Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites - gbv.de · 1.2 WhatAreThermoplastics, ThermoplasticElastomer, Thermosets, Composites, andHybrids? 10 1.2.1 Thermoplastics 10 1.2.2 Thermoplastic

THERMOPLASTICS AND

THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES

Michel Biron

ELSEVIER

Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford

Paris • San Diego • San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo

William Andrew is an imprint of Elsevierw

Contents

Disclaimer xxi

Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiii

1 Outline of the Actual Situation of Plastics Compared to Conventional Materials 1

1.1 Polymers: The Industrial and Economic Reality Compared to Traditional Materials 1

1.1.1 Plastic and Metal Consumption 1

1.1.2 Mechanical Properties 4

1.1.3 Thermal and Electrical Properties 7

1.1.4 Durability •

8

1.1.5 Material Costs 10

1.2 What Are Thermoplastics, Thermoplastic Elastomer, Thermosets, Composites, and Hybrids? 10

1.2.1 Thermoplastics 10

1.2.2 Thermoplastic Elastomers 15

1.2.3 Thermosets 16

1.2.4 Polymer Composites 17

1.2.5 Hybrid Materials 17

1.3 Plastics: An Answer to the Designer's Main Problems 18

1.3.1 Economic Requirements 18

1.3.2 Technical Requirements 19

1.3.3 Marketing Requirements 19

1.3.4 Sustainability and Environmental Requirements 19

1.3.5 Some Weaknesses of Polymer Materials 20

1.4 Outline of the Technical and Economic Possibilities of Processing 20

1.4.1 Thermoplastic Processing 20

1.4.2 Thermoset Processing 24

1.4.3 Composite Processing... 25

1.4.4 Hybrid Processing 27

1.5 Environmental Constraints 27

1.5.1 Toxicity and Pollution 28

1.5.2 The Recycling of Polymers 28

1.5.3 Development of Bio-thermoplastics from Renewable Sources 28

1.6 The Final Material/Process/Cost Compromise 29

References 29

2 The Plastics Industry: Economic Overview. ............................................................—....... 31

2.1 Overview of the Global Plastics Industry Today and Tomorrow 31

2.2 Market Shares of the Various Thermoplastic Families 33

v

vi Contents

2.3 Market Shares of Composites 34

2.4 Market Shares for the Main Application Sectors 34

2.5 Importance of the Various Processing Modes 36

2.6 Consumption Trends 37

2.6.1 Thermoplastics 37

2.6.2 Composites 38

2.7 The North American Market 38

2.8 The Western European Market 38

2.9 The Asian Market 39

2.9.1 The Chinese Market 40

2.9.2 The Japanese Market 40

2.9.3 The Indian Market 41

2.10 Structure of the Plastics Processing Industry 41

2.11 Plastic Costs•

42

2.11.1 Raw Material Costs 42

2.11.2 Examples of Additive Costs 42

2.11.3 Reinforcement Costs 43

2.11.4 Processing Costs 44

2.11.5 Some Good Reasons to Use Plastics and a Few Examples of Success Stories 46

2.12 Survey of Main Markets 47

2.12.1 Packaging •48

2.12.2 Building and Civil Engineering 61

2.12.3 Automotive and Transportation 73

2.12.4 Electrical and Electronics 86

2.12.5 Household, Entertainment, and Office Appliances 96

2.12.6 Mechanical Engineering 105

2.12.7 Sports and Leisure 113

2.12.8 Medical Market 117

2.12.9 Furniture and Bedding 121

2.12.10 Agriculture 123

2.13 The Future: Two Important Issues Linked to Crude Oil: Costs and Drying Up 126

2.13.1 Polymer Cost Evolutions Versus Crude Oil Price 128

2.13.2 New Raw Material Sources: Biosourced Plastics 129

References 131

3 Basic Criteria for the Selection of Thermoplastics 133

3.1 Evaluation of Plastic Properties 133

3.1.1 Thermal Behavior 133

3.1.2 Low-Temperature Behavior 136

3.1.3 Density 136


3.1.5 Long-Term Mechanical Properties 139

3.1.6 Long-Term Light and Ultra Violet Resistance 140

3.1.7 Chemical Resistance by Immersion or Contact 141

Contents yii

3.1.8 Electrical Properties 142

3.1.9 Gas Permeability 142

3.1.10 Flammability 143

3.1.11 Optical Properties 143

3.2 Evaluation of Plastic Structural Properties 143

3.2.1 Morphology and Structure of Polymers 144

3.3 ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning Polymer Testing 145

