Thermal Elimination of Waste Lubricating Oil in High Intensity Industrial Combustion Chambers in Guayaquil

UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

Thermal Elimination of Waste Lubricating Oil in High Intensity

Industrial Combustion Chambers in Guayaquil

by

Luis Fernando Auhing Balladares

A Master’s Degree Project submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Energy and

Environment

Faculty of Graduate Studies

Quito, Ecuador

August 2002

CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION OF INDIVIDUAL PROJECT

FOR THE UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY/OLADE

MASTER OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The undersigned certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate

Studies for acceptance, the Individual Project Report “Thermal Elimination of Waste

Lubricating Oil in High Intensity Industrial Combustion Chambers in Guayaquil”

submitted by Luis Fernando Auhing Balladares in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Energy and Environment.

_______________________________ _______________________________

Supervisor: Mary-Ellen Tyler Date

______________________________ ____________________________

Co-Supervisor: Jorge W. Duque R. Date

_________________________________ ____________________________

Representative of the Academic Council Date

ii

ABSTRACT

The total lubricating oil market in Ecuador is approximately 62,130 TM/year, of which

it is estimated that 8,814 TM/year correspond to the market of lubricating oil for vehicle

crankcases in the city of Guayaquil. The mismanagement of used oil is producing

several adverse impacts on the environment as well as on human health because of

inadequate methods of final disposal that for different reasons have resulted in a parallel

market (black market).

This project examines the preliminary feasibility of utilizing lubricating oil from

crankcase engines as an energy resource in industries that have high intensity

combustion chambers that can take advantage of the energy content of used oil and

incineration (thermal destruction) in Guayaquil. The project offers an overview of the

management of used oil in the European Community, in Latin America and in

Colombia. In addition, the project analyses projects and cases that have been conducted

and are presently being executed in Ecuador in order to discover in these experiences

what is most useful for used oil management in the city of Guayaquil.

Finally, the project tries to quantify the impacts used oil produces and gather enough

relevant information regarding the city to help develop an environmental management

strategy plan for used oil based on the present context of the Municipality by using a

census of the lubrication stations in the city that was sponsored by the Municipality of

Guayaquil.

Based on this preliminary feasibility, recommendations and steps that can taken for

both the short and the long term and that are appropriate for the current situation and

bear in mind the concepts of group responsibility, innovative processes, public

participation and bridging strategies are set forth for the application of a strategy for the

environmental management of used oil in Guayaquil in the near future.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A special thanks to the Municipality of Guayaquil for their help with information,

carrying out the census of lubrication stations and visits to industries through their

Department of Environment and Department of Justice and Vigilance.

A special thanks to Dr. Mary-Ellen Tyler and Mr. Jorge Duque for all the support and

patience they gave me while working on this Project.

I also want to thank Swisscontact and its Ecology Coordination, the Municipality of

Quito and its Department of Soil Resource, the Cuenca Telephone, Water and Sewage

Enterprise (ETAPA) and its Coordination of Urban Environmental Management, the

Ministry of Environment and its Vice-ministry of Environmental Quality, the

Coordination of Dangerous Products and the Coordination of Environmental Control

and Monitoring, Shell-Ecuador and its Technical Department, the United Nations

Organization and its Virtual Department of Documentation, the Superior Polytechnic

School of the Littoral (ESPOL) and its Department of Mechanical Engineering, the

University of Guayaquil and its School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering,

the Central University of Quito and its School of Petroleum Engineering for their help

with technical information, information regarding environmental management in

Ecuador and data regarding the cases carried out in Ecuador related to used oil.

A special thank you to the industries that collaborated and cooperated with me by

providing technical information: Cemento Nacional, Cemento Selva Alegre, Andec-

Funasa, Poliquim, Electroguayas and their thermoelectric plants Gonzalo Zevallos and

Trinitaria, and Electroecudaor and its thermoelectric plant Aníbal Santos.

My profound thanks to the Latin America Organization of Energy (OLADE) and the

professors of the different faculties of the University of Calgary who gave me the

opportunity to learn and acquire value tools I can use in carrying out an environment

and energy management project with a new vision.

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DEDICATION

To my sisters, parents and grandparents for the constant support they gave through their

love, patience and comprehension. A special dedication to my sister, Mónica, for

teaching me through her example that there always is and there will always be a reason

for living that is worth fighting for, and that that is the real meaning of our existence.

To all of them, my respect, my love and my effort.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Approval page........................................................................................................ iiAbstract.................................................................................................................. iiiAcknowledgements................................................................................................ ivDedication.............................................................................................................. viTable of Contents................................................................................................... viList of Tables......................................................................................................... ixList of Figures........................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER ONE: PROBLEMS CREATED BY USED OIL AND THE

PURPOSE, OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY OF THE PROJECT..................................................................... 1

1.0 Introduction...................................................................................................... 11.1 Problems Created by Used Oil in Municipal Environmental

Management.......……………………………………………………………. 1

1.1.1 Contamination of Soil, Water and Air.................................................... 2 1.1.2 Effects on Human Health….................................................................... 5 1.1.3 Interest of the City of Guayaquil in Managing the Used Oil Problem and Its Involvement and Sponsorship of the Project.............................. 61.2 Purpose and Objectives of the Project............................................................. 6 1.2.1 Purpose.................................................................................................... 6 1.2.2 Objectives............................................................................................… 71.3 Methodology.................................................................................................... 7 1.3.1 Survey of Industries to Evaluate Incineration Capacity in Guayaquil.... 8 1.3.2 Survey of Lubrication Stations............................................................... 10 1.3.3 Technical Requirements and Considerations for Incineration and

Quality of Used Oil Identified in Literature, Reports, Interviews, Cases and Examples, and Information Gathering......................……... 12

1.3.4 Identification of Lubrication Stations and Potential Re-collection Routes…………………………………………………………………..

14

CHAPTER TWO: DEFINITION, CHARACTERISTICS OF USED OIL,

DISPOSAL METHODS, THE BURNING OPTION AND ITS RISK, AND CASES AND EXAMPLES OF USED OIL MANAGEMENT IN ECUADOR................................ 16

2.0 Introduction...................................................................................................... 162.1 Summary of the Results of the Literature Reviewed Regarding Used Oil Management Methods and Incineration……................................................... 16 2.1.1 Definition 16 2.1.2 Chemical Composition and Toxic Effects of Different Types of Used

Oil…………………………………………………………………….. 20

2.1.3 Disposal Methods for Used Oil and Their Problems............................. 33 2.1.4 Alternative Methods of Treatment and Management............................ 362.2 Cases and Examples of Used Oil/Waste Oil Management in Ecuador............ 52

vi

2.2.1 Critical Factors in the Success or Failure of the Examples.................... 582.2.2 Lessons Learned and Their Relevance to Specific Circumstances in

Guayaquil............................................................................................... 67 CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS OF THE WORK DONE, CONCLUSIONS

AND ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS............................ 753.0 Introduction..................................................................................................... 753.1 Results of Incineration, Lubrication Station Surveys, and Re-collection

Route and Information Gathering. ................................................................. 75 3.1.1 Principal Collection Routes.................................................................... 75 3.1.2 Lubrication Station Surveys.................................................................... 77 3.1.3 Incineration Surveys............................................................................... 91 3.1.4 Cost of Used Oil Treatment Plant........................................................... 943.2 Conclusion and Analysis of Results................................................................. 100 3.2.1 Quality of Oil, Variability and Contamination from Current Practices.. 100 3.2.2 Capacity of Incinerators......................................................................... 103 3.2.2.1 Halogen vs. Non-halogens.......................................................... 103 3.2.2.2 End Products............................................................................... 110 3.2.3 Costs of Waste, the Oil Market and Incineration with its Potential

Costs and Benefits for the City and for Stakeholders............................ 112 3.2.4 Opportunities and Constraints for Collection Route Efficiency............. 114 CHAPTER FOUR: RECOMMENDATIONS AND NEXT STEPS IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUNICIPAL ENVI-RONMENTAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR USED OIL IN GUAYAQUIL..................................... 117

4.0 Introduction...................................................................................................... 1174.1 Recommendations and Preliminary Feasibility Assessment........................... 117 4.1.1 Further Study and Technical Information Requirement........................ 117 4.1.2 Opportunities and Constraints for Incineration, Collection, Quality

Control of Used Oil, Economic Considerations and Incentives............ 1184.2 Next Steps in the Development of the Municipal Environmental Mana-

gement Strategy for Used Oil in Guayaquil.................................................... 120 4.2.1 Short-term Actions.................................................................................. 121 4.2.2 Long-term Actions.................................................................................. 122 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................. 122PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS..................................................................... 132APPENDIX A: DIFFERENT DISPOSAL METHODS FOR USED OIL.......... 134APPENDIX B: COMBUSTION.......................................................................... 142APPENDIX C: MATHEMATICAL CORRELATION FOR BURNING.......... 161APPENDIX D: KINETIC MODEL FOR FORMATION OF CHLORINA-

TED DIOXIN............................................................................. 164APPENDIX E: DESIGN AND OPERATING GUIDELINES FOR INCINE-

RATORS.................................................................................... 165APPENDIX F: INCINERATOR OPERATING CONDITIONS AND EMI-

SSION STANDARDS SPECIFIED BY VARIOUS JURISDICTIONS....................................................................... 167

vii

APPENDIX G: PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION OF COMMONLY USED LUBRICANT ADDITIVES..................................................... 170

APPENDIX H: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECUADORIAN FUEL............................................................. 173

APPENDIX I: ACCUMULATED NATIONAL PRODUCTION OF LUBRICATING OIL................................................................. 176

