1

Thesis Proposal

Thesis title: Phytogeographic deconstruction of family Rubiaceace along

altitudinal gradient of Himalayan Range in Western Bhutan.

1. Introduction:

The family Rubiaceae comprising of a cosmopolitan species is found to

occur in all the regions of the world except Antarctica (Barbhuiya et

al., 2014) and is described as tropical family with fair and even

distribution in the old and new world (Puff & Chamchumroon, 2003).

With over 13,143 species, Rubiaceae stands as the fourth largest

family of angiosperm after Orchidaceae, Asteraceae and Leguminosae

(Robbrecht, 1988; Goevarts et al., 2006; Bremer & Eriksson, 2009;

Davis et al., 2009) and consists of about 620 genera, over 40 tribes

and three subfamilies (Bremer & Eriksson, 2009). They are less

diverse (Davis & Bridson, 2007) with at least 72% of the genera

consisting of less than 10 species and 211 monotypic genera out of

849 genera (Lewis et al., 2005; Cribb & Goevarts, 2005; Davis et al.,

2009).

The diversity of members of Rubiaceae is checked by their nature of

ecological sensitivity aggravated by endemism, thus making it

vulnerable to extinction (Davis et al., 2009; Barbhuiya et al., 2014).

The members of the family being sensitive to disturbance make them

rare in the secondary forest types (Davis et al., 2006) thus limiting

their diversification in the disturbed places or in the places where

anthropogenic factor is high. On the contrary, only a few studies have

tried to discuss the phenomenon for their variability (Bremer &

Eriksson, 2009). And surprisingly, the International Union for

Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2016) recorded 566 species in the Red

list of Threatened species of the family.

While the above cited reasons calls for scientific research concerning

Rubiaceae, the flora of Bhutan (Grierson & Long, 1999) describes only

2

55 genera and 141 species against 13443 species list given in the

World Checklist of Rubiaceae 2011. This indicates that there is still a

scope to find new records of the family given the vegetation diversity of

the country. Such a gap might have existed due to the absence of

research concerning Rubiaceae in Bhutan and therefore, an urgent

need to study the family.

Therefore, the study will be conducted along altitudinal gradient of

Himalayan range in western Bhutan to understand the distribution,

composition and diversity patterns of species in the family including

species response to habitat. The species distribution pattern along

altitudinal gradient, as stated by Lomolino (2011), is important as

elevation gradient is closely related to species-altitude and species-

area relationships.

2. Background

Situated on the southern slope of the Eastern Himalayas, Bhutan is a

small, landlocked country with an area of 38,394 sq.km, bordering

China to its North and India to its south, east and west. The country

is almost entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 150 to

7,500m asl.(NASB, 2014), and with latititude 26047’N to 28026’N and

longitudes 88052’E to 92003’E (Dorji et al., 2010). The sudden rise of

the Himalayas from the flat Indo-Gangetic plains into jagged and lofty

mountain peaks endows Bhutan with a wide range of ecological zones

(Subba, 1996). Straddling the two major Indo-Malayan and

Palaearctic biogeographic realms, Bhutan is part of the Eastern

Himalayan region which contains parts of three global biodiversity

hotspots, 60 ecoregions, 330 Important Bird Areas, 53 Important

Plant Areas, and a large number of wetlands including 29 Ramsar

sites (ICIMOD, 2014).In other words, of the total area, 70.46 percent is

secured as forest cover, 51.32 percent as protected areas and

biological corridors (DoFPS, 2011).

3

The forest are classified into three broad and distinct eco-floristic

zones: alpine forests – above 4000m asl., temperate forests ranging

from 2000 – 4000 m asl. and sub-tropical forests ranging from 500 –

2000 m asl. (Ohsawa, 1987). Topographies of the country is

characterized by a complex geologic structure, snowcapped peaks,

deep asymmetric river valleys and ridges that are gifted with rich

natural resources (Sargent et al., 1985; Jamtsho & Sridith, 2015).

Despite those facts, not many studies have been conducted to explore

the plant species composition and diversity of the plant community in

Bhutan. On the contrary, Ohsawa (1987) had noted that the study of

vegetation in the Bhutan Himalaya would still serve the best to know

clearly about the structure of diversification of the Eurasian

vegetation.

3. Rationale

The constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan decrees that the country

maintain a minimum of 60 percent of the total land under forest cover

for all times to come. Currently, the forest coverage of the country

stands at 70.46 percent, well above the mandated figure (LCMP,

2010). However, agriculture expansion, commercial exploitation,

intensive grazing, timber and litter extraction, road and hydropower

constructions and ever increasing hiking trails affects maintenance of

its pristine state. Adding to the disturbances, almost 89.6 percent of

human population depends on forest resources for their daily

livelihoods (Subba, 1996).

All such anthropogenic factors affect plant populations and modify

species interaction within communities (Huston, 1994; Acharya,

1999). Further, when the land uses cease or new land uses emerge,

historic disturbance regimes are changed and this is likely to affect

biodiversity (Siebert & Belsky, 2014). This shows that human

activities are highly variable in their influence on biodiversity (Putz et

4

al., 2000) causing habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, which

are a serious threat to biodiversity (Primack, 1993).

In view of above justifications, there is an urgency to study the

vegetation of Bhutan in its pristine form and develop proper record of

the species composition, diversity and variation. The findings of the

study will serve as baseline information, which will enable detecting

changes, and trigger appropriate management responses, help

diagnose the causes of change, and assess the success of

management actions which will contribute to their improvement (Hill

et al., 2005). The baseline data will also help to monitor long term

changes in the forest community. Therefore, the study about the

family Rubiaceae along altitudinal gradient of Himalayan Range in

western Bhutan will be conducted.

4. Research Questions:

a. Main Question:

What is the Phytogeographic deconstruction of family Rubiaceae

along altitudinal gradient of Himalayan Range in Western

Bhutan?

b. Sub-questions:

i. How does species diversity and composition vary along

altitudinal gradient?

ii. What kind of correlation can be seen between species life

form and altitude?

iii. What kind of habitat and association does species in the

family have?

iv. How does anthropogenic factor impact the distribution

pattern of species?