3.3.1 ISO Standards 145

3.3.2 ASTM Standards 151

3.4 Analysis and Diagnostic Equipment 155

3.5 Material Selection 156

3.6 Precision of the Molded Parts 157

3.7 Schematic Comparison of Thermoplastic and Composite Properties 160

3.8 Upgrading and Customization of Raw Polymers 164

3.8.1 Thermoplastic Alloying 166

3.8.2 Compounding with Additives 168

4 Detailed Accounts of Thermoplastic Resins 189

4.1 Polyethylene or Polythene 189

4.1.1 General Properties 190




4.1.5 Aging 195


4.1.7 Joining, Decoration 197

4.1.8 Cross-linked PE 205

4.1.9 Foams 205

4.1.10 Industrial Fibers 207

4.1.11 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning PEs 208

4.1.12 Trade Name and Producer Examples 211

4.1.13 Property Tables 211

4.2 Polypropylene 216





4.2.5 Aging 222



4.2.8 Foams 229

4.2.9 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning PPs 230



viii Contents

4.3 Other Polyolefins 232

4.3.1 Polybutene-1 or Polybutylene-1 232

4.3.2 Polymethylpentene 241

4.3.3 Cyclic Olefin Copolymers or Cyclic Olefin Polymers (COC or COP) 248

4.4 PO and Nonpolyolefin Copolymers 253

4.4.1 Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Copolymers (EVA, E/VAC, EVAC, VAE, EVM) 253

4.4.2 Ethylene—Vinyl Alcohol Copolymers 264

4.4.3 Ethylene—Methacrylate Ionomers 271

4.4.4 Ethylene Acid and Ethylene-Ester Copolymers (EBA, EGMA, EMAH, EEA, EAA . . .)... 278

4.5 Chlorinated Polyethylene 278

4.6 Polyvinyl Chloride 282





4.6.5 Aging 289



4.6.8 Foams : 295

4.6.9 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning PVC 297



4.7 Chlorinated PVC (PVC-C or CPVC) 306




4.7.4 Aging 307



4.7.7 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning PVC-C 309



4.8 Polyvinylidene Chloride 310




4.8.4 Aging 312

4.8.5 Example of ASTM Standard 313



4.9 Other Vinyl Polymers 313

4.9.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVAL or PVOH) 313

4.9.2 Polyvinyl Butyrate 314

4.9.3 Polyvinyl Acetate 314

Contents ix

4.10 Polystyrene (PS, SB, and SMA) 314





4.10.5 Aging 319



4.10.8 Cross-linked PS (X-PS or PS-X) 324

4.10.9 Foams [Expandable Polystyrene (EPS)] 324

4.10.10 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning PS 327



4.11 ABS and Methylmethacrylate—Acrylonitrile—Butadiene—Styrene 328



4.11.3 Optical Properties. 333


4.11.5 Aging 334



4.11.8 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning ABS and MABS 339



4.12 SAN, Acrylate Rubber-Modified Styrene Acrylonitrile (ASA), Acrylonitrile—EPDM—Styrene

(AES or AEPDS), and Acrylonitrile Chlorinated Polyethylene Styrene 340





4.12.5 Aging 345



4.12.8 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning SAN, ASA, AEPDS,

