.
Multiple Levels of ToM
• ToM level 1
– Anna thinks Ben has bought mom some perfume
– Anna knows Ben has bought mom some flowers
• ToM level 4
– Ben thinks that Anna believes that he knows that
mom wants perfume for her birthday.
– Bens thinks that Anna knows that he knows that
mom wants flowers for her birthday.
Liddle, B., & Nettle, D. (2006). Higher-order theory of mind and social competence in
school-age children. Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology, 4, 231-246.
Higher Order ToM: Learning to Lie
Telling an effective lie requires understanding what the listeners
know and what they likely believe.
Higher Order ToM: Recognizing Lies
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ul77QUu9hrU
Higher Order ToM: Lies
Cognitive
• Stealing your friend's
iPad and then telling
him you haven't seen
it and have no idea
where it is.
Affective
• One day, Anna accidentally
knocks over and breaks her
mother’s favorite vase. When
her mother finds out she will
be very cross! So when
Anna’s mother comes home
and sees the broken vase
and asks Anna what
happened, Anna says, “The
dog knocked it over.”
Happe, F.G.E. (1994). An advance test of theory of mind: Understanding story character’s thoughts and
feelings by able autistic, mentally handicapped, and normal children and adults. Journal of Autism and
Developmental Disorders, 24(2), 129-153.
White Lie (Affective ToM)
One day Aunt Jane came to visit Peter. Now
Peter loves his aunt very much, but today she is
wearing a new hat; a new hat which Peter thinks
is very ugly indeed. Peter thinks his aunt looks
silly in it, and much nicer in her old hat. But when
Aunt Jane asks Peter, ‘‘How do you like my new
hat?’’ Peter says, ‘‘Oh, it’s very nice’’.
1. Was it true what Peter said?
2. Why did he say it?
O’Hare, A.E., Bremner, L, Nash, M, Happe, F., & Pettigrew, L. (2009). A clinical
assessment tool for advanced theory of mind performance in 5 to 12 year olds. Journal of
Autism & Developmental Disorders, 39, 916-928.
Self Presentational Lie
Goal is to enhance other’s evaluation of self
• Julie is playing with her friends next to a very high
wall. They all climb on top of the wall. Julie climbs
on the wall as well. Julie is very scared about being
on the wall because she’s frightened of falling off
and hurting herself. But when they all get down and
the other children say, “Did you enjoy climbing on
the wall?” Julie says, “Yes, I loved climbing on the
wall.”
– Why does Julie say to the other children that
she loved climbing on the wall?
Banerjee, R. (2002). Children’s understanding of self-presentational behavior: Links with mental-state
reasoning and the attribution of embarrassment. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 48, 378-404.
Data lacks figurative language
Burn the midnight oil
Requires an understanding of the context
and the speaker’s intent
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HiIlJaSDPaA
Figurative language/Double meanings Theory of Mind: Faux Pas
• James bought Richard a toy airplane for his birthday. A few
months later, they were playing with it, and James
accidentally dropped it. "Don‘t worry" said Richard, "I never
liked it anyway. Someone gave it to me for my birthday."
• Did someone say something he/she should not have said?
• What did he/she say that should not have been said.
• What did James give Richard for his birthday?
• Did Richard remember James had given him the toy airplane
for his birthday?
Baron-Cohen, S., O’Riordan, M., Stone, V., Jones, R., & Plaisted, K., (1999). Recognition of
faux pas by normally developing children and children with Asperger Syndrome or high-
functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29, 407-418.
Faux Pas
Must recognize that the comments are hurtful to the
listener, but the speaker did not intend to be hurtful.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dffCCSb1JCo
Learning to understand sarcasm
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4fJSxbVSKLw
Higher Order ToM: Cognitive Sarcasm
Joe went into the bank manager’s
office and couldn’t find anywhere to
sit down because all the chairs were
occupied with documents and
folders. An unorganized pile of letters
and documents were randomly set
on the table. Joe said to the bank
manager: ‘‘Your office is so tidy!’’