5

c. Objectives

The study aims to fulfill following objectives:

i. To study species richness and diversity of the family Rubiaceae.

ii. To evaluate correlation between species life form and altitude.

iii. To assess habitat-species association of the family.

iv. To discuss the impact of anthropogenic factors on species

distribution pattern.

5. Literature review

The vegetation types and species composition vary greatly along

environmental gradients (Sang W., 2008) due to the presence of

different site conditions and relief effects, with consequent impact on

soil, microclimate and aspect (Jentsch & Beierkuhnlein, 2003). Such

factor ultimately influences the plant species distribution pattern in

the landscape along environmental gradients (Pottier et al., 2013). In

the process of trying to adapt to both biotic and abiotic factors, plants

develop species-specific tolerances and adapt themselves based on the

suitability of conditions (Kikvidze et al., 2005) to acquire maximum

growth and diversification.

The altitudinal gradient is described as the main variable affecting

floristic diversity in the communities as a whole. (Jimenez-Alfaro B. et

al., 2013).Thus, altitudinal gradient shapes plant richness along

ecological gradients thereby impacting community analysis (Sang W.,

2008). Such overreaching control of altitudinal gradient allows us to

generalize the distribution pattern of plant species for the whole

community after understanding the distribution pattern along one

gradient. This is because species with similar distribution are believed

to respond similarly at large and local ecological gradients (Ferrer-

Castan & Vetass, 2003).

Lomolino (2001) stated that different components of climate and local

environmental factors differ along altitudinal gradient and influences

6

species richness and diversity. Understanding these effects and their

ultimate impact on species-richness pattern is important for the

management of species diversity (Grytnes, 2003). All these scientific

evidences qualifies that the altitudinal gradient has dramatic impact

on the distribution pattern of plant species.

It will be fascinating to study the vegetation of Himalayas along

altitudinal gradient as Himalaya hosts important global biological

hotspots challenged by various biotic and abiotic factors that poses

potential to degrade vegetation pattern and floristic diversity (Sharma

et al., 2014). The Himalayan Mountains have rich diversity of

ecosystem and wonderful biological diversity due to the presence of

sharp environmental gradients (Chawla et al., 2008). And it is

interesting to note that the characteristic situation of Bhutan

Himalaya endows Bhutanese nature with equally immense biological

diversity (Ohsawa, 1987). Therefore, understanding the vegetation of

Bhutan Himalaya will help to understand the Himalayan vegetation or

give clear information about architecture and evolution of Eurasian

Vegetation (Ohsawa, 1987).

The present study about the family Rubiaceae will be conducted along

altitudinal gradient of Himalayan Range in Western Bhutan, within

the purview of importance of altitudinal gradient stated above. Except

for recording 55 genera and 141 species in the Flora of Bhutan, no

study concerning family Rubiaceae has been conducted in Bhutan till

date.

7

6. Materials and Methods:

a. Study Site

The study will be conducted along the altitudinal gradient in western

Bhutan. The study area stretches from Phuntsholing in the south at

an altitude of 476m asl. to Phajo-Ding range at 3962m asl. located

towards north. The study area covers tropical zone, subtropical zone,

warm-temperate zone, cool-temperate zone and subartic (cold

temperate) zone based on the vegetation zonation of Bhutan by

Ohsawa (1987). It is maintained in order to cater firstly to the

behavior of Rubiaceae where the species are distinctly concentrated in

tropics and subtropics with widespread presence in the temperate

regions (Davis et al., 2009). Secondly, the study area need to cover full

habitat of the species as Rubiaceae are found to occupy many kinds of

habitat in different biogeographical regions (Bremer & Eriksson,

2009).

Geologically, the study area is composed of at least six different kinds

of rocks, each forming a geological zone with succession by the next

kind of rock (Long et al., 2011) from Phuntsholing in the south till

Phajo-Ding range in the North.

Besides above listed unique features, the study area experiences high

level of anthropogenic factors with National High-way running through

the area coupled by recent widening of the road from Phunthosling

(south) to Thimphu (north). Further, many settlements, farms, grazing

area, pilgrimage trails and trekking trails are also prevalent in the

chosen study site.

Fig. 1: Map of Bhutan showing its location.

8

b. Materials

b. Materials.

The following materials will be used during field work and data

collection.

i. Camera.

ii. Measuring tape.

iii. Compass.

iv. Global Positioning System (GPS).

v. Data sheet format, pencil and eraser.

vi. Herbarium Press and Old Newspapers for specimen collection.

c. Methods and Sampling Design.

i. Vegetation survey

The stratified sampling method will be used to conduct preliminary

survey of the study area so as to inspect vegetation pattern,

topography and other environmental conditions (Kent & Coker,

1992). The preliminary survey will be conducted for two months:

January and February, 2017. After satisfactory preliminary study, an

imaginary transect line will be drawn in a north-south direction and

the survey will be conducted at different places/stations based on

Fig. 2: The proposed study area

Phajo-Ding

(3962m)

Phuntsholing

(476m)

9

the aspect and habitat. The number of study stations will be decided

after preliminary survey. However, maximum number of study

stations will be used to cover all the habitats and the species present

along the study site. The vegetation will be surveyed for three

categories – trees, shrubs and herbs (Sharma et al., 2014).

Field note will be prepared to record important morphological and

ecological characters such as habitat, production of latex, smell,

colour of flowers, adundance, etc. along with photograph of species.

The abundance of each species will be estimated through visual

evidence using the percentage cover described by Kent & Coker

(1992).

The Flora of Bhutan by Grierson & Long (1983-2001), flowers of the

Himalaya by Polunin & Stainton (1984) and Flower of the Himalaya:

a supplement by Stainton (1988) will be used for plant identification.

The plant specimens will be collected and photographs will be taken

to aid in identification of plant as well as for the maintenance of

record.

ii. Data Analysis

The species diversity, evenness and richness will be calculated by

using Simposon’s diversity index, Shannon-wiener evenness index

and Shannons’s species richness index. The dominance analysis will

be used to determine dominant species in each plot (Ohsawa, 1987).