and ACS 349



4.13 Polyamides or Nylons (PA) 349

4.13.1 Polyamides 66 and 6 (PA 66 and PA 6) 354

4.13.2 Polyamides 11 and 12 (PA 11 and PA 12) 365

4.13.3 Linear PAs Intermediate between PA 6 or 66 and PA 11 or PA 12: PA 610 and PA 612 376

4.13.4 Polyamide 46 (PA 46) 379

4.13.5 Semi-aromatic PAs, PPA, PAA, and Transparent Amorphous Polyamide (PA-T) 385

4.13.6 Cast Nylon 389

x Contents

4.14 Thermoplastic Polyesters (PET, PBT, PETG, PCT, PTMT, PCTG, PEN, PCTA, and PTT) 392





4.14.5 Aging 398



4.14.8 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning Polyesters 402



4.15 Acrylics (PMMA, PMI, SMMA, and MBS) 403


4.15.2 Thermal Behavior.. 408



4.15.5 Aging 409



4.15.8 Foams 410

4.15.9 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning Acrylics 414



4.16 Polycarbonates 415





4.16.5 Aging 422



4.16.8 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning PCs 428



4.17 Polyoxymethylene, Polyacetal, Acetal, or Polyformaldehyde (POM) 429





4.17.5 Aging 436



4.17.8 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning Acetals 441



Contents X1

4.18 Polyphenylene Oxide and Polyphenylene Ether 441

4.18.1 General Properties , 445




4.18.5 Aging 448



4.18.8 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning PPE 452



4.19 Fluorinated Thermoplastics: Fully Perfluorinated Thermoplastics (PTFE or TFE, PFA, FEP),

Copolymers (ETFE), Partially Fluorinated (PVDF, PVF), Chlorofluoroethylene (PCTFE), and