Shamay-Tsoory, S., Tibi-Elhanany, Y., & Aharon-Peretz,
J. (2007). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex is involved
in understanding affective but not cognitive theory of
mind stories. Social neuroscience, 1, 149-166,
1. Why did Joe say that?
2. Did Joe think the office was tidy?
3. Was the office tidy?
4. Which office did Joe go to?
Higher Order ToM: Affective Sarcasm
Joe’s dad was supposed to pick him
up after chess club at 6 p.m. By the
time he recalled that he had to pickup
his son, it was 7 p.m. Dad found Joe
standing tired and frightened out in
the rain. When they got home, Joe
was crying and told his mom what had
happened. Mom said: ‘‘You are such a
good father!’’
Shamay-Tsoory, S., Tibi-Elhanany, Y., & Aharon-
Peretz, J. (2007). The ventromedial prefrontal
cortex is involved in understanding affective but
not cognitive theory of mind stories. Social
neuroscience, 1, 149-166.
1. Why did mom say that?
2. Did mom think dad was a good father?
3. Was dad a good father on this
occasion?
4. What kind of club did Joe attend?
Do you think she means what she’s saying? Why did she say that?
Wiig, E. (2008). Social emotional evaluation. Greenville, SC: Super Duper
The girl and boy are going on a picnic. It is the
boy’s idea. He says it will be a lovely sunny
day. But when they get the food out, big storm
clouds come. It rains and the food gets all wet.
The girl says: ‘‘It’s a lovely day for a picnic.’’
Theory of Mind: Sarcasm
Peterson, C., Wellman, H., Slaughter, V. (2012) The mind behind the message: Advancing theory-of-
mind scales for typically developing children, and those with deafness, autism or Asperger Syndrome.
Child Development; 83, 469-485.
Theory of Mind: SarcasmPass (shows explicit awareness
of discrepancy between literal
and intended meaning
• She’s being sarcastic
• She doesn’t mean it
• Because it’s an idiom
• She tricked him
• Its her way of telling him she is upset
• Just to make up a little joke
• She is saying politely that she is not
happy
• Because she is a smart aleck
• Because she is meaning ‘‘Why tell me it
was nice?’’
Fail (no evidence of perceiving
nonliteral meaning)
• Because it is sunny [raining]
• She likes rain [picnics] ⁄We need rain
• She wants to play in the puddles
• Because she got wet
• Because he lied to her
• She thought it was sunny ⁄ did not see clouds
• She’s cross
• To tell him off
• Because it’s not sunny
• So he doesn’t feel bad
• Because he said it first
• Because her Dad likes the rain but she
doesn’t
Reading the Mind in Films
http://www.autismresearchcentre.com/arc_tests
Golan, O, Baron-Cohen, S., & Golan, Y. (2008). The ‘reading the mind in films’ task [child
version]: Complex emotion and mental state recognition in children with and without autism
spectrum conditions. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1534-1541.
Complaining
Guilty
Sneaky
Annoyed
Clinical Assessment of Pragmatics
• Interpreting
– Awareness of social routines
– Reading context cues (idioms)
– Reading nonverbal cues
• Expressing
– Using social routine language
– Expressing emotions
– Using nonverbal cues
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9oUDJlblkkQ&t=34s
Pragmatic knowledge: Awareness of social rules
• Interpreting
– Awareness of social routines
– Reading context cues (idioms)
– Reading nonverbal cues
• Expressing
– Using social routine language
– Expressing emotions
– Using nonverbal cues
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nr4T0c5Mbtw
Affective Expression
• Interpreting
– Awareness of social routines
– Reading context cues (idioms)
– Reading nonverbal cues
• Expressing
– Using social routine language
– Expressing emotions
– Using nonverbal cues
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9oUDJlblkkQ&t=34s
Interpreting context cues
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VFdmWQN_Bog
Think-alouds
Promote
• Intrapersonal ToM
– Reflecting on what one
knows/doesn’t know;
understands/ doesn’t
understand; what one can do
if do not understand
• Interpersonal ToM
– Inferring what characters are
thinking, feeling
Model think-aloud
Questioning the author
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G. (2006). Improving comprehension with
questioning the author. New York: Scholastic.The Ripple of Attunement
Promoting ToM Development
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1BFdXlwKm4c
Attunement:
The Basis of Communicative Competence
Start a Ripple