Simpson’s Diversity index: D = (n / N)2

10

Where, n = the total number of organisms of a particular species and

N = the total number of organisms of all species

The value of D ranges between 0 and 1

With this index, 0 represents infinite diversity and 1, no diversity.

That is, the bigger the value of D, the lower the diversity. This is

neither intuitive nor logical, so to get over this problem, D is often

subtracted from 1 to give:

Shannon-wiener index (H’) = - ∑ Pilogn Pi

Where 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖𝑇 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑦

Species richness= S−NLog N

Where S= total number of species, N= total number of individual of all

species.

Species evenness index= HLog S

Where H= Shannon-wiener diversity index, S= total number of species.

Index of dominance = ∑(𝑁𝑖𝑁 )2 or ∑ 𝑃𝑖 2

Where Ni= number of individuals of a species (of one forest)

N= Total number of individual of all species (of one forest).

The preliminary data will be processed using pivotal table the Mircrosoft

Excel 2010. And the processed data will be analyzed using PC-ORD for

cluster analysis and statistical analysis using Statistical Package for Social

Sciences R Version 3.0.0. (R Development Core Team, 2013) and Microsoft

excel 2007 software for correlation analysis between various variables.

11

7. Expected outcome:

i. Report on the species richness and diversity of the family

Rubiaceae.

ii. Draw generalization regarding correlation between species life

form and altitude as well as habitat preference of the family.

iii. Provide general idea about the distribution pattern of species

along altitudinal gradient.

iv. Explain the influences of anthropogenic factors on the plant

species composition.

12

8. Estimate of the expenditure for Research Work

Sl.No. Particulars Estimate (Bath)

1. Plant specimen identification 5500

2. Specimen processing 4500

3. Materials (Herbarium sheet, paper, plastic bags,

ruler, pencil, etc.)

7500

4. Field work materials (Field cloth, field bags, rain

coat, plant collecting tools, equipments, etc.)

7000

5. Office materials (Book, papers, tonners, etc.) 6500

6. Miscellaneous 3000

Total 34,000

Total estimate: Bath 34,000 (Thirty-four thousand) only.

13

5. Comprehensive Work Plan for Dissertation - Year 2017 – 2018

Sl.

No

Activity 2017 2018

Jan

Feb

Mar

Ap

r

May

Jun

Jul

Au

g

Sep

Oct

No

v

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Ap

r

May

Jun

Jul

1. Critical reading and literature

review

2. Prepare comprehensive

checklist for plant specimen

collection

3. Preliminary visit to study area

for site selection and designing

sampling methods.

4. Survey and data collection.

5. Specimen collection and

processing

6. Herbarium specimen processing

and data collection.

7. Data analysis to draw the result.

8. Publication and Draft thesis

presentation.

9. Thesis writing

10 Thesis defense and final

correction

14

Reference

Acharya, B. 1999. Forest biodiversity assessment: a spatial analysis of tree

species diversity in Nepal. Ph.D. Thesis, Leiden University, Enschede,

pp 39 - 43.

Barbhuiya, H.A., Dutta, B.k., Das, A.K., and Baishya, A.k. 2014. The family

Rubiaceae in southern assam with special reference to endemic and

rediscovered plant taxa. Journal of Threatened Taxa.

Bremer, B. and Erikson, T. 2009. Time tree of Rubiaceae: Phylogeny and

dating the family, subfamilies, and trees. Int. J. Plant Sci. 170(6): 766-

793.

Chawla, A., Rajkumar, S., Singh, K.N., Lal, B., Thukral, A.K., and

Singh, R.D. 2008. Plant species diversity along an altitudinal gradient

of Bhabha Valley in western Himalaya. Journal of MountainScience,

vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 157–177.

Cribb, P. and Goevarts, R. 2005. Just how many orchids are there?

Orchidees/Naturalia Publications, Turriers, France.

Davis, A.P. and Bridson, D.M. 2007. Rubiaceae: Flowering Plants of the

World. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Davis, A.P., Bridson, D.M., Ruhsam, M., Moat, J. and Brummitt, A.N. 2009.

A global assessment of distribution, diversity, endemism, and

taxonomic effort in the Rubiaceae. BioOne research evolved.

Desalegn, W. and Beierkuhnlein, C. 2010. Plant species and growth form

richness along altitudinal gradients in the southwest Ethiopian

highlands: Journal of Vegetation Science 21:617-626.

DoFPS. 2011. Forestry Development in Bhutan: Policies, Programs and

Institutions. Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Thimphu, Bhutan.

Retrieved from http://www.moaf.gov.bt/agencies/department-of-

forests-and-park-services/dofps-about-us/ on 15 Sept. 2016.

Dorji, T., Gyeltshen, P., Norbu, C. and Baillie, I.C. 2010. Land degradation

in Bhutan – An overview. Retrieved from http://www.nssc.gov.bt/wp-

content/uploads/2013/08/land-degradation.pdf on 24th October,

2016.

15

Ferrer-Castan, D. and Vetass, O.R. 2003. Floristic variation, chorological

types and diversity: do they correspond at broad and local scales?

Diversity and Distributions 9:221 – 235.

Figueiredo, E. 2005. The Rubiaceae of Sao Tome e Principe (Gulf of Guinea):

taxonomy and conservation: Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society,

149, 85-114.

Goevarts, R., Ruhsam, M., Andersson, L., Robbrecht, E., Bridson, D., Davis,

A., Schanzer, I. and Sonke, B. 2006. World Checklist of Rubiaceae.

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved from

http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/compilersReviewers.do on 20th October,

2016.

Grierson, A.J.C and Long, D.G.1999. Flora of Bhutan. Including a record of

plants from Sikkim and Darjeeling. The Royal Botanic Garden

Edinburgh EH3 5LR, UK and the Royal Government of Bhutan. Vol. 2

part 2. pp. 733 – 834.

Grytnes, J.A. 2003. Species-richness patterns of vascular plants along seven

altitudinal transects in Norway: Ecograplhy 26: 291-300.

