THE TIMELINE OF RESILIENCE: A ROADMAP FOR CROSS OPERATIONALIZATION OFRESILIENCE

S. Beigi

Abstract

Over the past three decades resilience has been increasingly recognised as a property that enables systems to become betterat responding to change. However, most published work on resilience focuses on linking the concept to the previouslyexisting concepts in rather an isolated way. No one has yet offered a systemic perspective that spans across multipledomains. In this review, we attempt to fill this gap by providing a timeline for resilience. The timeline highlights anunderlying evolutionary trend in the growing literature of resilience and demonstrates that decades of work on resilienceconverge on a common ground of creating a cognitive shift in individual and societal perception of change. With theincreasing pace of urbanisation and concerns over ensuring the sustainability of planetary boundaries and wellbeing of socialsystems, the implications are important. By becoming focused on the role of stress in shaping societal cognitive capacities,the timeline of resilience can shape a roadmap for global cross-scale dialogues on the future operationalisation of resilience.

Introduction

Over the past three decades resilience has become the focus of many researchers across various domains. This growinginterest has led to an over-flow of definitions of resilience and a global inquiry into the usefulness of the concept. A surveyof the literature of resilience uncovers a series of influential studies on the concept and a diverse list of definitions (Coutu2002, Madni and Jackson 2009, Juech and Martin-Breen 2011). However the questions how resilience can universally bedefined and systematically operationalised remain unanswered(Fisher 2015). In this article, we review the evolvingconceptual understanding of resilience by synthesising findings from ecological, psychological and infrastructure systems,and identify key areas for future investigation Table 3. With drawing references on the literature on stress management, weemphasize the need to invest on three strategies: a) empowering the community� s agency, b) improving individuals� stressresponse; and c) building a culture of prepared mindset (Michel-Kerjan 2015). We do not attempt to provide a detailedreview of the growing literature on resilience, and only focus on the leading literature in constructing the timeline ofresilience. Finally, we discuss how the global interest in the concept of resilience, by becoming focused on the impact ofstress on societal cognitive capacities, can create a roadmap for a collaborative research and future operationalisation ofresilience in harmony with the recent updates of the ongoing research on sustainable development and planetary boundaries(Rockstrom, Steffen et al. 2009, Liu, Mooney et al. 2015, Steffen, Richardson et al. 2015).

A timeline of resilience

With the timeline of resilience we demonstrate that this important concept has the potential to cultivate cross-disciplinarycollaborations. We analysed the evolution of the literature on resilience and categorised every decade of research into adifferent phase. Every phase of the resilience discourse has a unique theme. We also noticed the influential role of certainworks in creating tipping points for conceptual evolution. Having insights on the evolutionary growing patterns of resiliencetheory facilitates future operationalisation of the concept.

Fig 1. The timeline of resilience.

Phase 11960-1970

Resilience in Ecology

Phase 31981-1990

Resilience in Infrastructures Resilience in Cities

Resilience inPsychology

Phase 21971-1980

Phase 41991-2000

Phase 52001-2010

Phase 62011-2015

Generation Emergence Expansion Synthesis Operationalization

The terrorist attacks ofSeptember 11, 2001Triggered Explicit

Appearance of Resilience tothe Infrastructure Sector

Lewontin(Lewontin 1969)MacArthur(Macarthur 1955)Robert May

C.S. Holling(Holling1973)

C.S. HollingE. Ostrom(Ostrom 1990)B. Walker, D.

Levin(Levin 1998)Resilience AllianceN. Adger(Adger 2000)

Stockholm Resilience Centre Resilience: Why Things Bounce Back (Zolli and Healy 2012)Work Economic Forum Risk ReportsWorld Economic ForumMeeting in 2013: Resilient Dynamism

Ludwig(Ludwig, Walker etal. 1997)Steven Carpenter(Carpenterand Cottingham 1997)

Initiation of The USDepartment of HomelandSecurity 2002Louise K. Comfort(LouiseK. Comfort 2001)Little(Little 2003)Susan L. Cutter(Cutter,Barnes et al. 2008)MCEER Group(Bruneau,Chang et al. 2003)Erik E. Hollnagel(Hollnagel,Woods et al. 2006)

Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines 2013Launch of UNDP Human Development Index 2014(UNDP2014)Launch of Rockefeller 100 Resilient Cities(Foundation 2013)The Institute of Mechanical Engineers Report(Engineers 2013)Resilience Alliance Seminar in France May 2014The Royal Institute Report on Extreme Weather Conditionsand Resilience (Soceity 2014)Reconnecting Cities to the Biosphere: Stewardship of GreenInfrastructure and Urban Ecosystem Services (Andersson,Barthel et al. 2014)Resilience Dividend(Rodin 2014)Ordinary Magic: Resilience in Development(Masten 2014)Stockholm Resilience Centre in Davos 2015: JohanRockstrÖm presented the latest book Big World, Small Planetand participated in a panel discussion on planetary boundaries.