Copolymer (ECTFE) 453

4.19.1 Perfluorinated Thermoplastics (PTFE or TFE, PFA, FEP) 460

4.19.2 Tetrafluoroethylene and Ethylene Copolymer (ETFE) 471

4.19.3 Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) 480

4.19.4 Ethylene Chlorotrifluoroethylene Copolymer (ECTFE) 484

4.19.5 Polyvinylidene Fluoride 498

4.19.6 Polyvinyl Fluoride 504

4.20 Cellulosics (CA, CAB, and CP) 511

4.21 Polysulfone, Polyarylsulfone, Polyethersulfone, and Polyphenylenesulfone 518





4.21.5 Aging 522



4.21.8 Foam 525

4.21.9 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning PSUs 526



4.22 Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS) 530





4.22.5 Aging 532



4.22.8 Examples of Specific ISO and ASTM Standards Concerning PPS 533



xii Contents

4.23 Polyetheretherketones, Polyetherketones, and Polyaryletherketones 536





4.23.5 Aging 542

4.23.6 Electrical Properties ; 545


4.23.8 Examples of Specific ASTM Standards Concerning Polyketones 545



4.24 Polyetherimide 548





4.24.5 Aging 551





4.25 Polyamide-imide 556





4.25.5 Aging, 558



4.25.8 Examples of Specific ASTM Standards Concerning PAJ 562



4.26 Polyimides 562





4.26.5 Aging 569



4.26.8 Foams 576

4.26.9 Examples of Specific ASTM Standards Concerning Pis 577


4.26.11 Property tables ! 577

Contents xin

4.27 Liquid Crystal Polymers 577





4.27.5 Aging 588



4.27.8 Example of Specific ASTM Standards Concerning LCP 592



4.28 Polybenzimidazole 592





4.28.5 Aging 597




4.29 Alloys 599

4.29.1 ABS/PC Alloys 602

4.29.2 ASA/PC Alloys 603

4.29.3 ABS/PA Alloys 605

4.29.4 PP/PA Alloys 608

4.29.5 Thermoplastic Polyester Alloys 611

4.29.6 ABS/PVC Alloys 616

4.29.7 PSU-Based Alloys 622

4.29.8 PPS-Elastomer Alloys 623

4.29.9 PI Derivative Alloys: PEI/PC, PEI/PSU, TPI/PEEK, and PBI/PEEK 623

4.29.10 Other Alloys 633

4.30 Thermoplastic Elastomers 639

4.30.1 Thermoplastic Styrenics (SBS, SEBS, SIS, SEPS. . .) 647

4.30.2 Thermoplastic Olefinics (PP/EPDM . . .) 655

4.30.3 Thermoplastic Vulcanizates - TPV (PP/EPDM-V, PP/NBR-V, PP/IIR-V.. .) 661

4.30.4 TPE/PVC 673

4.30.5 Thermoplastic Polyurethanes 676

4.30.6 Melt-Processable Rubber 681

4.30.7 Thermoplastic Polyester Elastomers (TPEE or COPE) 685

4.30.8 Polyether Block Amides 688

4.30.9 Super-TPV 695

4.31 Biosourced Thermoplastics 699

4.31.1 Overview 699

4.31.2 Specific Standards Concerning Bioplastics 701

xiv Contents

4.31.3 Trade Name and Producer Examples of Partly or Totally Biosourced Polymers 701

4.32 Thermoplastics More or Less Directly Derived from Natural Raw Materials 701

4.32.1 Ready-to-Use Thermoplastic Starch 701

4.32.2 Ready-to-Use PLA Grades 704

4.32.3 Ready-to-Use Cellulose-Based Plastics 706

4.32.4 Other Aliphatic Polyesters: PHA, PHB, Polyhydroxyvalerate,

Polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate, and Polyhydroxybutyrate—Hexanoate