APPENDIX J: SURVEY FORM FOR INDUSTRIES...................................... 178APPENDIX K: TECHNICAL INFORMATION OF SELECTED INDUS-

TRIES........................................................................................ 182APPENDIX L: SURVEY FORM FOR LUBRICATION STATIONS.............. 186APPENDIX M: LIST OF LUBRICATION STATIONS.................................... 189APPENDIX N: MULTIVARIABLE TABLES OF LUBRICATION STA-

TIONS........................................................................................ 213

APPENDIX O: COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE SHORTEST ROU-TES............................................................................................ 222

APPENDIX P: QUOTATIONS.......................................................................... 227POCKET: SECTOR MAP OF GUAYAQUIL

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.0 Contaminants produced in the industrial sector of Guayaquil................................................................................. 4

Table 1.1 Industries selected to burn used oil in the city of Guayaquil................................................................................. 8

Table 2.0 Classification of lubricating oil................................................ 17Table 2.1 Contaminant limits of used oil................................................. 20Table 2.2 Typical additive blend used to make lubricating oil ............... 20Table 2.3 The most common compounds used in automotive oil

additives.................................................................................. 21Table 2.4 The most common compounds used in industrial oil

additives................................................................................... 22Table 2.5 Indicative list of contaminants present in used oil from

engine crankcase.................................................................... 23Table 2.6 Chemical contaminants........................................................... 24Table 2.7 Potentially harmful constituents in used oil versus virgin

motor oil................................................................................. 25Table 2.8 The most common compounds used in gasoline and diesel

used for internal combustion engines...................................... 28Table 2.9 Test made by UNIDO.......................................................... 29Table 2.10 Test made in Cuenca and Quito............................................... 30Table 2.11 Toxic effects of the potentially harmful constituents in used

oil............................................................................................. 32Table 2.12 Used oil disposal options – comparison summary of major

effects....................................................................................... 35Table 2.13 Comparison of available methods for Guayaquil.................... 39Table 2.14 Guide for selecting APCE........................................................ 49Table 2.15 Type of transfer of contaminants in the manufacture of

cement..................................................................................... 50Table 2.16 Possible options for energetic mixtures................................. 55Table 2.17 National projects using lubricating oil from crankcase

engines..................................................................................... 56Table 2.18 Maximum limit of contaminants in wastes for cement

plants........................................................................................ 68Table 2.19 Relevant information regarding vehicle transportation in

Guayaquil................................................................................. 71Table 3.0 Vehicles/month – final destination of used oil – amount of

used oil generated – sector one........................................ 78Table 3.1 Other wastes – final disposal of other wastes –

vehicles/month – sector one.................................................. 80Table 3.2 Frequency of purchase of new lubricating – quantity of used

oil generated – sector one............................................ 81Table 3.3 Frequency of purchase of new lubricating oil – vehicles

attended per month – all sectors........................................... 82Table 3.4 Amount of used oil generated – average price of 55-gallon

tanks of used oil – size of lubrication stations – sector one................................................................................ 83

ix

Table 3.5 Vehicles/month – amount of used oil generated at lubrication station – size of the business – number of employees who work at lubrication stations – sector one................................. 84

Table 3.6 Average amount of used oil by brand – all sectors............ 87Table 3.7 What is done with used oil at lubrication stations – amount

of used oil generated – all sectors......................... 88Table 3.8 What is done with used oil at lubrication stations – number

of lubrication stations – all sectors......................... 88Table 3.9 Different ways of marketing new lubrication oil – amount of

used oil generated – all sectors......................... 89Table 3.10 Residence time of each selected industry............................. 94Table 3.11 Cost of direct material............................................................ 95Table 3.12 Cost of direct personnel.......................................................... 96Table 3.13 Cost of indirect material.......................................................... 96Table 3.14 Cost of indirect personnel........................................................ 97Table 3.15 Depreciation............................................................................ 97Table 3.16 Cost of office supplies............................................................ 98Table 3.17 Cost of supplies for plant........................................................ 98Table 3.18 Rapairs and maintenance........................................................ 99Table 3.19 Total cost of production.......................................................... 99Table 3.20 Estimated saving for selected industries................................ 113Table 3.21 Different scenes....................................................................... 113

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.0 Different waste oil disposal methods....................................... 34Figure 2.1 Options of integrated waste management................................ 37Figure 2.2 Management of waste oils in the E.U. in 1999........................ 40Figure 2.3 Example of residence time and destruction of organic

compound in a combustion chamber....................................... 43Figure 2.4 Volatile metal groups............................................................... 47Figure 3.0 Zones of Guayaquil.................................................................. 76Figure 3.1 Used oil treatment plant........................................................... 95Figure 3.2 Temperature flame distribution in an afterburner chamber..... 105Figure 3.3 Average temperature of the flame and the temperature of the

flue gases versus total residence time of the flue gases in the combustion chamber (3% O2).................................................. 107

Figure 3.4 Temperature distribution of the flue gases in a cement kiln with wet process....................................................................... 107

Figure 3.5 Thickness of the crust versus residence time........................... 108Figure 3.6 Consumption of fuel oil No. 6 and residence time above

1200°C with 3% O2 in the flue gases....................................... 109

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1

CHAPTER ONE

PROBLEMS CREATED BY USED OIL AND THE PURPOSE, OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

OF THE PROJECT

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This Chapter presents relevant information regarding problems produced by used oil in

the environment and to human health in relation to the control of the environment

maintained by the Municipality of Guayaquil. Therefore, this Chapter outlines the

purpose, the objectives, the methodology and the relationship this study has with the

city of Guayaquil in regard to its final implementation.

1.1 PROBLEMS CREATED BY USED OIL IN MUNICIPAL ENVIRON-MENTAL MANAGEMENT

Vehicle transportation in Guayaquil produces a great volume of waste lubricating oil.

Considering the available information of Swisscontact, Fundación Natura, and the

Ferysol Project,1 in 1995 the total oil production in the Guayaquil market for all sectors

was 4,155,592 gal/year. 199,000 motor vehicles were registered in Guayaquil in 1995.

Therefore, assuming vehicle performance of approximately 1,500 km/month and oil

changes per vehicle every 3,000 km with each vehicle consuming 1 gallon per oil

change, then the used oil factor is 0.5 gal/vehicle-month.2 Therefore, a rough estimate is

that motor vehicle oil consumption was approximately 1,194,000 gallons in 1995.

Because of the large amount of used oil generated during the year and the fact that no

quantization of impacts on the environment and human health in Guayaquil was found

in the studies consulted for this work, the following is a discussion of the contamination

used oil produces in soil, water and air, as well as the principal effects it has on human

1 Swisscontact, Fundación Natura and Ferysol. Estudio de Factibilidad Para la Recolección, y el Reciclaje/Combustión del Aceite Automotor Usado. Base Study. Second Report. Tables 16-A. (Quito, Ecuador: Swisscontact.1996): 17, 19. 2 Swisscontact, Eliminación adecuada del aceite automotor usado, generado en la ciudad de Quito, Table 5 (Quito, Ecuador:Swisscontact, 2000), 21.

2

health and the interest the Municipality of Guayaquil has in the management of this

substance.

1.1.1 CONTAMINATION OF SOIL, WATER AND AIR

Used oil discarded in an uncontrolled manner causes possible damage to the

environment and to human health. One of the best-known cases happened at Times

Beach, Missouri.3 Hazardous waste was discarded with toxic chemical substances,

dioxins being the most noxious compound found. From 1960 until 1970, wastes were

thrown on roads and horse farms to control dust. A chemical plant near St. Louis

diluted their chemical wastes in used lubricating oil. In May 1971, the oil was spread

over a horse farm, producing the death of some animals. At that time, the noxious

effects of dioxins was not known. The dioxin concentration was discovered to be more

than 100 ppm on this farm. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency bought the farm

and removed 6 inches of topsoil to protect human health.

The disposal of used oil on land produces severe impacts on the environment. Based on

several points made by Rena Herrera (1998),4 this type of disposal can produce the

following:

Direct effects on micro-organism and plant life

Decreased oxygen in the land, originating negative effects for seed growing

Contamination of the permeable geologic layer which contains water

Change in the physical properties of soil due to the reduction of the filtration

and absorption capacity of water

Increased susceptibility of plants with respect to infections affecting their

growth

Obstruction due to an accumulation of nutrients and water infiltration

Decreased soil quality, affecting the subsoil fauna such as bacteria and worms

3 LaGrega, M.D., Buckingham, P.L., and Evans, J.C., Hazardous Waste Management, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2001),7. 4 Herrera, R.M., Recycling of Lubricant Oils in Ecuador, Individual Project of the University of Calgary/OLADE Master’s Degree Program in Energy and the Environment (Quito, Ecuador: Herrera, R.M., 1999), 46.

3

Affect on humans through the food chain

If used oil is disposed of in bodies of water or soil, it can contaminate surface and

underground water. In surface water, oil can propagate very quickly with a thin film

between 0,2 –1 mm. This film becomes very visible in a relation of 300 liters per km2

of surface, affecting microbiological life in the water due to an increase of biological

oxygen demand (BOD) by microorganisms present in the oil. Also, this film does not

permit the normal interchange of gases over the surface.5 Consequently, it produces

some connotations such as the reduction of photosynthesis, biological equilibrium,

covering the soil due to coagulation and precipitation of used oil and emulsification

with some accumulated substance. Besides, one gallon of used oil can contaminate

1,000,000 gallons of a body of water and leave it useless for human consumption.6

Contamination of underground water by used oil disposal on the land is produced by a

diffusion process and by the additive toxicity present in the oil, resulting in these waters

becoming harmful for drinking or irrigation. Also, if used oil is thrown into the sewage

systems of a city, it will affect the filtration system of a residual water treatment plant.