Hill, D., Fasham, M., Tucker, G., Shrewry, M. and Shaw, P. 2005. Handbook

of biodiversity methods: survey, evaluation and monitoring. Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge. pp. 88 – 103.

Hutson, M.A. 1994. Biological diversity: The coexistence of species in

changing landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

18pp.

ICIMOD. 2014. An integrated assessment of the effects of Natural and

Human Disturbances on a Wetland Ecosystem: A retrospective from

Phobjikha Conservation area, Bhutan. International Centre for

Integrated Mountain Development.pp.4-11.

IUCN. 2016. The IUCN Red List of Threatened species -2. Retrieved from

http://www.iucnredlist.org/search on 10th Oct., 2016.

Jamtsho, K. and Sridith, K. 2015. Exploring the patterns of alpine

vegetation of Eastern Bhutan: a case study from the Merak Himalaya:

Springer plus 4:304.

16

Jentsch, A. and Beierkuhnlein, C. 2003. Global climate change and local

disturbance regimes as interacting drivers for shifting altitudinal

vegetation patterns. Erdkunde 57: 216 – 231.

Jimenez-Algaro, B., Marceno, C., Bueno, A., Gavilan, R. and Obeso, J.R.

2014. Biogeographic deconstruction of alpine plant communities along

altitudinal and topographic gradients. Journal of Vegetation Science 25

160 – 171.

Kent, M. and Coker, P. 1992. Vegetation Description and Analysis: A

Practical Approach. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Baffins Lane, Chichester,

West Sussex PO19 1UD, England. p.52 – 53.

Kikvidze, Z., Pugnaire, F.I., Brooker, R.W., Choler, P., Lortie, C.J and

Michalet, R. 2005. Linking patterns and processing alpine plant

communities: a global study. Ecology 86, 1395–1400.doi:10.1890/04-

1926.

LCMP. 2010. Technical Report. Bhutan Land Cover Assessment. National

Soil Services Centre & PPD, MoAF. p.2.

Lewis, G., Schrire, B., Mackinder, B. and Lock, M. 2005. Legumes of the

World. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrived from

http://www.kew.org/science/tropamerica/neotropikey/families/Legu

minosae_(Papilionoideae).htm on 22nd October, 2016.

Long, S., McQuarrie, N., Tobgay, T., Grujic, D. and Hollister, L. 2011.

Geological Map of Bhtan. Journal of Maps.

Lomolino, M.V. 2001. Elevation gradients of species-richness, historical and

prospective views. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 10, 3-13.

NASB. 2014. Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan: Royal Government of Bhutan.

Retrieved from http://www.nsb.gov.bt/publication/files/pub8smf.pdf.

on 15th October, 2016.

Ohsawa, M. 1987. Life Zone Ecology of Bhutan Himalaya I. Laboratory of

Ecology, Chiba University, Japan. p. 17.

Ohsawa, M. 1987. Vegetation Zones in the Bhutan Himalaya. In Life Zone

Ecology of the Bhutan Himalaya. Laboratory of Ecology, Chiba

University, Japan, pp 72.

17

Polunin, O. and Stainton, A. 1984. Flowers of the Himalaya. Oxford

University press.

Pottier, J., Dubuis, A., Pellissier, L., Maiorano, L., Rossier, L. and Randin,

C.F. 2013. The accuracy of plant assemblage prediction from species

distribution models varies along environmental gradients. Glob. Ecol.

Biogeogr. 22, 52-63.

Primack, R. 1993. Essentials of Conservation Biology. Sinauer Associates,

Sandarland. pp. 228.

Puff, C. and Chamchumroon, V. 2003. Thai Rubiaceae with hooks and

thorns. Thai for. Bull. (BOT.) 31:65-74.2003.

Putz, F., Redford, K., Robinson, J., Fimbel, R. and Blate, G. 2000.

Biodiversity Conservation in the Context of Tropical Forest

Management. The World Bank Environmental Department,

Washington DC. Robbrecht E. (1998). Tropical Woody Rubiaceae.

Opera Bot Belg 1:1-271.

Sang, W. 2008. Plant diversity patterns and their relationships with soiland

climatic factors along an altitudinal gradient in the middle Tianshan

Mountain area, Xinjiang, China. The Ecological Society of Japan.

Sargent, C., Sargent, O. and Parsell, R. 1985. The forests of Bhutan, a vital

resource for the Himalayas. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 1, 265-286.

Shannnon, C.E. and Weiner, W. 1949. A Mathematical Theory of

Communication: Reprinted with corrections from The Bell System

Technical Journal, Vol. 27, pp. 379–423, 623–656, July, October, 1948.

Sharma, P., Rana, J.C., Devi., Randhawa, S.S. and Kumar, R. 2014.

Floristic Diversity and Distribution Pattern of Plant Communities

along Altitudinal Gradient in Sangla Valley, Northwest Himalaya.

Academic Editor: Shixiong Cao.

Siebert, S.F. and Belsky, J.M. 2014. Historic livelihoods and land uses as

ecological disturbances and their role in enhancing biodiversity: An

example from Bhutan: Biological Conservation 177/82-89.

Simpson, E.H. 1949. Measurement of diversity. Nature 163, 688.

doi:10.1038/163688a0.

18

Subba, K.J. 1996. Overview of Non-wood forest products in Bhutan. Forest

Resources Development Section, Thimphu. The Royal Government of

Bhutan. RAP Publication.

Vetaas, R. and Grytnes, J.A. 2002. Distribution of vascular plant species

richness and endemic richness along the Himalayan elevation

gradient in Nepal: Global Ecology & Biogeography II, 291-301.

Wangda, P. and Ohsawa, M. 2006. Gradational forest change along the

climatically dry valley slopes of Bhutan in the midst of humid eastern

Himalaya: Plant Ecology 186:109-128.

World Checklist of Rubiaceae. 2011. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew.