Copolymer 707

4.32.5 Liquid Wood Based on Lignin by Arboform 708

4.32.6 Miscellaneous Proprietary Alloys and Compounds 708

4.32.7 Biosourced Composites 710

4.33 Conventional Polymers Synthesized from Biosourced Chemical Bricks 710

4.33.1 Polyolefins 710

4.33.2 Polyamides : 711

4.33.3 Thermoplastic Polyesters 711

4.33.4 Thermoplastic Polyurethanes 712

4.33.5 Acrylics 712

4.34 Hyperbranched, Dendrimers, Star-Branched, and Multiarm Polymers 712

References 714

5 Thermoplastic Processing 715

5.1 Molding Thermoplastics 715

5.1.1 Injection Molding 715

5.1.2 Blow Molding 722

5.1.3 Compression Molding 725

5.1.4 Rotational Molding or Rotomolding 725

5.1.5 Slush Molding 726

5.1.6 Casting 726

5.1.7 RIM 727

5.1.8 Dipping 727

5.1.9 Spraying 728

5.2 Extrusion and Connected Processes 728

5.2.1 Extrusion 728

5.2.2 Blown Film Extrusion 731

5.3 Calendering 732

5.4 Coating 732

5.4.1 Extrusion Coating 732

5.4.2 Roll Dipping, Spreading ,733

5.4.3 Powdering, Electrostatic Deposition 734

5.4.4 Solvent Casting of Films 734

5.4.5 Laminating 735

5.5 Foaming 735

5.5.1 Molding of Expandable Beads 736

5.5.2 Structural Foam Injection 736

Contents xv

5.5.3 Extrusion of Thermoplastics Containing Blowing Agents 737

5.5.4 Direct Gas Extrusion Process 738

5.5.5 Liquid Foam Process 738

5.6 Composite Processing 739

5.6.1 Processing Short Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics 739

5.6.2 Processing LFRT or LFT: Injection, Compression Molding, Extrusion-Compression,

Composite Insert Molding 739

5.6.3 Stamping and Compression Molding of GMT Sheets 740

5.6.4 Prepreg Draping and Consolidation by Vacuum or Pressure Bag Molding, Autoclave 741

5.6.5 Filament and Tape Winding 743

5.6.6 Continuous Processes: Pultrusion and Derived Processes 744

5.6.7 Sandwich Composites 745

5.6.8 Hybrids 746

5.7 Curing of Thermoplastics 746

5.8 Secondary Processing 747

5.8.1 Thermoforming 747

5.8.2 Machining of Thermoplastics and Composites 750

5.8.3 Boilermaking 750

5.8.4 Inserts, Outserts 751

5.9 Finishing 752

5.9.1 Cleaning and Surface Treatments 753

5.9.2 Decoration, Marking 754

5.10 Assembly of Fabricated Parts 755

5.10.1 Welding 756

5.10.2 Adhesive Bonding 756

5.10.3 Mechanical Assembly 757

5.11 Repair Possibilities: A Significant Thermoplastic Advantage for Large Parts 757

5.12 Annealing 757

5.13 Another Way: AM Techniques for Prototyping and e-Manufacturing 758

5.14 Processing Trends: Cheaper, Faster, Easier, Greener 759

5.15 Starting Points for Manufacturer, Converter and Equipment Maker Search 761

5.16 Machinery and Equipment Makers and Distributors 767

References 767

6 Thermoplastic Composites....................—. ................ 769

6.1 Definitions 769

6.2 Reminder of Some Basic Principles 769

6.3 Composite Mechanical Performances According to the Reinforcement Type 771

6.3.1 Reinforcement by Randomly Distributed Short Fibers 771

6.3.2 Reinforcement by Arranged Continuous Fibers 772

6.3.3 General Approximate Method for Strength Estimation 773

6.4 Composite Matrices 774

6.4.1 Some Basic Characteristics of Thermoplastic Matrices 775

6.4.2 Influence of the Matrix on Composite Properties 779

xvi Contents

6.5 Reinforcements 779

6.5.1 Fibers 779

6.5.2 The Different Fiber Forms Used for Reinforcement 798

6.5.3 Foams for Sandwich Technology 799

6.5.4 Honeycombs 804

6.5.5 Plywood and Wood 806

6.5.6 Influence of the Core on the Sandwich Properties ; 806

6.5.7 Nanofillers 807

6.5.8 Carbon Nanotubes 808

6.6 Intermediate Semi-manufactured Materials 810

6.6.1 Glass Mat thermoplastics 810

6.6.2 Prepregs 811

6.6.3 Property Examples of Intermediate Semi-manufactured Composites 811

6.6.4 Advanced All-polymer Prepregs or Self-reinforced Polymers 813

6.7 Examples of Composite Characteristics 813

6.7.1 Basic Principles 813

6.7.2 Nanocomposites 813

6.7.3 Short Fiber Composites 813

6.7.4 Long Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastics 818

6.7.5 "Continuous" Fiber Composites 819

6.7.6 Sandwich Composites 819

6.7.7 Conductive Composites 822

6.7.8 Wood Plastic Composites 823

References 828

7 Plastics Solutions for Practical Problems ........ .... . ..... 831

7.1 Some General Rules ..831

7.2 Solutions for Metal Replacement 833