This is the main reason that ETAPA (a public utility for telecommunication, potable

water and sewage) has intervened with a collection system for used lubricating oil in the

city of Cuenca, because this substance can cause corrosion in the treatment plant or

danger of explosion because of itss inflammability, and its density can affect biological

treatments.7

Currently, used lubricating oil is sold to small industries in order to take advantage of

its high energy content in the combustion process. The low price of waste lubricating

oil compared with commercial fuel gives it a competitive advantage on the market.

Unfortunately, the furnaces currently used to burn used oil are inefficient and

inadequate, which results in an incomplete combustion process that generates

5 Empresa de Teléfonos Agua Potable y Alcantarillado (ETAPA), Manejo de Aceites usados en la ciudad de Cuenca (Cuenca, Ecuador: ETAPA, 1997), 3. 6 Empresa de Teléfonos Agua Potable y Alcantarillado (ETAPA), Estudio de Factibilidad para el Re-Refinamiento de Aceites Usados en Cuenca, Informe Final (Cuenca, Ecuador: ETAPA, 1998), 1. 7 Empresa de Teléfonos Agua Potable y Alcantarillado (ETAPA), Manejo de Aceites usados en la ciudad de Cuenca (Cuenca, Ecuador: ETAPA, 1997), 4.

4

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), chlorinated hydrocarbons and heavy metals

which are released into the air, water and soil, creating contamination problems in the

environment.8 If used oil is not burned correctly in the equipment --especially taking

into consideration high temperature, turbulence, available oxygen and residence time--

then it can produce the substances mentioned above that are noxious for human health.

Contamination from reused oil also occurs when it is used for the protection of wood in

construction, brick manufacturing, pulverization tasks, herbicides and insecticides, as

well as for dust control on roads in rural areas.9

The Efficásitas-INEC10 study of 1996 showed that the industrial sector of Guayaquil

(542 manufacture industries) produces the types of contamination shown in the

following Table.

Table 1.0 CONTAMINANTS PRODUCED IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR

OF GUAYAQUIL Air During Combustion Process Particles 186.18 ton/year SO2 1,448.62 ton/year NOx 585.88 ton/year Hydrocarbons 38.8 ton/year CO 45.9 ton/year Water Oil and fat discharges 613.62 ton/year Soil Filth, hair discharges 18.45 ton/year Sludge discharges 1,022.03 ton/year Scum discharges 10,562.86 ton/year

Source: Duque, J.W., and Patiño, M.R. ed. 1996. Contaminación Industrial en Guayaquil. Guayaquil, Ecuador: Efficácitas Cía. Ltda.

8 Shell, Used Oil Management: The Cement Kiln Option, Briefing Paper G/L/93/D/0435 (London: Supply and Marketing, Shell International Petroleum Company Limited, Shell Centre, 1993). 9 Organización de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo Industrial (O.N.U.D.I.), Estudio Sobre la Regeneración de Aceites Usados en Ecuador (Quito, Ecuador: O.N.U.D.I., 1991):7; Fundación Suiza de Cooperación para el Desarrollo Técnico (Swisscontact), Estudio de Factibilidad para la Recolección, y el Reciclaje/Combustión del Aceite Automotriz Usado, Estudio Base Segundo Informe(Quito, Ecuador: Siwsscontact, 1996), 5. 10 Duque, J.W., and Patiño, M.R. Ed. Contaminación Industrial en Guayaquil: Evaluación Preliminar (Guayaquil, Ecuador: Efficácitas Cía. Ltda, 1996).

5

Given the location of the city of Guayaquil in the Guayas marine drainage basin with

"sea arms" (natural canals) reaching into the city, the Municipality of Guayaquil has

always been concerned about potential water and soil contamination. Therefore, the

prevention of contamination and proper protocols for handling potential contaminants

represent an important municipal environmental management issue.

1.1.2 EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH As mentioned in the previous Section, the contamination of soil with used oil can affect

human health through the food chain because of the contaminants contained in used oil

such as benzene, lead, zinc and cadmium.11 The handling of used oil has shown that

regular or repeated skin contact with used oils may result in the loss of natural fats from

the skin, leading to dryness, irritation and dermatitis.12 In addition, unburned fuel can be

present in used oil and other contaminants can be absorbed through the skin.

The most significant risk of used oils from crankcase engines is that they can produce

skin cancer due to the presence of PAHs as the product of the incomplete combustion of

the engine fuel.13 In addition, if used oil is not burned in a correct manner, it will

produce PAHs and chlorinated hydrocarbons because of the incomplete combustion of

the used oil and the inadequate technical considerations (principally residence time,

temperature and turbulence of combustion gases in the furnaces or boilers), and burning

this substance can produce cancer and is bio-accumulative. For example, in the United

States, when used oil is utilized as fuel for heaters and there is no proper ventilation,

people can be directly exposed to the substances mentioned above. Finally, used oil can

be ingested through contaminated water due to the mechanism mentioned in the

previous Section, producing different effects depending on the ingested contaminant.14

11 Fundación Suiza de Cooperación para el Desarrollo Técnico (Swisscontact), Estudio de Viabilidad: Eliminación Adecuada del Aceite Automotor Usado, Generado en la Ciudad de Quito (Quito, Ecuador: Swisscontact, 2000), 5. 12 Concawe. Collection and Disposal of Used Lubricating Oil. Report No. 5/96 (Brussels, Belgium: Concawe, 1996), 19. 13 Concawe. Collection and Disposal of Used Lubricating Oil. Report No. 5/96 (Brussels, Belgium: Concawe, 1996), 19. 14 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Environmental Regulations and Technology: Managing Used Motor Oil. EPA/625/R-94/010 (Cincinnati, Ohio: Center for Environmental Research Information, 1994), 4.

6

In the section on the chemical composition and toxic effects of different types of used

oil found in the next Chapter, there will be a more detailed discussion of the effects the

principal contaminants of used oil can have on human health, and the alternative

methods of treatment and management will also be discussed at greater length in regard

to technical requirements for combustion and contaminant formation produced by

incomplete combustion.

1.1.3 INTEREST OF THE CITY OF GUAYAQUIL IN MANAGING THE USED

OIL PROBLEM AND ITS INVOLVEMENT AND SPONSORSHIP OF THE PROJECT

The Municipality of Guayaquil, continuing its orientation focused on incorporating

environmental variables in its actions, lent support to this study by carrying out surveys

of lubrication stations in the entire city and in the selected industries based on the

criteria in Section 1.3.1 of this Chapter, because they are very interested in Municipal

Environmental Management and in examining methods for managing used oil. The

Municipality wants to obtain sufficient information based on the results of this study in

order to develop an environmental management plan for the collection and incineration

of used oil from crankcase engines if the technical and economical feasibility of the

project is demonstrated by the recommendations.

1.2 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT 1.2.1 PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to assist the City of Guayaquil in assessing the potential

and the feasibility for developing an environmental management strategy for used oil.

7

1.2.2 OBJECTIVES

1. Feasibility of incineration in managing used oil in Guayaquil and the

identification of critical factors.

2. The technical requirements of incineration and identification of potential

facilities in Guayaquil.

3. Sources, volumes and quality of used oil in Guayaquil.

4. Potential for efficient spatial collection routes for used oil in Guayaquil.

1.3 METHODOLOGY

This section will explain the methodology used to develop this study for which it was

necessary to research bibliography (web sites, books, reports, case studies, database and

e-mail), have personal interviews at companies to discuss the topic, and make field

visits, surveys and other related activities. The Municipality of Guayaquil played an

important role in carrying out surveys, because they provided vehicles, assistants and

engineers who work for the Department of Environment and the Department of Justice

and Surveillance. Because of the information registered in the Municipality (addresses,

telephone numbers, owner names, etc.), because of the number of places to be surveyed

(157 lubrication stations and 9 industries), and because of the information gathered

from surveys that quantified and identified the impacts caused by the current

management of used oil and evaluated the incineration capacity in Guayaquil based on

technical information, it was necessary to use two different methodologies for

developing the survey of the industries and lubrication stations. Appendix L contains a

copy of the survey made of the lubrication stations and Appendix J is a copy of the

survey made of the selected industries.

8

1.3.1 SURVEY OF INDUSTRIES TO EVALUATE INCINERATION CAPA- CITY IN GUAYAQUIL

The industries were chosen by applying the following criteria: 1. Type of manufacturing process, because it is necessary to know if the

manufacturing process uses furnaces or boilers and also if the quality of the

products produced (steel, ceramic, glass and galvanized wire) is not affected by the

contaminants contained in the used oil.

2. High demand for thermal energy from furnaces or boilers, because a

large amount of energy used generally implies high temperatures necessary

to process the product, high consumption of fuel and a high level of

production of processed products.

3. Industrial incinerators, because this type of device is especially designed

to destroy toxic wastes at high temperatures.

4. Control of air emissions, because of the contaminants in used oil that are

harmful to human health and the environment. This type of control is also

related to the control of the technical parameters of the combustion process

for the correct operation of equipment (furnaces, boilers and incinerators).

By applying these criteria to a list of 542 manufacturing industries in Guayaquil and

using the environmental impact assessment made available by the industries for the

Municipality, the industries shown in the next Table were selected.