Norman Garmezy Wildavsky

Mileti Disaster byDesign(Mileti 2001)Creation of the US Office ofHomeland Security and theHomeland Security Councilin 2001

Anne Masten(Masten 2001)Bonnano(Bonanno 2008)Rutter(Garmezy 1993)Norman Garmezy(Garmezy1991)Dante Cicchetti(Cicchetti andGarmezy 1993)Anne Masten(Masten 1994)

Rutter(Rutter 1985) Rutter(Garmezy 1993)Norman Garmezy(Garmezy1991)Anne Masten(Masten 1994)

Influential concepts leading to tipping points in the discourse of resilience

On the meaning ofstability(Lewontin 1969)

Resilience and stabilityof Ecosystems(Holling1973)

The complexity andstability ofecosystems(Pimm 1984)Rethinking SafetyCulture(Wildavsky andCenter 1988)

The science ofsurprise(Holling 1996)Establishment of ResilienceAlliance in 1999

Ecological Resilience and Engineering Resilience(Holling 2010)Resilience of What to What(Carpenter, Walker et al. 2001)Critical Transitions in Nature and Society(Scheffer 2009)Resilience as the emergence of new perspective for social-ecological systems(Folke 2006)Resilience Engineering (Hollnagel, Woods et al. 2006)

The dominant theme of research

Searching about existence ofalternative stable states inecosystems

Exploration and critical appraisal of past views of ecological management , existence of nonlinearity and complexity innatural systems, exploring regime shifts in lakes, coral reefs, grass lands, deserts, tipping points and planetary safeoperational spaces, trade-offs between robustness and resilience, perception of risk, surrogate for resilience, adaptivecapacity model, transformability and resilience.

Community resilience, bottom-up approach, the role oftechnology and behavioural science on the resilience ofcommunities, urbanisation and resilience.

Key outcomes of resilience research

Alternative stable state vs.fixed stability points

Stability vs. resilienceResilience vs. coping.

Ecological resilience vs.engineering resilience.Anticipation vs. resilience

Linking complex adaptivesystems theory of Prigogine toecological systems (Hollingand Meffe 1996)Command and control vs.adaptive governance model.

Resilience thinking(Walkerand Salt 2006). Adaptivecapacity model. A safeoperating planetary boundaries(Rockstrom, Steffen et al.2009). Infrastructureinterdependencies(Little 2003)A new safetyculture(Hollnagel, Woods etal. 2006). Resilience isdifferent from recovery(Bonanno 2008). Resilience asordinary magic (Masten2001). Multiple pathways toresilience(Bonanno 2008).

Specified Resilience& GeneralResilience(Carpenter, Arrow etal. 2012).Extension of generalresilience andspecifiedresilience(B.H.2014).Infrastructure: TheSocial Value ofShared Resources(Frischmann 2013).Resilience as acombination ofabsorptive capacity,adaptive capacity,and restorativecapacity (Vugrin,Warren et al. 2011).ResilienceEngineeringUpgraded (Pariès,Hollnagel et al.2012).

Research on safe operational boundarieswas upgraded(Steffen, Richardson et al.2015).The need for systemic integration forglobal sustainability(Liu, Mooney et al.2015)Living in abundance while beingchallenged by planetary boundariesneeds a mind shift (Rockström andKlum 2015).

In psychological resilience research, resilience refers to � the ability of most people, when exposed even to extraordinary

levels of stress and trauma, to maintain normal psychological and physical functioning and avoid serious mental illness

(Russo, Murroughl et al. 2012)� . Psychological resilience theory has developed in four major waves(Wright, Masten et al.

2012). These four waves demonstrate a shift in interpretation of resilience as an individual personality trait to resilience as a

dynamic and systemic process that unfolds in space and time.

Table 2. The evolutionary waves of psychological resilience and their key findings.