Retrieved on 13th Nov. 2016 from

http://www.kew.org/science/directory/projects/WorldRubiChecklist.

html#

1

Thesis Proposal

Thesis title: Phytogeographic deconstruction of family Rubiaceace along

altitudinal gradient of Himalayan Range in Western Bhutan.

1. Introduction:

The family Rubiaceae comprising of a cosmopolitan species is found to

occur in all the regions of the world except Antarctica (Barbhuiya et

al., 2014) and is described as tropical family with fair and even

distribution in the old and new world (Puff & Chamchumroon, 2003).

With over 13,143 species, Rubiaceae stands as the fourth largest

family of angiosperm after Orchidaceae, Asteraceae and Leguminosae

(Robbrecht, 1988; Goevarts et al., 2006; Bremer & Eriksson, 2009;

Davis et al., 2009) and consists of about 620 genera, over 40 tribes

and three subfamilies (Bremer & Eriksson, 2009). They are less

diverse (Davis & Bridson, 2007) with at least 72% of the genera

consisting of less than 10 species and 211 monotypic genera out of

849 genera (Lewis et al., 2005; Cribb & Goevarts, 2005; Davis et al.,

2009).

The diversity of members of Rubiaceae is checked by their nature of

ecological sensitivity aggravated by endemism, thus making it

vulnerable to extinction (Davis et al., 2009; Barbhuiya et al., 2014).

The members of the family being sensitive to disturbance make them

rare in the secondary forest types (Davis et al., 2006) thus limiting

their diversification in the disturbed places or in the places where

anthropogenic factor is high. On the contrary, only a few studies have

tried to discuss the phenomenon for their variability (Bremer &

Eriksson, 2009). And surprisingly, the International Union for

Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2016) recorded 566 species in the Red

list of Threatened species of the family.

While the above cited reasons calls for scientific research concerning

Rubiaceae, the flora of Bhutan (Grierson & Long, 1999) describes only

2

55 genera and 141 species against 13443 species list given in the

World Checklist of Rubiaceae 2011. This indicates that there is still a

scope to find new records of the family given the vegetation diversity of

the country. Such a gap might have existed due to the absence of

research concerning Rubiaceae in Bhutan and therefore, an urgent

need to study the family.

Therefore, the study will be conducted along altitudinal gradient of

Himalayan range in western Bhutan to understand the distribution,

composition and diversity patterns of species in the family including

species response to habitat. The species distribution pattern along

altitudinal gradient, as stated by Lomolino (2011), is important as

elevation gradient is closely related to species-altitude and species-

area relationships.

2. Background

Situated on the southern slope of the Eastern Himalayas, Bhutan is a

small, landlocked country with an area of 38,394 sq.km, bordering

China to its North and India to its south, east and west. The country

is almost entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 150 to

7,500m asl.(NASB, 2014), and with latititude 26047’N to 28026’N and

longitudes 88052’E to 92003’E (Dorji et al., 2010). The sudden rise of

the Himalayas from the flat Indo-Gangetic plains into jagged and lofty

mountain peaks endows Bhutan with a wide range of ecological zones

(Subba, 1996). Straddling the two major Indo-Malayan and

Palaearctic biogeographic realms, Bhutan is part of the Eastern

Himalayan region which contains parts of three global biodiversity

hotspots, 60 ecoregions, 330 Important Bird Areas, 53 Important

Plant Areas, and a large number of wetlands including 29 Ramsar

sites (ICIMOD, 2014).In other words, of the total area, 70.46 percent is

secured as forest cover, 51.32 percent as protected areas and

biological corridors (DoFPS, 2011).

3

The forest are classified into three broad and distinct eco-floristic

zones: alpine forests – above 4000m asl., temperate forests ranging

from 2000 – 4000 m asl. and sub-tropical forests ranging from 500 –

2000 m asl. (Ohsawa, 1987). Topographies of the country is

characterized by a complex geologic structure, snowcapped peaks,

deep asymmetric river valleys and ridges that are gifted with rich

natural resources (Sargent et al., 1985; Jamtsho & Sridith, 2015).

Despite those facts, not many studies have been conducted to explore

the plant species composition and diversity of the plant community in

Bhutan. On the contrary, Ohsawa (1987) had noted that the study of

vegetation in the Bhutan Himalaya would still serve the best to know

clearly about the structure of diversification of the Eurasian

vegetation.

3. Rationale

The constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan decrees that the country

maintain a minimum of 60 percent of the total land under forest cover

for all times to come. Currently, the forest coverage of the country

stands at 70.46 percent, well above the mandated figure (LCMP,

2010). However, agriculture expansion, commercial exploitation,

intensive grazing, timber and litter extraction, road and hydropower

constructions and ever increasing hiking trails affects maintenance of

its pristine state. Adding to the disturbances, almost 89.6 percent of

human population depends on forest resources for their daily

livelihoods (Subba, 1996).

All such anthropogenic factors affect plant populations and modify

species interaction within communities (Huston, 1994; Acharya,

1999). Further, when the land uses cease or new land uses emerge,

historic disturbance regimes are changed and this is likely to affect

biodiversity (Siebert & Belsky, 2014). This shows that human

activities are highly variable in their influence on biodiversity (Putz et

4

al., 2000) causing habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation, which

are a serious threat to biodiversity (Primack, 1993).

In view of above justifications, there is an urgency to study the

vegetation of Bhutan in its pristine form and develop proper record of

the species composition, diversity and variation. The findings of the

study will serve as baseline information, which will enable detecting

changes, and trigger appropriate management responses, help

diagnose the causes of change, and assess the success of

management actions which will contribute to their improvement (Hill

et al., 2005). The baseline data will also help to monitor long term

changes in the forest community. Therefore, the study about the

family Rubiaceae along altitudinal gradient of Himalayan Range in

western Bhutan will be conducted.

4. Research Questions:

a. Main Question:

What is the Phytogeographic deconstruction of family Rubiaceae

along altitudinal gradient of Himalayan Range in Western

Bhutan?

b. Sub-questions:

i. How does species diversity and composition vary along

altitudinal gradient?

ii. What kind of correlation can be seen between species life

form and altitude?

iii. What kind of habitat and association does species in the

family have?

iv. How does anthropogenic factor impact the distribution

pattern of species?