Table 1.1 INDUSTRIES SELECTED TO BURN USED OIL IN THE CITY OF GUAYAQUIL

Name of Factory Type of Product Type of Device

Cemento Nacional Cement Industrial Furnace Aníbal Santos Thermoelectric Plant Electrical Energy Boiler Gonzalo Zevallos Thermoelectric Plant Electrical Energy Boiler Trinitaria Thermoelectric Plant Electrical Energy Boiler Calquero Huayco Blocks Industrial Furnace Andec – Funasa Steel Industrial Furnace Cridesa Glass Bottles Industrial Furnace Alfadomus Bricks Industrial Furnace Poliquim Chemical Products Incinerator

9

To evaluate the potential of incineration in Guayaquil in relation to the capacity and the

technical evaluations of the furnaces (residence time of the combustion gases,

temperatures of the combustion gases, turbulence in the combustion chamber and the

percentage of oxygen added for improving the combustion process) in the selected

industries, it was necessary to make surveys of the industries listed in the above Table.

Since the industries have different types of furnaces depending on their manufacturing

process, it was understood that the technical questions would vary. The survey specified

the name of the industry, the person interviewed and that person’s job, number of

workers, information regarding equipment (type of furnaces, air control devices and the

parameters used), and finally, technical information about the industrial furnaces,

incinerators and boilers (type of fuel, fuel consumption, efficiency of the equipment,

maximum temperature in the combustion chamber, volume of the combustion chamber,

etc.) in order to estimate the residence time of combustion gases higher than 1000°C

and 1200°C. The estimated residence time was based on specific correlations found in

specialized books on incineration and the combustion process (see Appendix C). The

technical analysis of the results of the surveys is found in Section 3.2.2 of this study.

Procedure used for making the surveys of industries:

1. Preparation of the first draft of the survey.

2. Draft given to the Director of the Environmental Department in order to

verify and approve the questions with the technicians from the department.

3. Communication and discussion with the representative of the Municipality

by reading and explaining the questions.

4. Industries contacted to ask for an appointment and explain the reasons for

the survey.

5. Each industry visited with the representative of the Municipality, and the

manager and a technician contacted in order to clarify questions regarding

the contents of the survey.

6. When not possible to visit a specific industry, the survey was faxed along

with a request for the plans of the industrial furnace or a diagram of how the

furnace functioned, and then the situation was discussion with a technician

designated by the manager.

10

7. Comprehension of the questions verified by telephone two days after

delivering the surveys.

8. The collection of surveys made by mail, fax or field visits, always verifying

that they had been filled out correctly.

9. Corresponding information was requested by telephone when a survey had

not been answered correctly.

1.3.2 SURVEY OF LUBRICATION STATIONS

At the beginning of this study, several lists of lubrication stations were registered in the

city, so the most recent was used, which indicated 257 lubrication stations in which the

Municipality carries out the respective control through the Department of Urban

Hygiene. The Municipality estimated that there were approximately 300 mechanic

shops in the city, according to verbal information given at the Guayas Transit

Commission, which controlled the mechanic shops in the city towards the end of the

1990s. It was not possible to get better information from the Guayas Transit

Commission, because this Institution does not control the mechanic shops at present

and files were not available. The Swisscontact Foundation surveyed mechanic shops in

several cities in the country in 1996, including 50 in Guayaquil. They did not register

the exact number of mechanic shops or their addresses in Guayaquil.

Since it was not possible to gather more exact information, a survey was made of all the

lubrication stations in the city because lubricating oil is changed at lubrication stations,

and it was presumed that they generate more used oil than mechanic shops. Another

factor taken into consideration was that no studies regarding lubrication stations had

been made before to provide relevant information concerning the management of used

oil.

The idea of the Municipality of Guayaquil is to carry out a small project to re-collect

and manage used oil if the results of this study demonstrate the technical and economic

feasibility of burning used oil in the city. It was discovered that there are not 257

lubrication stations in the city, but rather only 157 (see Appendix M). One lubrication

11

station had closed and 99 only sell oil and do not change it, according to the surveys

and the Municipality’s final report of the surveys.

The global analysis of the lubrication station surveys verifies that the amount of used oil

they generated was very low in comparison with what the estimated consumption of

lubricating oil for crankcase engines in Guayaquil is at present, since the expected result

was that the amount from mechanic shops would be higher than that of lubrication

stations.

Unfortunately, almost at the end of this study the registration of mechanic shops in the

city was discovered at the Municipality’s Department of Use of Space Use and Public

Roads. They had been registered under a different title: Automobile and Motorcycle

Repair. At that point it was possible to verify that the number of mechanic shops in

Guayaquil is 1,617.

Procedure used for making the surveys of lubrication stations:

1. Preparation of the first draft of the survey.

2. Validation of the survey through a pilot test with 3 lubrication stations in

order to discover any mistakes in the survey.

3. Corrections made and given to the Director of the Environmental

Department in order to verify and approve the questions with technicians

from the department.

4. Surveys presented to the representative of the Municipality of Guayaquil.

5. Utilization of the Public Thoroughfare Census for the year 2000 and the

1999 Environmental Census.

6. Communication and discussion with the representative of the Municipality

by reading and explaining the questions.

7. The representative explained the survey to the delegates’ leaders (4 groups)

who in turn explained the survey questions to the delegates (15 delegates per

group).

12

8. Each person responsible for the survey was requested to include the

cadastral code, a map of the place, and the seal or authorizing signature on

the survey.

9. The delegates were told they had a one-month deadline in which to return

the filled-out survey forms.

10. Verification in each lubrication station to see if they had carried out the

regulations stipulated by the Municipality (grease trap, patent and residence

tax).

1.3.3 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR INCINERATION AND QUALITY OF USED OIL IDENTIFIED IN LITERATURE, REPORTS, INTERVIEWS, CASES AND EXAMPLES, AND INFORMATION GATHERING

Technical and environmental information was found by using the Web sites of the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and journals: Also used were the Concawe

report, other reports, Web pages of the European Union and the Ministry of Energy in

Colombia and Web sites pre-established for research by the University of Calgary. The

information gathered was based on studies made in the United States, Canada,

Colombia and countries belonging to the European Union in regard to the management

of used oil and technical conditions for incineration and energy recovery options.

The Latin American Organization of Energy (OLADE) library provided references for

the University of Calgary who selected books related to the topic of incineration,

regulations, policies and environmental management of used oil from crankcase

engines. OLADE also provided research material related to the production and

characteristics of used oil. Documents from projects carried out in Ecuador and other

Latin American countries such as those of United Nations Industrial Development

Organization (UNIDO), Swisscontact and ETAPA were consulted. Statistical yearbooks

of the Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censo (INEC) and the Transit Commission of

Guayas were also used in order to establish the number of vehicles and their distribution

according to type in the city of Guayaquil and in the province of Guayas. This

information was used to estimate the consumption of lubricating oil by vehicles in

13

Guayaquil. An automobile technician who has worked in this sector over 20 years

helped estimate the number of changes of lubricating oil and its use.

Databases such as the External Commerce Department of the Central Bank of Ecuador

identified the amount of base oil and other lubricating oil imported from other

countries. This information was compared with the database on national production

maintained by lubricating oil producers in Ecuador in order to make a total assessment

of lubricating oil in Ecuador. Shell’s Global Solution Department in the United

Kingdom, the Government of Cataluña in Spain and the Concawe Company in Belgium

were contacted in order to learn about the management of used lubricating oil and

related projects in Europe.

Interviews were made in order to acquire information not available in written form in

the projects or studies that had been carried out. The selection of persons to be

interviewed was based on their identification in projects carried out in Ecuador, on the

regulations and current conditions of the management of used oil and incineration in the

country, and the technical point of view of cement plants and producers of lubricating

oil. Consequently, ETAPA; Swisscontact, the Higher Institute of Research of Quito’s

Central University, the Municipality of Quito, the Ministry of Environment, the

Municipality of Guayaquil, Cemento Nacional, Cementera Selva Alegre and Shell were

selected.

The procedure for the interviews made at both Cemento Nacional and Swisscontact

follows:

1. The person to be interviewed was contacted and the reasons for the

interview explained.

2. 5 or 6 questions were asked, depending on what information was required,

basing the questions on information gathered from various projects or

studies that had been made.

3. The person to be interviewed received the questions before the interview

was carried out.

14

4. During the interview, other questions asked were based on the answers of

previous questions.

5. The answers were recorded in written form.

The other interviews used the following procedure:

1. An appointment was made in order to talk about used oil.

2. During the meeting, questions related to the topic based on material from

the Bibliography read beforehand were asked.

3. The answers were taken down in written form.

A field trip was made to Cuenca to learn about a project related to the re-collection and

final disposal of used oil carried out by ETAPA. Other industries such as Cemento

Nacional, Cementera Selva Alegre, the Aníbal Santos Thermoelectric Plant, the

Gonzalo Zevallos Thermoelectric Plant and 12 lubrication stations were also visited to

find out about the management of used oil in Guayaquil.

1.3.4 IDENTIFICATION OF LUBRICATION STATIONS AND POTENTIAL RE-COLLECTION ROUTES

Identification of the lubrication stations was based on lists of a census made of

lubrication stations in 1999 and 2000. These lists helped find the location of the

lubrication stations with the digital map of the city. The purpose was to get a global

perception of the locations inside the city (see Appendix Q). After the surveys had been

carried out, the exact number of lubrication stations in the city was verified with

relevant information such as the cadastral code and the quantity of used oil generated.

The Municipality of Guayaquil had an important role making their computers, plotters

and assistance for the execution of this stage of this study available.

For the main routes to be used to re-collect used oil from lubrication stations, it was

necessary to divide the city in 6 large zones. The information utilized was:

1. The number and location of the lubrication stations in each sector on the

map in order to visualize their proximity.

15

2. The quantity of used oil generated in each sector in order to determine the

minimum size of the tanker needed to transport the used oil.