Wave Focus of the illustrative wave Key message

1 Identifying individual resilience and factorsthat make a difference.

Resilience does not necessarily mean that one is unaffected oruntouched by the trauma one has endured nor does it mean thatone always functions well.

2 Studying resilience as a process. Findingsimilar patterns between developmental andecological systems(Masten and Obradovic2008).

Resilience viewed from a complexity perspective.

Resilience is dynamic. It is possible to show resilience at onepoint in life and not at another, or in one domain and not inanother.

Human judgment plays a critical role in defining desirable orundesirable adaptation regimes or outcomes.

3 Developing intervention strategies to fosterresilience

Research shows that a resilient adaptation rests on good family orsurrogate family relationships (i.e., early relationship withcaregivers provide the foundation for developing secureattachments to others(Wright, Masten et al. 2012)).

Protective factors were discovered to moderate the impact ofadversity on adaptation. Examples of protective factors includethe individual, social circles, mentors, the community, and thegovernment.

4 Looking for the link between epigeneticprocesses and neurobiological factors inshaping individuals� resilience (Russo,Murroughl et al. 2012).

Adaptation is inherently multilevel.

Adaptation involves many processes of dynamic interactionacross multiple levels of function, with gene-environmentinterplay and co-action playing key roles(Wright, Masten et al.2012).

Masten et al. demonstrate that people can cultivate their resilience (Ann S. Masten 2009) by developing protective factors,

such as having access to caring individuals (Hughes 2012).

Bonnano (2008) also noticed that personality traits and individuals� coping styles in stressful situations have significant roles

in their ability to avoid post-traumatic disorders, bounce back to their normal life, and even achieve post-traumatic growth, a

significant alteration of one� s philosophy of life after being exposed to a psychological seismic wave such as spousal loss,

physical disabilities, and other life crises (Jirek 2011).

Cyrulnik� s (2009) interpretation of psychological resilience in his study of Second World War (WWII) survivors resonates

with the findings of Masten (2001) and Bonnano (2008); these authors all agree that the dynamic and complex nature of

resilience depends on two pillars.

The first one is the ability of individuals to regulate the impact of stressors on their inner guiding voice. The second pillar is

the degree to which individuals are supported by externally resourceful and resilient people such as mentors, coaches, or

teachers (Fig. 3).

In � Man� s Search for Meaning� , Viktor Frankl narrates a true story of resilience and concludes that humans have an

enormous capacity to adapt to even the most extreme conditions (Frankl 1992). He states that � the only way to bounce back

from extremes is to harness the natural tendency of the mind to give meaning to the waves of shocks. It is through

transcending our previous limitations, striving toward a worthwhile goal, encountering other human beings that we find

meaning and fulfilment in our lives (Frankl 1992)� .

This understanding sets the following foundations for his theory of Logotheraphy (i.e. therapy through meaning

making)(Frankl 1992).

Feeling ofSelfhood

ExternalShocks

Resilience happens as one of the familiesof defence mechanism that can becontrolled and can bring us happiness.

Fluid State ofIndividuals SystemsCause Damage and Irritation to

Ego Seeks toTake Control

Maladaptation

Representation

Commitment

Actions

Narratives

If Selfhood is Reshaped and ReworkedDevelopmentalGuidelines

2. Adaptationand evolution

1. Depression

Disordered LifeIndividualsQuestion the

Damage with Whys

Gives Rise to

Empowering the ability of ego to preserve itsintegrity by exploiting its protective factorsincluding intellectual and emotionalresources and enabling bouncing back andknitting process.

Such as

Self-Reorganization

Sense of HopeGives Rise to

Calling onValue Systems,

Goals

Then, Positive Adaptations Is Enabled By

Personality Traits, History and Current Conditions of Personor Subsystem Inclusive of Risk Factors, Previous ResponseOutcomes, Thinking Style, Cultural Interpretations ofStressors, Degree, and Availability of ResourcesCollectively Create a Set of Constraints that Tax Person� sResourcefulness and Endanger His or Her Well-being

1) Life has meaning under all circumstances.

2) People have a will to meaning.

3) People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to meaning and to find meaning(Frankl

1992).

Tracking the co-evolution of social-ecological resilience, psychological resilience(Wright, Masten et al. 2012), infrastructure

resilience and interdependency (Rinaldi, Peerenboom et al. 2001), and resilience in the engineering domain(Bruneau, Chang

et al. 2003), shows that resilience theory in infrastructure systems is still in its infancy and lags behind theories in social-

ecological and psychological resilience.