7.2.1 Automotive Sector Likes Plastics for Weight and Cost Savings 833

7.2.2 Fiber Reinforcement 834

7.2.3 Injection Molding for Simple, Flexible, and High-Output Solutions 835

7.2.4 Glass Mat Thermoplastics 836

7.2.5 Hybrids 836

7.2.6 Outstanding Application Examples 837

7.2.7 High-Tech Thermoplastic, CF, and Innovative Processing 837

7.2.8 Fuel Tanks: Old and New Solutions 838

7.3 Glass Replacement 838

7.3.1 Main Applications 839

7.3.2 Permeability: Make the Good Choice 841

7.3.3 Think Multilayer Structures, Hybrids, and Coatings 842

7.3.4 Take Advantage of Polymers 845

7.4 Thermoplastics Structural Solutions 845

7.4.1 Hi-tech Prepregs 846

7.4.2 Sandwich Structures 847

Contents xvii

7.4.3 Monomaterial, Fully Biosourced, and Absorbable: PLA Fiber-Reinforced PLA 849

7.4.4 Nanocomposites: Combine Reinforcement and Conductivity Using Ready-to-UseCarbon Nanotubes 849

7.4.5 Low-Cost and Wide Performance Window: GF-Reinforced PP 850

7.4.6 Environment-Friendly Structural Solutions 851

7.5 Esthetic Parts 855

7.5.1 Modeling, Simulation, and Rapid Prototyping Avoid Many Defects 857

7.5.2 Esthetic Enhancement Thanks to Optical Properties: A Jumble of Objectiveand Subjective Features 857

7.5.3 Decoration and Protective Coatings 860

7.5.4 Some Tracks to Help Minimizing Physical Defects: Special Grades, Additives,

Processing Parameters 861

7.5.5 Esthetics Permanence During Service Life 864

7.6 Long-lasting parts 864

7.6.1 Designing Long-Lasting Parts 865

7.6.2 Durability Enhancement Thanks to Internal Additives 866

7.6.3 Durability Enhancement by Coatings and Other External Barrier Materials 875

7.6.4 Durability Optimization by Processing Optimization 876

7.6.5 Test End Parts Choosing the Right Specification and the Right Tests 876

7.6.6 Durability Forecast: Do Not Fall in Some Classic Traps 877

7.6.7 Tricky Cases: Very Long-Term Service Life of 50, 100 Years, and More? 878

7.7 Transparent Parts 881

7.7.1 Transparent and Translucent Thermoplastics Panel 882

7.7.2 Transparent PP: A Low-Cost Transparent General-Purpose and Engineering

Thermoplastic 884

7.7.3 Transparent SMMA Materials for Medical Applications 884

7.7.4 Transparency and Mechanical Performance 885

7.7.5 Transparency and Thermal Behavior 885

7.7.6 Transparency and Chemical Resistance 886

7.7.7 Transparency for Luxury Packaging 886

7.7.8 Refractive Index of Thermoplastics 886

7.8 Fire Retardant Thermoplastics and Halogen-Free Fire Retardant Solutions 888

7.8.1 Be Careful: Flammability is Overregulated 888

7.8.2 Examples of Routes Toward Fire Retardancy 889

7.8.3 Inherently Fire Retardant Thermoplastics: Halogen-Containing and Halogen-Free

Polymers 890

7.8.4 Ready-to-Use HFFR Thermoplastic Grades 890

7.8.5 HFFR Additives 892

7.8.6 HFFR PP Highly Filled with Mineral Fillers 894

7.8.7 Innovative Part Architectures: Overmolded Coatings, Multilayer Structures 894

7.9 High Heat-Resistant Thermoplastics 894

7.9.1 PBI: A Difficult-to-Process Champion 896

7.9.2 Thermoplastic Polyimides 897

7.9.3 Polyarylketones (PEEK, PAEK, PEK) 897

xviii Contents

7.9.4 Interesting Compromises: Alloys of PBI or TPI and PEEK 899

7.9.5 PAI: A Melt Processable Cousin of Pis 902

7.9.6 High Heat LCPs: Self-Reinforcement in Addition 902

7.9.7 PPS: A "General-Purpose" Family of High-Heat Polymers 902

7.9.8 Perfluorinated Polymers: PTFE, the Most Commonly Used and PEA, the Melt

Processable 903

7.9.9 Polyphthalamide 903

7.9.10 Polyethersulfone (PES or PESU) (see Subchapter 4.21 for general properties):

A Case Study 904

7.9.11 Polyetherimides •

905

7.10 Thermoplastics for Low-Temperature Applications 905

7.10.1 Thermal Fatigue Due to Cold/Heat Cycling 907

7.10.2 Low-Temperature Behavior: Possible Enhancement Ways 908

7.10.3 Case Study: Tribology at Extreme Low Temperatures 909

7.11 Electrically Conductive Thermoplastics 910

7.11.1 Conductive Plastics Consumption and Applications 911

7.11.2 Some Conventional Conductive Additives 912

7.11.3 Innovative Solutions 914

7.12 Antifriction thermoplastics 916

7.12.1 Thermoplastics and Tribology 918

7.12.2 Tribological Additives 918

7.13 Absorbent and SAPs 919

7.13.1 SAPs Based on Acrylic Acid and Its Salts and Derivatives 921

7.13.2 Other Absorbent and SAPs 923