3. Vehicle routes the Municipality permits for the transportation of toxic

substances in order to determine the principal avenues that lead to the

Perimetral, which is the main route selected by the Municipality since it

crosses the city peripherally.

After this, the principal route in the first zone was checked to verify the amount of

traffic during the day. Finally, the computing program was prepared to determine the

shortest route from one point to another within a ten-block area in the city, using the

location of lubrication stations and the distances between them. The goal of the program

was to provide a tool that the Municipality could use to manage the re-collection routes

of used oil in each zone. The program can be greatly improved with the information

acquired in the surveys, and the program can be applied to the entire city. The algorithm

of the program is in Appendix O.

16

CHAPTER TWO

DEFINITION, CHARACTERISTICS OF USED OIL, DISPOSAL METHODS, THE BURNING OPTION AND ITS RISK, AND CASES AND EXAMPLES OF

USED OIL MANAGEMENT IN ECUADOR 2.0 INTRODUCTION This Chapter gives an operational definition of used oil and explains its impacts on

human health and environment documented in literature. Current disposal methods of

used oil and the different alternatives that can be applied for developing countries are

reviewed. Given this project’s focus on used oil in Guayaquil, the primary source of

used oil will be from crankcase oil.

One Section explains the burning option and the necessary parameters that need to be

considered in incineration. The mechanism of the formation of some contaminants is

explained in this Section also. Finally, this Chapter ends with an analysis of several

cases and some examples of used oil management in Ecuador in order to learn from

these cases and understand their relevance to the specific circumstances of Guayaquil.

Complementary information for this Chapter is found in the Appendixes. The

information from this Chapter provides the basis for the Chapters that follow.

2.1 SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS OF THE LITERATURE REVIEWED

REGARDING USED OIL MANAGEMENT METHODS AND INCINERATION

2.1.1 DEFINITION According to Federal Code 40CFR279 of the Environmental Protection Agency of the

United States of America (EPA), “used oil means any oil that has been refined from

crude oil, or any synthetic oil, that has been used and as a result of such use is

contaminated by physical or chemical impurities.”

Based on this definition and in the context of the mentioned regulation, used oil is any

oil that comes from lubricating oils (also known as mineral oils) and synthetic oil.

17

Lubricating oils are composed of three general three types of hydrocarbons: straight and

branched-chain parffinic compounds, polycyclic and fused-ring saturated hydrocarbons

based on cyclopenthane and cyclohexane prototype ring structures collectively known

as naphthenes, and finally, the aromatic, both mono and polynuclear, which are

unsaturated ring structures.15 Lubricating oil is classified in two large groups as

automotive oils and industrial lubricants. The next Table shows the different types of

lubricating oil. It should be noted that crankcase oils are classified under automotive

oils.

Table 2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICATING OIL

LUBRICATING OILS CLASSIFICATION

Engine and Machine oils. Used on reciprocating as well as rotating machine elements. Circulating oils. Used when the oil is pumped under pressure through some form of distributing systems to the parts to be lubricated and then returned to a sump or central base for re-circulation. Industrial gear oils. Used in completely enclosed gear units of the herringbone type. Instrument oils. Used for control mechanisms, especially in aviation. Oil spray lubricants. Used in automatic lubrication for bearings and gears. Hydraulic fluids. Used for hydraulic power transmission. Wire-rope lubricants. Used in wire rope such as elevator or hoisting rope. Spindle oils. Used for high-speed bearing service. Pneumatic tool oils. Used on the tool mechanism by the expansion of compressed air. Insulating Oils. Used in electric switches and transformers. Metalworking and cutting oils, soluble oils, grinding oils. Used in applications in which metal cutting predominates. Steam Cylinder Oils Diesel Engine Oils. Depend on operating conditions in the industry. Steam Turbine Oils Speed Reduction Gear Oils Compressor Oils

INDUSTRIAL LUBRICATION

Electric Motor Bearing Oils Crankcase oils Transmission and axle lubricants

AUTOMOTIVE OILS

Fluids for hydraulic torque converters and fluid couplings. Special type of transmission oil used in automatic transmission.

Source: Guthriee, V.B. Ed. 1960. Petroleum Products Handbook. Chapter 8 and 9. New York: McGraw-Hill: 8.1-9.141.

15 Hobson, G.D., and Pohl, W. Ed. Modern Petroleum Technology (Great Britain: Gelliard (Printers) Ltd Great Yarmouth, 1975), 723.

18

Synthetic oils are synthetic fluids that are used for lubrication. They have some

characteristics in which mineral oils cannot be applied such as in the field of aviation

where the oil should maintain its lubrication properties at high temperatures16.

Commercially, they are more expensive than mineral oils. Synthetic fluids used as

lubricants are esters (di-esters and complex esters), polyglycols, hydrocarbons

(CH3.(CH2.CH2.CH2.CH2.)nH), phosphate esters, chlorofluorcarbons, silicones, silicate

esters, chlorinated hydrocarbons and polyphenyl ethers.17

In addition, because of the contamination that used oil can produce in water, soil and air

as was seen Section 1.1.1 of Chapter One of this study, used oil is considered hazardous

waste. According to the Environmental Program of the United Nations (December

1985), “hazardous wastes means wastes (solids, sludge, liquids, and containerized

gases) other than radioactive (and infectious) wastes which, by reason of their chemical

activity or toxic, explosive, corrosive, or other characteristics, cause danger or likely

will cause danger to health or the environment, whether alone or when coming into

contact with other waste.”18 This type of definition varies depending on the regulations

of each country. It is important to delimit the term “waste” used at international levels

as any moveable object that has no direct use and is discharged permanently.19 This

definition of waste refers to recycling and does not suggest that any relaxation of

controls be considered for recyclable wastes. In general terms, the definition of

hazardous waste applied by different countries is based on an inclusive listing of the

following references:

Specific type of hazardous waste

Industrial processes in which wastes are considered hazardous

Substances, the presence of which is indicative of a potential human health

or environment hazard

16 Guthriee, V.B. Ed. Petroleum Products Handbook.Section 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), 28. 17 Hobson, G.D., and Pohl, W. Ed. Modern Petroleum Technology (Great Britain: Gelliard (Printers) Ltd Great Yarmouth, 1975), 724-726. 18 LaGrega, M.D., Buckingham, P.L., and Evans, J.C., Hazardous Waste Management, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2001),2. 19 LaGrega, M.D., Buckingham, P.L., and Evans, J.C., Hazardous Waste Management, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2001),2.

19

In other cases, reference is made to the level of concentration of each dangerous

substance. Another useful criterion includes the toxicity of an extract of the waste

based on the specific leaching test. Usually the toxicity is defined by reference to

concentration of specific substances in the extract based on their characteristics, such

as:

Flammability or ignitability

Corrosiveness

Reactivity

The inclusion list has the advantage that it can easily consider without proof which

wastes are considered dangerous or not, but it has disadvantages when making the final

decision regarding which wastes from industrial processes to control when they are not

known.20

One example of definition is in the United States of America. There are two important

regulations, one for the specific handling of used oil and the other for hazardous wastes

based on their finality and applicability. Currently, the Federal Codes of the United

States in their Regulation for the Handling of Used Oil (40CFR279) establishes that if

substances or elements contained in used oil pass the established levels shown below,

the handling of this oil should be carried out under Federal Codes 260, 266, 268, 270

and 124 that correspond to hazardous waste. In addition, if used oil is mixed with any

kind of hazardous waste or the halogen content is over 1000 ppm, this used oil is to be

considered as hazardous waste.21

20 The World Bank, World Health Organisation, and United Nations Environment Programme, The Safe Disposal of Hazardous Wastes: The Special Needs and Problems of Developing Countries. Vol.I. (Washington, United States: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1989), 13,16. 21 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Standards for the Management of Used Oil, 40CFR Ch. I (7-1-97 Edition) Part 279 (United States: EPA, 1997), 396, 398.

20

Table 2.1 CONTAMINANT LIMITS OF USED OIL

Element/Property Acceptable Level Arsenic 5 ppm max Cadmium 2 ppm max Chromium 10 ppm max Lead 100 ppm max Flash Point 100° F min Total of Halogens 4000 ppm max

Source: U.S. Environmental Prtection Agency(EPA). 1997. Standard for the Management of Used Oil. 40-CFR-279. Edition 7-1-97.

Based on the information mentioned previously, this study focuses only on crankcase

oil, and this used oil is considered hazardous waste.

2.1.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND TOXIC EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF USED OIL

As shown in the previous section, used oil can have different sources according to its

use. The next Table shows that 14% of the lubricating oil is conformed by additives.

Table 2.2 TYPICAL ADDITIVE BLEND USED TO MAKE LUBRICATING

OIL

INGREDIENT PERCENT Base Oil (Solvent 150 Neutral)

86

Detergent Inhibitor (ZDDP-zinc dialkyl)

1

Detergent (Barium and calcium sulfonates)

4

Multifunctional Additive (Dispersant, pour-depressant, V.I. improver-polymethyl-methacrylates)

4

V.I. Improver (Polyisobutylene)

5

Source: Kimball, V.S.1975.Waste Oil Recovery and Disposal. p.6. Table 1.3. New Jersey: Noyas Data Corporation. These additives change according to the properties desired in the lubricating oil

designated for a specific use. In Appendix G, types of additives, used components in the

additives and action mechanisms for lubricating oil are listed in a general way.