Social-ecological resilience was characterised as combination of latitude (i.e. the maximum amount the system can be

changed before losing its ability to recover, resistance (i.e. the ease or difficulty of changing the system, precariousness (i.e.

the current trajectory of the system, and how close it currently is to a limit or � threshold� which, if breached, makes recovery

difficult or impossible, and panarchy (i.e. how the above three attributes are influenced by the states and dynamics of the

(sub) systems at scales above and below the scale of interest)(Walker, Holling et al. 2004).

In the infrastructure sector, resilience was mostly discussed in the background with a major focus on the physical resilience

of assets and their services(Haimes, Matalas et al. 1998). However, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 have shifted

this focus by highlighting the interdependent nature of social and infrastructure systems (Rinaldi, Peerenboom et al. 2001,

Little 2004). At this point, infrastructure resilience came to the forefront attention of the US Homeland Security.

After Hurricane Katrina in 2005, infrastructure resilience gained further prominence in 2007 when the Multidisciplinary

Centre for Earthquake Engineering Research introduced the first qualitative framework for earthquake resilient systems

(Bruneau, Chang et al. 2003). This framework focused on two factors in building earthquake-resilient societies. First

technical, organisational, social and economic systems (TOSE) are closely interrelated. Second, resilience as a systemic

property of TOSE consists of four other characteristics, namely robustness (strength, or the ability of elements, systems, and

other units of analysis to withstand a given level of stress or demand without suffering degradation or loss of function),

redundancy (the extent to which elements, systems, or other units of analysis exist that are substitutable, i.e. capable of

satisfying functional requirements in the event of disruption, degradation, or loss of function of other elements), rapidity (the

capacity to meet priorities and achieve goals in a timely manner in order to contain losses and avoid future disruption) and

resourcefulness (the capacity to identify problems, establish priorities, and mobilize resources when conditions exist that

threaten to disrupt some element, system, or other unit of analysis). (Resourcefulness can be further conceptualized as

consisting of the ability to supply material - i.e., monetary, physical, technological, and human resources to meet established

priorities and achieve goals).

This systemic view on the resilience of TOSE played a significant role in shaping the direction of resilience research in the

engineering community, with the majority of publications in the engineering and disaster management domain collectively

realising that resilience is a systemic property, which is more than just robustness of physical assets (Liao 2012, Tierney

2014).

The MCEER 4-R framework also moved the framing of resilience in the engineering community closer to the latest updates

of resilience in the social-ecological community. This includes both specified resilience (i.e. the resilience of a particular

aspect of a social-ecological system to a particular kind of disturbance) (Carpenter, Arrow et al. 2012), and general resilience

(i.e. the capacity of social-ecological systems to adapt or transform in response to unfamiliar, unexpected, and extreme

shocks). Conditions that enable general resilience include diversity, modularity, openness, reserves, feedbacks, nested-ness,

monitoring, leadership, and trust. This resulted in defining resilience as a combination of three major capacities: (1)

absorptive capacity (i.e. the ability of a system to absorb system perturbations), (2) adaptive capacity (i.e. the ability of a

system to adjust to undesirable situations by undergoing changes) and (3) restorative capacity (i.e. the rapidity of return to

normal or improved operations and system reliability) (Francis and Bekera 2014).

With the 2007 earthquake in Haiti highlighting the link between resilience and social capital, the 2011 Thai flooding

showing the interconnection of global supply chains, the 11 of March 2011 earthquake in the East Coast of Japan, the

subsequent destruction of the Fukushima nuclear power plant showing the global concern over the future of nuclear energy,

and the 2012 Hurricane Sandy in New York demonstrating the tight dependence of urban communities on energy networks,

the focus on infrastructure resilience is gaining momentum from two standpoints. First, infrastructure systems are complex,

adaptive, critical (Security 2013) and interdependent system of systems. Second, in developing management strategies,

infrastructure systems should be considered as lifeline systems(Kendra and Wachtendorf 2003),which means that their

resilience supports both the economy and people� s social and psychological resilience (O� Rourke 2007).

Although in contrast to the social-ecological and psychological domains, the theory of resilience in the social-technical

sector is still under-developed, a shift of perspective toward a holistic view of resilience and an appreciation of community

learning is widely evident(Hudson, Cormie et al. 2012). The co-evolution of resilience thinking in multiple disciplines has

transformed its early metaphoric nature (Carpenter, Walker et al. 2001) to a new way of perceiving the world (Folke 2006,

Walker and Cooper 2011).