5

c. Objectives

The study aims to fulfill following objectives:

i. To study species richness and diversity of the family Rubiaceae.

ii. To evaluate correlation between species life form and altitude.

iii. To assess habitat-species association of the family.

iv. To discuss the impact of anthropogenic factors on species

distribution pattern.

5. Literature review

The vegetation types and species composition vary greatly along

environmental gradients (Sang W., 2008) due to the presence of

different site conditions and relief effects, with consequent impact on

soil, microclimate and aspect (Jentsch & Beierkuhnlein, 2003). Such

factor ultimately influences the plant species distribution pattern in

the landscape along environmental gradients (Pottier et al., 2013). In

the process of trying to adapt to both biotic and abiotic factors, plants

develop species-specific tolerances and adapt themselves based on the

suitability of conditions (Kikvidze et al., 2005) to acquire maximum

growth and diversification.

The altitudinal gradient is described as the main variable affecting

floristic diversity in the communities as a whole. (Jimenez-Alfaro B. et

al., 2013).Thus, altitudinal gradient shapes plant richness along

ecological gradients thereby impacting community analysis (Sang W.,

2008). Such overreaching control of altitudinal gradient allows us to

generalize the distribution pattern of plant species for the whole

community after understanding the distribution pattern along one

gradient. This is because species with similar distribution are believed

to respond similarly at large and local ecological gradients (Ferrer-

Castan & Vetass, 2003).

Lomolino (2001) stated that different components of climate and local

environmental factors differ along altitudinal gradient and influences

6

species richness and diversity. Understanding these effects and their

ultimate impact on species-richness pattern is important for the

management of species diversity (Grytnes, 2003). All these scientific

evidences qualifies that the altitudinal gradient has dramatic impact

on the distribution pattern of plant species.

It will be fascinating to study the vegetation of Himalayas along

altitudinal gradient as Himalaya hosts important global biological

hotspots challenged by various biotic and abiotic factors that poses

potential to degrade vegetation pattern and floristic diversity (Sharma

et al., 2014). The Himalayan Mountains have rich diversity of

ecosystem and wonderful biological diversity due to the presence of

sharp environmental gradients (Chawla et al., 2008). And it is

interesting to note that the characteristic situation of Bhutan

Himalaya endows Bhutanese nature with equally immense biological

diversity (Ohsawa, 1987). Therefore, understanding the vegetation of

Bhutan Himalaya will help to understand the Himalayan vegetation or

give clear information about architecture and evolution of Eurasian

Vegetation (Ohsawa, 1987).

The present study about the family Rubiaceae will be conducted along

altitudinal gradient of Himalayan Range in Western Bhutan, within

the purview of importance of altitudinal gradient stated above. Except

for recording 55 genera and 141 species in the Flora of Bhutan, no

study concerning family Rubiaceae has been conducted in Bhutan till

date.

7

6. Materials and Methods:

a. Study Site

The study will be conducted along the altitudinal gradient in western

Bhutan. The study area stretches from Phuntsholing in the south at

an altitude of 476m asl. to Phajo-Ding range at 3962m asl. located

towards north. The study area covers tropical zone, subtropical zone,

warm-temperate zone, cool-temperate zone and subartic (cold

temperate) zone based on the vegetation zonation of Bhutan by

Ohsawa (1987). It is maintained in order to cater firstly to the

behavior of Rubiaceae where the species are distinctly concentrated in

tropics and subtropics with widespread presence in the temperate

regions (Davis et al., 2009). Secondly, the study area need to cover full

habitat of the species as Rubiaceae are found to occupy many kinds of

habitat in different biogeographical regions (Bremer & Eriksson,

2009).

Geologically, the study area is composed of at least six different kinds

of rocks, each forming a geological zone with succession by the next

kind of rock (Long et al., 2011) from Phuntsholing in the south till

Phajo-Ding range in the North.

Besides above listed unique features, the study area experiences high

level of anthropogenic factors with National High-way running through

the area coupled by recent widening of the road from Phunthosling

(south) to Thimphu (north). Further, many settlements, farms, grazing

area, pilgrimage trails and trekking trails are also prevalent in the

chosen study site.

Fig. 1: Map of Bhutan showing its location.

8

b. Materials

b. Materials.

The following materials will be used during field work and data

collection.

i. Camera.

ii. Measuring tape.

iii. Compass.

iv. Global Positioning System (GPS).

v. Data sheet format, pencil and eraser.

vi. Herbarium Press and Old Newspapers for specimen collection.

c. Methods and Sampling Design.

i. Vegetation survey

The stratified sampling method will be used to conduct preliminary

survey of the study area so as to inspect vegetation pattern,

topography and other environmental conditions (Kent & Coker,

1992). The preliminary survey will be conducted for two months:

January and February, 2017. After satisfactory preliminary study, an

imaginary transect line will be drawn in a north-south direction and

the survey will be conducted at different places/stations based on

Fig. 2: The proposed study area

Phajo-Ding

(3962m)

Phuntsholing

(476m)

9

the aspect and habitat. The number of study stations will be decided

after preliminary survey. However, maximum number of study

stations will be used to cover all the habitats and the species present

along the study site. The vegetation will be surveyed for three

categories – trees, shrubs and herbs (Sharma et al., 2014).

Field note will be prepared to record important morphological and

ecological characters such as habitat, production of latex, smell,

colour of flowers, adundance, etc. along with photograph of species.

The abundance of each species will be estimated through visual

evidence using the percentage cover described by Kent & Coker

(1992).

The Flora of Bhutan by Grierson & Long (1983-2001), flowers of the

Himalaya by Polunin & Stainton (1984) and Flower of the Himalaya:

a supplement by Stainton (1988) will be used for plant identification.

The plant specimens will be collected and photographs will be taken

to aid in identification of plant as well as for the maintenance of

record.

ii. Data Analysis

The species diversity, evenness and richness will be calculated by

using Simposon’s diversity index, Shannon-wiener evenness index

and Shannons’s species richness index. The dominance analysis will

be used to determine dominant species in each plot (Ohsawa, 1987).