Crankcase oil uses additives for oxidation and corrosion inhibitors, wear resistance

improvers, detergent-dispersant inhibitors, viscosity improvers, pour point depressants

and antifoaming agents. According to the NTE INEN 2 027:95 standard in Ecuador,

crankcase oil can be formulated with a viscosity grade of SAE 0W – SAE 60 in which

21

the percentage of each additive changes according to the engine service. For a

multiviscosity grade (SAE10W-SAE30/SAE5W-SAE20), VI improver (4.5-12.0

volume percent), inhibitor (0.5-1.5 volume percent) y detergent (3.0-6.5 volume

percent) are generally used.22 Since the additive content is considerable, it is therefore

important to know what the organic as well as the inorganic components are in the

additives used in lubricating oil. Table 2.3 shows the chemical components most used

in lubricating oil used as automotive oils. Crankcase oil uses components such as Zn, S,

P, Ba, Ca, and transmission oils use S, Cl, P, Zn y Li.

Table 2.3 THE MOST COMMON COMPOUNDS USED IN AUTOMOTIVE OIL

ADDITIVES

CLASSIFICATION TYPE OF ADDITIVES

COMPOUNDS OF THE ADDITIVES

Oxidation and corrosion inhibitors

1. Zinc dithiophosphates 2. P2S5 olefin reaction products 3. P2S5 terpene reaction products. 4. Sulfurized oelefins.

Wear-resistance Improvers

1. Zinc dithiophosphate 2. Graphite 3. Molybdenum disulfide

Detergent-dispersant Inhibitors

1. Petroleum Sulfonate (R-SO3-Me-SO3-R) 2. Basic petroleum sulfonates (R-SO3-Me-

OH). R is composed of hydrocarbons and Me is commonly barium or calcium.)

3. Barium salt from wax-substituted benzene sulfonate

4. Calcium or barium alkyl phenate 5. Barium (or calcium) phenol sulfide 6. Barium salt of P2S5, a polymer reaction

product Viscosity Index Improvers

1. Isobutylene polymers 2. Methacrylate copolymers

Pour Point Depressant

1. Wax-naphthalene condensation product 2. Phenol-wax condensation product 3. Methacrylate polymer

Crankcase Oil

Antifoaming Agents Silicone compounds Multipurpose Automotive Gear Lubricant Additives

Sulfur, Chlorine, Phosphorus and zinc, as potent antiweld agents under high temperature and pressure conditions

Automatic Transmission

Fluid Additive*

Multipurpose Automotive Greases

Sulfurized terpene as antioxidant

*Additionally, automatic transmission fluid can use the additive mentioned here. Source: Guthriee, V.B. Ed. 1960. Petroleum Products Handbook. Chapter 2. New York: McGraw-Hill: 18-30

22 Guthriee, V.B. Ed. Petroleum Products Handbook. Section 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill,1960), 24-25

22

In the same way, Table 2.4 shows the components of the additives of industrial

lubricating oils which can use Cl, P, Na, S, Zn, Ca, Ba, and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons

in their chemical composition depending on their final use.

Table 2.4 THE MOST COMMON COMPOUNDS USED IN INDUSTRIAL OIL ADDITIVES

TYPE OF ADDITIVES COMPOUNDS OF THE ADDITIVES

Viscosity index improver additives.

1. Acrylic ester polymers 2. Polyisobutylene types

Pour depressant additives Condensation products of chlorinated wax with aromatic compounds or polymers of acrylic esters containing long-chain fatty alcohols.

Rust preventatives 1. Fatty acid derivatives 2. Acid phosphate esters 3. Petroleum sodium sulfonates in oil 4. Ammonium mahogany sulfonates

Oxidation and corrosion inhibitors

1. 2,6-di-tertieryl-butyl-4-methyl phenol. 2. Sulfurized wax derivative 3. Sulfurized turpentine 4. Zinc dialkyl dithiophosphatres 5. Phosphorous pentasulfide-pinene

Extreme pressure additive 1. Compounds of sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine and sulfurized fatty oil

2. Phosphorus and sulfur sperm base oiliness to extend load carrying capacity of the oil film

Oiliness and antiwear agents 1. Tricresyl phosphate 2. Beta-methyl naphthyl ketone, methyl esters, oxidized oil acids

and oxygenated organic compositions containing a polar group Detergent-dispersant additive 1. Salts of phenolic compounds and basic sulfonate salts

2. Calcium or barium salts of petroleum sulfonic acids and synthetic sulfonic acid as well as salts of a wide variety of phenolic derivatives

Antifoam agent 1. Silicone polymers of intermediate molecular weight 2. Candelilla wax 3. Acrylates or polybutenes (tackiness agents)

Fire resistant hydraulic fluids 1. Aqueous bases of the water in oil or polymer thickener type 2. Phosphate ester base type 3. Tricresyl phosphates 4. Chlorinated hydrocarbon types

Additives for cutting fluids 1. Sulfur 2. Chlorine (carbon tetrachloride)

Source: Guthriee, V.B. Ed. 1960. Petroleum Products Handbook. Chapter 2. New York: McGraw-Hill: 30-42.

In Ecuador, additives are imported generally from both Europe and the United States23.

Unfortunately, it has not been possible to learn the chemical components in the

additives or the amount used in Ecuador in the manufacture of lubricating oil since this

23

information is directly related to the chemical formulation reserved and owned by each

producer. But in general, the additives used in Ecuador normally contain a great

quantity of Zn, Ca, P and Mg, the base oil is largely conformed by parffinic

hydrocarbon, and the quantity of aromatic hydrocarbon in the composition of base oil is

less or equal to 0.1%.24

Lubricating oil properties change when it is degraded. The most important changes are

molecular weight, flash point, solid content, foaming, viscosity, specific gravity, water

content and acid level. These changes are produced principally by heat, mechanical

wear and oxidation.25 Consequently, there are other contaminants in crankcase oil that

do not come from additive components used in the manufacture of lubricating oil as can

be seen in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 INDICATIVE LIST OF CONTAMINANTS PRESENT IN USED OIL

FROM ENGINE CRANKCASE

Contaminant Source Concentration Range (ppm) Ba Detergent additives < 100 Ca Detergent additives 1000-3000 Pb Leaded gasoline/bearing wear 100-1000 Mg Detergent additives 100-500 Zn Antioxidant/antiwear additives 500-1000 P Antioxidant/antiwear additives 500-1000 Fe Engine wear 100-500 Cr Engine wear Traces Ni Engine wear Traces Al Bearing wear Traces Cu Bearing wear Traces Sn Bearing wear Traces Cl* Additives/leaded gasoline ca. 300 Si Additives/water 50-100 S Base oil/combustion products 0.2-1%

Water Combustion 5-10% Light HC Fuel dilution 5-10%

PAH Incomplete combustion <1000 *Chlorine can also be found up to 1500 ppm in collected used oil due to contamination, e.g. from illegal disposal of chlorinated solvents. Source: Concawe. 1996. Collection and Disposal of Used Lubricating Oil. Report No. 5/96. Brussels: Concawe: 18.

23 Central National Bank, Data Base (Quito, Ecuador: Central National Bank, 2002). 24 Tinoco, Technical Director of Shell Ecuador, Personal communication, 2002. 25 Skinner, J.H., and Forester, W.S. ed., Waste Minimization and Clean Technology: Waste Management Strategies for the Future (San Diego, California: Academic Press Inc., 1992), 156-167.

24

A quantity of unburned fuel (gasoline or diesel) is dissolved in lubricating oil. Light

hydrocarbons increase from the breakdown of oil and heavier hydrocarbons, including

the poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) due to the polymerization and incomplete

combustion of fuel.26

Table 2.6 shows different used oil contaminants and their sources. Note that the

difference with Table 2.5 is that Table 2.6 shows the organic contaminants present in

used oil in more detail.

Table 2.6 CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS Kind of Contaminant Chemical Species Source

Nitrogen Oxides Nitric oxide (NO) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Atmospheric nitrogen combustion.

Sulfur Oxides Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Sulfur Trioxide (SO3)

Sulfur of fuel combustion

Hydrocarbons Olefins R2C=CR2Diolefins R2C=CH-CH=CR2Aromatics R-Aromatics Saturated Hydroocarbons R3C-CR3

Incomplete Combustion Products

Organic Compounds Formaldehyde H-CHO Superior aldehydes R-CHO Acetone R-CO-P Acids R-COOH

Partial Combustion

Peroxides ROOH, ROOR Partial Combustion Lead Salts Lead oxide, PbO

Lead chloride, PbCl2Lead Bromide, PbBr2Lead Sulfate, PbSO4 Lead nitrate, Pb (NO3)2

Decomposition of ethyl fluid used as anti-knock for gasoline.

Soot Carbon C Partial Combustion Carbon Carbon monoxide CO

Carbon dioxide CO2

Combustion

Source: Herrera, R. 1999. Recycling of lubricant oils in Ecuador. Individual Project, OLADE/University of Calgary – Master Program. Quito, Ecuador: 21.

According to Byrne (1989), Mueller Associates (1989) and the EPA (1984b),27 the

quality of motor oil can be affected by the following processes:

26 Concawe. Collection and Disposal of Used Lubricating Oil. Report No. 5/96 (Brussels, Belgium: Concawe, 1996),17. 27 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Environmental Regulations and Technology: Managing Used Motor Oil. EPA/625/R-94/010 (Cincinnati, Ohio: Center for Environmental Research Information, 1994).

25

1. The engine heat may break the additives and other constituents into the oil.

This process can produce some acids or other contaminating substances.

2. Dirt, dust and rust may be inside the crankcase and in the oil. Metal particles

from engines can also directly contaminate the oil. The exhaust gases from

the combustion can leak through “crank rings” to the oil.

3. Fluids such as water and antifreeze may leak into the oil during the engine

operation.