7.13.3 Semi-manufactured Products 923

7.13.4 Applications 924

7.14 Thermally Conductive Thermoplastics 927

7.14.1 Aluminum Powders as Thermal Conductivity Enhancers 929

7.14.2 Ceramics as Thermal Conductivity Enhancers 930

7.14.3 CF and Carbon Nanotubes as Thermal Conductivity Enhancers 932

7.14.4 Ready-to-Use Compounds 932

7.15 Magnetic Thermoplastics 933

7.15.1 Ready-to-Use Magnetic Thermoplastic Compounds 936

7.15.2 An Important Issue: Thermoplastic and Processing Choices 938

7.16 Heavy Compounds 938

7.16.1 Ready-to-Use Heavy Thermoplastic Compounds 940

7.16.2 Effects of Density and Thermoplastic Family 940

7.17 Super-Soft Thermoplastics 940

7.17.1 Ready-to-Use Compounds 941

7.17.2 Ultrasoft Foams 945

7.18 Antimicrobial Solutions 945

7.18.1 Ready-to-Use Biocidal Additives 946

7.18.2 Regulation Overview 947

7.18.3 Conventional Antimicrobial Active Constituents 947

Contents x*x

7.18.4 Innovative and Recent Ways 948

7.18.5 Natural Sourced Biocides * 950

7.18.6 Applications: Hazardous Media, Intensive Service, Safe Touch Devices,

Consumer Goods, and Marine Media 951

7.18.7 Suppliers and Trade Name Examples 951

7.19 Antifogging Solutions 951

7.19.1 Antifogging Strategies 953

7.19.2 Antifogging Additives 953

7.19.3 Antifogging Coatings 954

7.20 Chemical Resistance of Thermoplastics 955

7.20.1 Action of Chemicals on Thermoplastics 956

7.20.2 Interpretation of the Results 959

7.21 Adhesion Issues 960

7.21.1 Cleaning 963

7.21.2 Surface Modification 963

7.21.3 Primers 965

7.21.4 Thermoplastic Formulation 965

7.22 Semi-manufactured Products 967

7.23 Thermoplastic Foams 968

7.24 Suggestions for Phthalate-Free Solutions 969

7.24.1 Non-banned Phthalates 974

7.24.2 Petrochemicals-Based Alternatives 975

7.24.3 Bio-based Alternatives 977

7.24.4 End Cost of Phthalate Plasticizer Replacement 978

7.24.5 Producers and Trade Name of Nonphthalate Plasticizers 978

7.25 Suggestions to Avoid Six Substances Banned or Restricted by RoHS 979

7.26 Proposed Ways Toward Lower VOCs 981

7.26.1 Examples of Sources of VOCs 982

7.26.2 Some General Ways to Reduce VOCs 982

7.26.3 Low-VOC or Low-Emission Thermoplastics 983

References 983

8 Future Prospects for Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites 985

8.1 The Laws and Requirements of the Market 985

8.2 Thermoplastic and Thermoplastic Composite Answers and Assets 985

8.3 Some Scenarios for Price Evolutions of Raw Polymers and Competing Metals 988

8.3.1 Modeling from Historical Prices 989

8.3.2 Modeling from Crude Oil Prices 989

8.4 Markets: What Drives What? The Forces Driving Development 989

8.4.1 Consumption Trends 989

8.4.2 Requirements of the Main Markets 991

8.5 Cost Savings 991

8.5.1 Material Costs 991

8.5.2 Hybrids 992

8.5.3 Processing Costs 992

xx Contents

8.6 Material Upgrading Thanks to Nanoreinforcement 994

8.6.1 Carbon Nanotubes 994

8.6.2 Nanofillers 994

8.6.3 Nanofibers 996

8.6.4 Graphene 997

8.6.5 Molecular Reinforcement 998

8.6.6 Polymer Nanotubes 998

8.7 Material Competition 998

8.7.1 Short Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastics to Compete with LFRT 998

8.7.2 Thermoplastic and Thermoset Competition 999

8.7.3 Three-Dimensional Reinforcements Compete with 2D 1000

8.7.4 Carbon Fibers Compete with Glass Fibers 1000

8.7.5 New Special-Performance Polymers 1001

8.8 Environmental Concerns 1002

8.8.1 Recycling of Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites 1003

8.8.2 Sustainable and Biodegradable Thermoplastics 1007

8.8.3 Sustainable Standard and High-Performance Reinforcements 1009

8.8.4 Examples of Sustainable Composites 1010

8.9 Are Bioplastics so Green? Beware of Study Interpretation 1010

8.10 The Immediate Future Seen Through Recent Patents 1012

8.10.1 Analysis of Patents by Polymer Type 1012

8.10.2 Analysis of Patents by Reinforcement Type 1012

8.10.3 Analysis of Patents by Structure and Process Type 1012

8.11 The Immediate Future Seen through Recent Awards 1012

References 1025

Glossary 1027

Index 1035

Documents

Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites - gbv.de · 1.2 WhatAreThermoplastics, ThermoplasticElastomer, Thermosets, Composites, andHybrids? 10 1.2.1 Thermoplastics 10 1.2.2 Thermoplastic