Simpson’s Diversity index: D = (n / N)2

10

Where, n = the total number of organisms of a particular species and

N = the total number of organisms of all species

The value of D ranges between 0 and 1

With this index, 0 represents infinite diversity and 1, no diversity.

That is, the bigger the value of D, the lower the diversity. This is

neither intuitive nor logical, so to get over this problem, D is often

subtracted from 1 to give:

Shannon-wiener index (H’) = - ∑ Pilogn Pi

Where 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖𝑇 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑦

Species richness= S−NLog N

Where S= total number of species, N= total number of individual of all

species.

Species evenness index= HLog S

Where H= Shannon-wiener diversity index, S= total number of species.

Index of dominance = ∑(𝑁𝑖𝑁 )2 or ∑ 𝑃𝑖 2

Where Ni= number of individuals of a species (of one forest)

N= Total number of individual of all species (of one forest).

The preliminary data will be processed using pivotal table the Mircrosoft

Excel 2010. And the processed data will be analyzed using PC-ORD for

cluster analysis and statistical analysis using Statistical Package for Social

Sciences R Version 3.0.0. (R Development Core Team, 2013) and Microsoft

excel 2007 software for correlation analysis between various variables.

11

7. Expected outcome:

i. Report on the species richness and diversity of the family

Rubiaceae.

ii. Draw generalization regarding correlation between species life

form and altitude as well as habitat preference of the family.

iii. Provide general idea about the distribution pattern of species

along altitudinal gradient.

iv. Explain the influences of anthropogenic factors on the plant

species composition.

12

8. Estimate of the expenditure for Research Work

Sl.No. Particulars Estimate (Bath)

1. Plant specimen identification 5500

2. Specimen processing 4500

3. Materials (Herbarium sheet, paper, plastic bags,

ruler, pencil, etc.)

7500

4. Field work materials (Field cloth, field bags, rain

coat, plant collecting tools, equipments, etc.)

7000

5. Office materials (Book, papers, tonners, etc.) 6500

6. Miscellaneous 3000

Total 34,000

Total estimate: Bath 34,000 (Thirty-four thousand) only.

13

5. Comprehensive Work Plan for Dissertation - Year 2017 – 2018

Sl.

No

Activity 2017 2018

Jan

Feb

Mar

Ap

r

May

Jun

Jul

Au

g

Sep

Oct

No

v

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Ap

r

May

Jun

Jul

1. Critical reading and literature

review

2. Prepare comprehensive

checklist for plant specimen

collection

3. Preliminary visit to study area

for site selection and designing

sampling methods.

4. Survey and data collection.

5. Specimen collection and

processing

6. Herbarium specimen processing

and data collection.

7. Data analysis to draw the result.

8. Publication and Draft thesis

presentation.

9. Thesis writing

10 Thesis defense and final

correction

14

Reference

Acharya, B. 1999. Forest biodiversity assessment: a spatial analysis of tree

species diversity in Nepal. Ph.D. Thesis, Leiden University, Enschede,

pp 39 - 43.

Barbhuiya, H.A., Dutta, B.k., Das, A.K., and Baishya, A.k. 2014. The family

Rubiaceae in southern assam with special reference to endemic and

rediscovered plant taxa. Journal of Threatened Taxa.

Bremer, B. and Erikson, T. 2009. Time tree of Rubiaceae: Phylogeny and

dating the family, subfamilies, and trees. Int. J. Plant Sci. 170(6): 766-

793.

Chawla, A., Rajkumar, S., Singh, K.N., Lal, B., Thukral, A.K., and

Singh, R.D. 2008. Plant species diversity along an altitudinal gradient

of Bhabha Valley in western Himalaya. Journal of MountainScience,

vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 157–177.

Cribb, P. and Goevarts, R. 2005. Just how many orchids are there?

Orchidees/Naturalia Publications, Turriers, France.

Davis, A.P. and Bridson, D.M. 2007. Rubiaceae: Flowering Plants of the

World. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Davis, A.P., Bridson, D.M., Ruhsam, M., Moat, J. and Brummitt, A.N. 2009.

A global assessment of distribution, diversity, endemism, and

taxonomic effort in the Rubiaceae. BioOne research evolved.

Desalegn, W. and Beierkuhnlein, C. 2010. Plant species and growth form

richness along altitudinal gradients in the southwest Ethiopian

highlands: Journal of Vegetation Science 21:617-626.

DoFPS. 2011. Forestry Development in Bhutan: Policies, Programs and

Institutions. Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Thimphu, Bhutan.

Retrieved from http://www.moaf.gov.bt/agencies/department-of-

forests-and-park-services/dofps-about-us/ on 15 Sept. 2016.

Dorji, T., Gyeltshen, P., Norbu, C. and Baillie, I.C. 2010. Land degradation

in Bhutan – An overview. Retrieved from http://www.nssc.gov.bt/wp-

content/uploads/2013/08/land-degradation.pdf on 24th October,

2016.

15

Ferrer-Castan, D. and Vetass, O.R. 2003. Floristic variation, chorological

types and diversity: do they correspond at broad and local scales?

Diversity and Distributions 9:221 – 235.

Figueiredo, E. 2005. The Rubiaceae of Sao Tome e Principe (Gulf of Guinea):

taxonomy and conservation: Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society,

149, 85-114.

Goevarts, R., Ruhsam, M., Andersson, L., Robbrecht, E., Bridson, D., Davis,

A., Schanzer, I. and Sonke, B. 2006. World Checklist of Rubiaceae.

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved from

http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/compilersReviewers.do on 20th October,

2016.

Grierson, A.J.C and Long, D.G.1999. Flora of Bhutan. Including a record of

plants from Sikkim and Darjeeling. The Royal Botanic Garden

Edinburgh EH3 5LR, UK and the Royal Government of Bhutan. Vol. 2

part 2. pp. 733 – 834.

Grytnes, J.A. 2003. Species-richness patterns of vascular plants along seven

altitudinal transects in Norway: Ecograplhy 26: 291-300.