Therefore, after motor oil is used, its properties are very different from virgin motor oil

(Mueller Associates, 1989). The most important differences are:

1. High content of water and sediment levels.

2. High quantity of polynuclear aromatics such as benzo(a)pyrene.

3. High quantity of metals such as aluminum and lead.

Table 2.7 compares the components present in used oil with virgin motor oil.

Table 2.7 POTENTIALLY HARMFUL CONSTITUENTS IN USED OIL VER-SUS VIRGIN MOTOR OIL

Constituent Used Oil from

Automobile Crankcases (ppm)

Used Oil from Diesel Truck Crankcase

(ppm)

Virgin Lubricating Oils (ppm)

Cadmium 0.5-3.4 0.7-3 0 Chromium 0.8-23 1.8-7.1 0 Lead 5.5-150 2.9-19 0-3 Benzo(a)pyrene 25-86 2.0 0.03-0.28

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1994. Environmental Regulations and Technology: Managing Used Motor Oil. EPA/625/R-94/010. Cincinnati, Ohio: Center for Environmental Research: 3.

According to Concawe (1996) in Table 2.5, the most dangerous component in

contaminated used motor oil is chlorine and if this oil is used in a burning option during

incomplete combustion, some toxic substances such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins

(PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and polychlorinated biphenyls

(PCBs) may be produced. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are the product of

26

incomplete combustion, which is frequently associated with particle emissions.28 The

compounds mentioned previously are bio-accumulative and are suspected to produce

cancer.

According to Table 2.8, there are different chemical compounds that can be added to

the fuel to improve its quality. Some gasolines use anti-knock in order to improve

combustion such as benzol, tolmol, cumene, tetraethyl lead, ethylic bromide, dibromo

ethane and naphthalene monochlorite Comp. P-9.29 Around 1960, tetraethyl lead and

other alkyl lead products began to be used for that purpose. Lead compounds are added

as fluids that also contain ethene/ethylene dibromide and ethene/ethylene dichloride as

depurators, producing lead compound volatizations.30 On the other hand, the cetane

number of diesel is improved with amyl nitrates.31

Therefore, leaded gasoline has the highest probability of containing Cl or Br due to the

additives used. According to Patricio Pazmiño,32 Head of Production of Petroindustrial,

PetroEcuador does not put additives in the fuel, neither do they put gasoline or diesel,

and they do not use tetraethyl lead as an anti-knock, but high octane naphtha instead.

Finally, he mentions that additives generally do not have Cl.

According to Mauro González (2002), Interim Director of the National Department of

Hydrocarbons, the elimination of tetraethyl of lead (TEL) was carried out gradually

between 1996 and 1997 in the Esmeraldas refinery, between 1997 and 1998 in the

Libertad refinery and between 1998 and 1999 in the Amazon refinery in the gasoline

sold on the Ecuadorian market as Extra, because the gasoline sold as Super, was totally

eliminated in 1990. This methodology helped terminals, pipelines and all systems

eliminate TEL completely at the national level in November 1999. In order to eliminate

28 Waterland, L., Bruce, K.R., and Merril, R.G., Risk Burn Guidance for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities, document EPA530-R-01-001 (Atlanta, Georgia: ARCADI Geraghty&Miller, Inc. and Eastern Research Group, Inc., 2001), 16,17,46. 29 Cevallos, F., Folleto de Motores de Combustión Interna (Guayaquil, Ecuador: ESPOL, 1999), 78. 30 Avallone, E.A. and BaumeisterIII, T. ed. Manual del Ingeniero Mecánico. Vol. I. Chapter 7 (Colombia: McGraw-Hill/Interamericana de México, S.A. , 1995), 16-17. 31 Avallone, E.A. and BaumeisterIII, T. ed. Manual del Ingeniero Mecánico. Vol. I. Chapter 7 (Colombia: McGraw-Hill/Interamericana de México, S.A. , 1995), 19. 32 Patricio Pazmiño, Head of Production of Petroindustrial, Personal communication, February 2002.

27

the total use of TEL, a reformed plant was constructed, which began working at the end

of 1998. Unfortunately, Petroecuador approved the enlarging of the plant with the

objective of avoiding the use of TEL, but aromatic hydrocarbons were not considered in

the design since this reformed plant produced high octane gasoline with 70% aromatics.

Now the reformed plant operates at 60% of its capacity in order to have enough space in

the pool to mix the gasoline and produce the quality Ecuadorian norms stipulate. It is

estimated that 4,000,000 of barrels of high octane naphtha with 25% aromatic

hydrocarbons will be imported this year. Some tests have been made in the Amazon

region with other additives such as alcohol anhydride or with a magnesium base.

Petroecuador is now searching for solutions with an additive very similar to TEL.

Another fact is that sales points and service stations recommend using additives in the

gasoline in order to protect the engines. Unfortunately, these types of additives are not

controlled by the National Department of Hydrocarbons.

28

Table 2.8 THE MOST COMMON COMPOUNDS USED IN GASOLINE AND DIESEL USED FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

TYPE OF FUEL TYPE OF ADDITIVE COMPOUND OF THE ADDITIVES

Antiknock agents.

1. Hydrocarbons of natural high octane number

2. Aromatic amines 3. Organometallic compounds. Normally, it is: Tetraethyl lead (In addtion, it uses ethylene

dibromide and ethylene dichloride to prevent ash deposits.)

Commercial benzol (for non-leaded gasoline)

Methyl cyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl

Antioxidants and sweetening inhibitors.

1. 2,6-di-tertiary-butyl-4-methyl phenol, or, 2,6-di-tertiary-butyl-para-cresol. (aviation)

2. NN’di-secondary-butyl-para-phenylene diamine. (aviation)

3. N-normal butyl-para aminophenol. 4. 2,4-dimethyl-6-tertiary-butylphenol.

(aviation) 5. Phenylene diamine and phenolic type

Metal deactivators N,N’-disalicylidene-1,2-diaminopropane, or N,N’-disalicylidene-1,2-diamino ethane type (copper deactivators)

Antirust 1. Organic amines or ammonium mahogany sulfonates

2. Organic phosphates.

De-icing and anti-stall agents

1. Isopropanol 2. Dimethyl formamide 3. Methyl alcohol (aviation) 4. Isopropyl alcohol (aviation) 5. Ammonium dimonylnaphthalene

Preignition additives

Phosphorus-type For leaded gasoline use: Alkyl-aryl phosphates Tricresyl phosphate (TCP) Phosphine Chloro-thiono-phoosphate compounds Tri-n-butyl

Upper cylinder lubricants (motor and aviation

gasoline)

1. High solvency, non-volatile, oxygenated organic compounds.

2. Light solvent lubricating oils or low-viscosity naphthenic distillates Some are blended with detergents, halogenated aromatic compounds, acid tars and oiliness additives.

Gasoline

Gasoline dyes N,N’-dibutyl-p- (p-nitro phenylazo aniline) Cetane number improver Organic Oxides

Peroxides (Amyl nitrate)

Diesel* Diesel fuel starter fluids Hydrocarbon blends with ether and heptane

* Some of the additives used in gasoline are used in diesel fuel too. Source: Guthriee, V.B. Ed. 1960. Petroleum Products Handbook. Chapter 2. New York: McGraw-Hill: 6-12.

29

In Ecuador, three different physical/chemical tests have been made of used oil in

different cities. The next table shows the results of an analysis made by the United

Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) between August and

September 1991.

Table 2.9 TEST MADE BY UNIDO Properties/Contents Riobamba

Motor Car Oil

(Gasoline)

Quito Motor Car

Oil (Gasoline)

Quito Diesel Motor

Oil

Guayaquil Diesel

Motor Boat Oil

Guayaquil

Motor Car Oil

(Gasoline)

Color, visual Black Dark Brown Black Black Black

Density @ 15°C, ASTM D4052, Kg/m3

911 899 905 887 898

Water % v/v, ASTM D95 0.2 <0.1 <0.1 0.2 0.3 Flash point °C, ASTM D93 83 103 230 132 96 TAN, mg NaOH/g, ASTM D664

7.1 4.5 8.0 5.9 7.8

Pentane insol, % m/m, ASTM D893(b)

2.25 (1) 0.78 1.78 (2) 0.09 1.52

Chlorine, mg/kg (neutron activation)

82* 85* 360 260 80*

Org. bound chlorine mg/kg (extraction&neutron activation)

56* 45* 140 240 46*

Sulphur, % m/m ASTM D4239

0.8 0.22 0.72 0.6 0.47

PCB’s (ppm) N.A. 6 2 9 N.A. (1) Toluene insolubles, % m/m, 1.87 (2) Toluene insolubles, % m/m, 1.60 *Inorganic and organically bound bromide compounds also detected at similar levels. Source: Organización de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo Industrial (O.N.U.D.I.). 1992. Tecnologías no contaminantes para la regeneración de aceites lubricantes usados. Acta final del seminario regional. Project US/INT/88/227. Quito, Ecuador: 163, 170.

Of all the studies made in Ecuador known at this time, the UNIDO study is the most

complete, because it considered PCB as well as PAH tests. The information used for the

present study is based on information derived from the conclusions of the UNIDO study

of non-contaminant technologies used in re-refining used lubricating oil in different

Latin America countries. Unfortunately, the study used (Project US/INT/88/227) does

not contain the results of PAHs made by the NAFTY Technological Institute (Warsaw).