We call this phase of the resilience timeline the Operationalisation Phase. The operationalisation of resilience is focused on

guiding the trajectory of human development in the Anthropocene so as to remain in the safe zone of planetary boundaries

(Rockstrom, Steffen et al. 2009), on developing resilient individuals, and on designing resilient urban ecosystems. In the last

5 years, resilience is also increasingly investigated in the context of urban systems. The Rockefeller Foundation programme

on 100 Resilient Cities(Foundation 2013) and the Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network ((ACCCRN) 2014) are

just two potential examples of the pervasive influence of the concept of resilience on various subjects.

Toward a common definition of resilience

Although the literature on the resilience concept is growing from multiple strands, the majority of key research themes are

organised around three underlying approaches: a) dynamical systems theory, b) complexity science and systemic thinking;

and b) sustainable development and disaster management. These three approaches create what we call the � iceberg of

resilience� (Fig. 3).

2

Table 2. The Underlying forces contributing to the emergence of resilience.

Resilience Iceberg

Core Concepts

Dynamical Systems Theory Complexity ScienceSystem Thinking

Sustainable DevelopmentDisaster Management

Attractors and basins of attractionsin dynamical systems

General Systems Theory (GST)(Vonbertalanffy 1950)Senge� s Learning organisations (Senge1990) and Theory U (Scharmer andKatrine Kaufer 2009)Thinking in systems and leverage points(Meadows and Wright 2008)

Management of natural resources and

tackling the tragedy of the

commons(Ostrom 1990).

Influence on Resilience

Dynamical Systems Theory

Complexity Science and System Thinking

Sustainable Development and Disaster Management

Resilience

A new perspective on the stability of

ecological systems(Lewontin 1969).

Defining resilience based on the

properties of a basin of attraction as

resistance, latitude, precariousness

and cross-scale dynamics(Walker,

Holling et al. 2004).

Introducing the concept of tipping

points, critical transitions(Scheffer,

Carpenter et al. 2012) and regime

shifts(Scheffer 2009).

The need for early warning systems

in designing and planning for

resilience (Scheffer, Bascompte et

al. 2009, Thomalla and Larsen

2010).

Moving from flat nature mentality (cause

and effect thinking) to the evolving nature

mental model(Lance H. Gunderson and

Holling 2002).

Introducing resilience thinking(Walker

and Salt 2006).

Defining psychological resilience as an

interactive complex process that unfolds in

time and space(Gladstone 2012).

Defining technical systems based on the

system of systems perspective.

Emphasis on community learning.

Introducing the adaptive governance

model.

Moving from top-down approach to

polycentric management (Cole 2015).

Rethinking disaster planning to focus on

community resilience (Tompkins and

Adger 2004, Norris, Stevens et al. 2008).

A general definition of resilience

There is a need for a general way of defining resilience that maps across various systems because without a consensus about

a common ground(Fisher 2015) it is very challenging to systematically operationalise resilience (Allenby 2005, Linkov,

Bridges et al. 2014). We demonstrate that these seemingly different definitions fit into a general template with a collective

emphasis on the volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous nature of life in the 21st century (Taleb 2012) and the need to

learn to embrace change (Table. 4). Resilience is � a natural, malleable, and system-level property that during stressful

conditions facilitates optimal performance of complex adaptive systems in the space between stimuli and response� . It is in

the space between stimuli and response that we can embrace change. Embracing change in the context of resilience covers

four key pillars: (1) accepting change as an integral part of life that is necessary to evolution, (2) appreciating the complexity

and interconnectivity of the system of life, (3) making a cognitive shift or adopting a flexible mindset, (4) investing in

continuous learning and resourcefulness.

Table 3. Similarities in different domains of resilience.

Domains Focus The Common DrivingQuestion

Desired Outcomes

Social-Ecological

Moving from fixed rules for achieving constantyield to embracing complexity andsurprise(Holling 1973), from the assumption ofnature flat and constant toward natureevolving(Lance H. Gunderson and Holling2002).

How to live in anuncertain and globallynetworked world(Helbing 2013)?

To remove stressors byabsorption of shocks.

To regain control,predictability, and outletand resource(Sapolsky1990).

To decrease theprobability and frequencyof failures(Bruneau,Chang et al. 2003),and the impact ofcascading failures(Little2004).