Hill, D., Fasham, M., Tucker, G., Shrewry, M. and Shaw, P. 2005. Handbook

of biodiversity methods: survey, evaluation and monitoring. Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge. pp. 88 – 103.

Hutson, M.A. 1994. Biological diversity: The coexistence of species in

changing landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

18pp.

ICIMOD. 2014. An integrated assessment of the effects of Natural and

Human Disturbances on a Wetland Ecosystem: A retrospective from

Phobjikha Conservation area, Bhutan. International Centre for

Integrated Mountain Development.pp.4-11.

IUCN. 2016. The IUCN Red List of Threatened species -2. Retrieved from

http://www.iucnredlist.org/search on 10th Oct., 2016.

Jamtsho, K. and Sridith, K. 2015. Exploring the patterns of alpine

vegetation of Eastern Bhutan: a case study from the Merak Himalaya:

Springer plus 4:304.

16

Jentsch, A. and Beierkuhnlein, C. 2003. Global climate change and local

disturbance regimes as interacting drivers for shifting altitudinal

vegetation patterns. Erdkunde 57: 216 – 231.

Jimenez-Algaro, B., Marceno, C., Bueno, A., Gavilan, R. and Obeso, J.R.

2014. Biogeographic deconstruction of alpine plant communities along

altitudinal and topographic gradients. Journal of Vegetation Science 25

160 – 171.

Kent, M. and Coker, P. 1992. Vegetation Description and Analysis: A

Practical Approach. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Baffins Lane, Chichester,

West Sussex PO19 1UD, England. p.52 – 53.

Kikvidze, Z., Pugnaire, F.I., Brooker, R.W., Choler, P., Lortie, C.J and

Michalet, R. 2005. Linking patterns and processing alpine plant

communities: a global study. Ecology 86, 1395–1400.doi:10.1890/04-

1926.

LCMP. 2010. Technical Report. Bhutan Land Cover Assessment. National

Soil Services Centre & PPD, MoAF. p.2.

Lewis, G., Schrire, B., Mackinder, B. and Lock, M. 2005. Legumes of the

World. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrived from

http://www.kew.org/science/tropamerica/neotropikey/families/Legu

minosae_(Papilionoideae).htm on 22nd October, 2016.

Long, S., McQuarrie, N., Tobgay, T., Grujic, D. and Hollister, L. 2011.

Geological Map of Bhtan. Journal of Maps.

Lomolino, M.V. 2001. Elevation gradients of species-richness, historical and

prospective views. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 10, 3-13.

NASB. 2014. Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan: Royal Government of Bhutan.

Retrieved from http://www.nsb.gov.bt/publication/files/pub8smf.pdf.

on 15th October, 2016.

Ohsawa, M. 1987. Life Zone Ecology of Bhutan Himalaya I. Laboratory of

Ecology, Chiba University, Japan. p. 17.

Ohsawa, M. 1987. Vegetation Zones in the Bhutan Himalaya. In Life Zone

Ecology of the Bhutan Himalaya. Laboratory of Ecology, Chiba

University, Japan, pp 72.

17

Polunin, O. and Stainton, A. 1984. Flowers of the Himalaya. Oxford

University press.

Pottier, J., Dubuis, A., Pellissier, L., Maiorano, L., Rossier, L. and Randin,

C.F. 2013. The accuracy of plant assemblage prediction from species

distribution models varies along environmental gradients. Glob. Ecol.

Biogeogr. 22, 52-63.

Primack, R. 1993. Essentials of Conservation Biology. Sinauer Associates,

Sandarland. pp. 228.

Puff, C. and Chamchumroon, V. 2003. Thai Rubiaceae with hooks and

thorns. Thai for. Bull. (BOT.) 31:65-74.2003.

Putz, F., Redford, K., Robinson, J., Fimbel, R. and Blate, G. 2000.

Biodiversity Conservation in the Context of Tropical Forest

Management. The World Bank Environmental Department,

Washington DC. Robbrecht E. (1998). Tropical Woody Rubiaceae.

Opera Bot Belg 1:1-271.

Sang, W. 2008. Plant diversity patterns and their relationships with soiland

climatic factors along an altitudinal gradient in the middle Tianshan

Mountain area, Xinjiang, China. The Ecological Society of Japan.

Sargent, C., Sargent, O. and Parsell, R. 1985. The forests of Bhutan, a vital

resource for the Himalayas. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 1, 265-286.

Shannnon, C.E. and Weiner, W. 1949. A Mathematical Theory of

Communication: Reprinted with corrections from The Bell System

Technical Journal, Vol. 27, pp. 379–423, 623–656, July, October, 1948.

Sharma, P., Rana, J.C., Devi., Randhawa, S.S. and Kumar, R. 2014.

Floristic Diversity and Distribution Pattern of Plant Communities

along Altitudinal Gradient in Sangla Valley, Northwest Himalaya.

Academic Editor: Shixiong Cao.

Siebert, S.F. and Belsky, J.M. 2014. Historic livelihoods and land uses as

ecological disturbances and their role in enhancing biodiversity: An

example from Bhutan: Biological Conservation 177/82-89.

Simpson, E.H. 1949. Measurement of diversity. Nature 163, 688.

doi:10.1038/163688a0.

18

Subba, K.J. 1996. Overview of Non-wood forest products in Bhutan. Forest

Resources Development Section, Thimphu. The Royal Government of

Bhutan. RAP Publication.

Vetaas, R. and Grytnes, J.A. 2002. Distribution of vascular plant species

richness and endemic richness along the Himalayan elevation

gradient in Nepal: Global Ecology & Biogeography II, 291-301.

Wangda, P. and Ohsawa, M. 2006. Gradational forest change along the

climatically dry valley slopes of Bhutan in the midst of humid eastern

Himalaya: Plant Ecology 186:109-128.

World Checklist of Rubiaceae. 2011. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew.

Retrieved on 13th Nov. 2016 from

http://www.kew.org/science/directory/projects/WorldRubiChecklist.

html#