To avoid losses fromBlack Swan events(Viitanen and Kingston2014) that have thepotential to lead toirreversiblechanges(Scheffer 2009).

Supply Chains

Moving from just-in-time managementstrategies to built-in adaptability, flexibility(Sheffi 2005) and emergence(Choi, Dooley etal. 2001).

Infrastructure Systems

Moving from technology-centric tocommunity-centric (Bruneau and Reinhorn2004, Andrew 2012), from artefact -oriented toservice-oriented approach, from ownership tosharing and accessibility, and from protectionto evolution and adaptation to natural and man-made hazards (Wilby and Keenan 2012).

Disaster Management

Moving from external crisis response tobuilding community internal strength(Manyena 2006, Comfort, Boin et al. 2010).

Risk and SafetyMoving from better prediction to moreresilience(Wildavsky 1988).

OrganizationsMoving from good organizations to greatorganizations(Collins 2001).

PsychologyMoving from seeing resilience as an individualtrait toward a systemic view of resilience.

Future directions

The timeline of resilience shows a systemic convergence of the concept toward becoming increasingly linked to human

agency (Hans-Georg Bohle, Benjamin Etzold et al. 2009, Rodin 2014) and the ability to regulate the fight-flight response

(Russo, Murroughl et al. 2012). In a world full of complex adaptive systems (Liu, Dietz et al. 2007), being challenged by

stress is an integral part of life. Thus, aiming for future-proofing our systems is not a way forward. Instead, a universal

cognitive shift has to take place(Michel-Kerjan 2015). A shift of attitude to change is possible if research on resilience is

also linked to the cognitive capacities of social systems in response to global challenges (Lutz, Muttarak et al. 2014).

Resilience is a verb

We treat the concept of resilience as a verb � to resilience� . Since resilience can only be enhanced before shocks or stresses

hit our systems, we propose the notion of � Resiliencing� (Beigi 2014) as the process of preparing for such eventualities.

Resiliencing refers to the continuous and dynamic nature of building our portfolio of resourcefulness. Resilience in a single

system (e.g., an individual, an organisation, an infrastructure, a supply chain, an ecosystem or a nation) can only manifest

itself if certain steps or processes are put into place. Since we are living in an interconnected world, to become resilient all

the involved systems need to mutually adapt (Liu, Mooney et al. 2015) and co-evolve.

Education on Stress

Sapolsky (1994) argues that exposure to stress is an inevitable result of functioning in the complex modern world. However,

� despite the deleterious consequences of stress, humans have abundant capacity to become more resilient in the face of

stress. The sublet and complex human correlates of the physiological stress response can be extraordinarily plastic. In short,

we have a heartening capacity to change (Sapolsky 1994)� .

There is an urgent need to revisit and redefine resilience based on the role of human well-being (Tanner, Lewis et al. 2015).

This however is applicable if we understand what stress actually is (Selye 1973), what stress is not (Selye 1984) and how it

affects us. According to Selye (1973), stress is � the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it (Selye

1973)� . The notion of non-specific is used to demonstrate that in theory it is possible to manipulate the state of disease by

following the exact three steps the body experiences when facing a demanding input. These three steps are closely

interdependent and together they can form a definite syndrome depending on the intensity of stressors. These stages are

components of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) system of biological beings. Learning about them has a crucial

implication in finding out the limits and thresholds of biological systems.

Toward Becoming Resilient Agents

Resilient people have the ability to � decompose� stress into pieces of information. Through this process of decomposition,

stress bifurcates into two branches of � distresses� and � eustresses� . Distress means negative stressors, whereas eustress refers

to positive stressors. Resilient individuals are highly capable of drawing in resources from the external environment. Erwin

Schrodinger Schrödinger defined this process of drawing order from the external environment into one� s inner � Negative

Entropy (Shrodinger 1944)� . This ability is also defined as Bricolage or the ability to remain creative under pressure (Weick

1993). Through Bricolage and Negative Entropy, the person� s psychological and biological dimensions become ordered.

After drawing resources into one� s body, the survival mechanism gradually turns off and the person can take a reflective

view on the recently experienced stressor and refine his/her adaptation skills for future. While individuals� agency over their

resilience has limits and depends on other factors such as the strength of their supportive network, learning to distinguish

between the positive stresses (eustress) and negative stresses (distress) is a necessary condition for successful adaptation in

response to life challenges.

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