This is the only reference found where used oil from Guayaquil is analyzed. Also,

according to Table 2.9, the PCB content in used oil from gasoline motors differs much

30

from used oil from diesel motors in Quito. This is because when the samples were made

in Ecuador (1991), gasoline had lead compound additives. We have analyzed this

situation previously, showing that some additives used for leaded gasoline contain Cl y

Br, and for this reason, samples from gasoline motors show the presence of Br at the

same level as that of chlorine (neutron activation) and organic compounds with

chlorine. Therefore, it can be presumed that at present the PCB content is

approximately 2 ppm, but more tests need to be carried out. Other tests have been made

in the Swisscontact and ETAPA studies. The next Table shows the results of these tests.

Table 2.10 TESTS MADE IN CUENCA AND QUITO Quito (Swisscontact) Cuenca (ETAPA)

Properties and Content Minimum Maximum Used Oil

1 Used Oil

2 Used Oil

3 °API 27.3 22 Color, ASTM D-1500 >8 >8 >8 Specific Gravity 0.891 0.922 0.8871

20/4°C 0.9062 20/4°C

0.9074 20/4°C

Viscosity at 100°F

268.0 SSU 58.3 CST

549.0 SSU 120.5 CST

152.7 CST

@ 40°C

148.6 CST

@ 40°C

117.4 CST

@ 40°C Viscosity at 200°F 56.4 SSU

9.2 CST 71.2 SSU 13.1 CST

15.5 CST @ 100°C

16.2 CST @ 100°C

15.9 CST @ 100°C

Viscosity Index 127 196 102.7 111.2 127.9 Flash Point (°C) 145 88 166 Conradson Carbon 3.86 5.2 0.6 1.6 1.2 Pentane insol. % weight 0.42 0.24 0.97 Toluene insol. % weight 0.13 1.4 0.22 Neutralization No. mg KOH/g 0.912 0.896 0.995 Water % 0.05 4.0 0 0 0 Ash % 1.02 2.41 0 0.006 0.006 Color N. detectable S content (%) 0.21 0.34 0.71 0.38 0.92 Ba (ppm) 100 100 Ca (ppm) 1,000 1,700 592 670 780 P (ppm) 550 1,100 Pb (ppm) 700 22,000 240 320 870 Zn (ppm) 350 980 Fe (ppm) 280 282 310 Cl (ppm) - - - Si (ppm) 22 12 10 Cu (ppm) 43 70 68

Source: Fundación Suiza de Cooperación para el Desarrollo Técnico (Swisscontact). 2000. Estudo de viabilidad de la eliminación adecuada del aceite automotor usado generado en la ciudad de Quito. Quito, Ecuador: 52; Corporación Oikos. 1998. Estudio de factibilidad para el re-refinamiento de aceites usados en Cuenca. Final Report. Cuenca, Ecuador: 90.

31

The Table above shows the components of used oil in Quito according to the

Swisscontact study. The contaminants and levels found in used oil are in the range

given by Concawe, except for lead, which has a higher range. On the other hand, the

analysis made by Petroindustrial in the ETAPA study used three different types of used

oil that were from crankcase engines such as Used Oil 1 from a vulcanizer, Used Oil 2

from the ETAPA mechanic shop from diesel and gasoline motors, and Used Oil 3 from

mechanic shops in the city from diesel and gasoline motors. The limits in the

composition are in the Concawe range except for the S content, perhaps due to the

inefficient combustion of the engine. Other components such as Si are below the

Concawe range. Generally speaking, it is noted that the components of used oil from

crankcase engines in these two cities are Ba, Ca, P, Pb, Zn, Fe, Cl, Si and Cu.

Unfortunately, these studies do not mention the date the tests were made. However, it

can be presumed that the same components found in used oil from crankcase engines

would be present in used oil from automobiles in Guayaquil, because the same types of

gasoline, diesel and automotive oil are used in the three cities since the producers are

the same.

Tests carried out in Ecuador show the same components in sampled used oil as those

given by Concawe (1996) in Table 2.5, except for the test made by ETAPA. Table 2.11

shows the toxic effects of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and

polychlorionated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) produced in the combustion process of used

oil when technical requirements are not considered. The effects of the elements and

components generally found in used oil that are most toxic for the environment and

human health (Cd, Pb, Cr, PAHs (Benzo(a)pyreno) and the polychlorinated biphenyls

(PCBs) are shown in Table 2.11. The same Table also shows the toxic effects of

polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorionated dibenzofurans

(PCDFs) that are produced in the used oil combustion process when technical

requirements are not taken into consideration.

32

Table 2.11 TOXIC EFFECTS OF THE POTENTIALLY HARMFUL CONSTI-

TUENTS IN USED OIL

Contaminant Toxic manifestation Arsenic Hyperpigmentation, keratosis and possible vascular

complications.(RfD: 3E-4 mg/kg-day) Human Chronic oral exposure Lung Cancer mortality and this could increase mortality for internal organ cancer (liver, kidney, lung, and bladder)

Cadmium Significant proteinuria (RfD: 5E-4 mg/kg/day water) Lung cancer High level can produce damage to lungs and death. Irritate stomach, vomiting, diarrhea, affect kidneys

Chromium Cholestasis Cancer after long-term exposure. CrO3 can produce irritation to the nose, such as runny nose, sneezing, itching, nosebleeds, ulcers and holes in the nasal septum. Asthma attacks in persons who are allergic to chromium Cr (VI) can produce ulcers, convulsions, kidney and liver damage, and death.

Lead High level can produce damage to the brain and kidneys in adults or children; in pregnant women may cause miscarriage; in men can damage organs responsible for sperm production, anemia, stomachache, muscle weakness.

Benzo(a)pyreno Increase renal enzyme activities Tumor type: fore stomach, squamous cell papillomas and carcinomas

Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins Increase renal enzyme activities Cancer

Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans Cancer Polychlorinated Biphenyls Acute or subacute hepatic necrosis

Hypertrophy of endoplasmic reticulum Increase renal enzyme activities

Source: Benavides, L., Cantanhede, A., and Koning, H. 1994. Hazardous Waste and Health in Latin America and the Caribbean. With the support of the Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences (CEPIS). Washington D.C., United States: 8 ; Hettiaratchi, P. 2001. ENEV611: Land Pollution&Waste Management in the Energy Sector. University of Calgary. July. ; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2002. Risk Information of Chemical Compounds. Available at http://risk.lsd.ornl.gov/tox/toxvals.shtml. February. Based on the foregoing information, crankcase oils do not present any chlorine as a

contaminant after its use during engine operation, unless it contains leaded gasoline

with some type of additive with Cl. Also, because of the mild climate of Ecuador and

the hot weather in Guayaquil, engines do not use antifreeze.

http://risk.lsd.ornl.gov/tox/toxvals.shtml

33

As shown in Table 2.5, the presence of chlorine (300 ppm – 1500 ppm) in used oil can

produce a potential problem in the combustion process through the possible formation

of dioxins (carcinogenic) mentioned previously. Due to this, it is important to know the

other sources in which used oil is contaminated by chlorine. Chlorine present in used oil

may be due to the following reasons:

1. The contamination of accidental or deliberate use of chlorine solvents and

transformer oils, or both.33

2. The additives in lubricating oils.

3. The additives of lead adhered to gasoline.

Usually, used oils can be contaminated when they are mixed with other materials such

as brake fluids, antifreeze, paints, vegetable oils and other materials at the collection

points.34 The following sections of this Chapter will analyze different disposal methods

for used oil and will deal once again with the problem that arises when used oil is

contaminated with halogens and the implications this has for the technical requirements

for the combustion process.

2.1.3 DISPOSAL METHODS FOR USED OILS AND THEIR PROBLEMS

According to Concawe (1996), there are six main disposal methods for used oil which

are dumping, reclaim industrial lubricant, direct burning option, re-processing, re-

refining, and gasification process. The next Figure shows the same disposal methods

without dumping given by the European Commission based on the same Concawe

study, but including the type of used oil for each method and the type of obtained

products after the utilized method. Figure 2.0 shows that crankcase oils can be used for

different methods such as thermal cracking, re-refining, gasification, reprocessing or

direct burning. Note that in the re-refining method of the acid/clay process, the

obtained lubricating bases are low quality. This process has been recommended by

33 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Environmental Regulations and Technology: Managing Used Motor Oil. EPA/625/R-94/010 (Cincinnati, Ohio: Center for Environmental Research Information, 1994), 14. 34 Concawe. Collection and Disposal of Used Lubricating Oil. Report No. 5/96 (Brussels, Belgium: Concawe, 1996), 18.

34

some projects carried out in Ecuador such as UNIDO and ETAPA with some

modifications in the process. Appendix A shows in more detail the disposal method of

used oil discussed here along the lines of the original Concawe study.

Figure 2.0 DIFFERENT WASTE OIL DISPOSAL METHODS Source: European Comission. 2001. Critical Review of Existing Studies and Life Cycle Analysis on the Regeneration and Incineration of Waste Oils. Final Report VMR/OPA/MSI 20 AW 83-5. Europe: Tylor Nelson Sofres S.A.: 21.

35

This Figure uses a general classification for disposal methods of used oil, but that does

not mean that all of them are correct disposal. Table 2.12 presents a summary of the

disposal methods of used oil and their favorable and unfavorable impact on the

environment and human health. It shows that the most favorable methods of used oil

disposal are a cement plant, reprocessing (several), modern re-refining with

hydrotreatment, pretreatment and refinery recycling, and gasification.

Table 2.12 USED OIL DISPOSAL OPTIONS – COMPARISON SUMMARY OF

MAJOR EFFECTS

POSSIBLE IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT AND/OR HUMAN HEALTH

DISPOSAL OPTION

Favorable Unfavorable Dumping Very high risks to ground and

surface water systems Road oiling Very high risks to ground and

surface water systems Cement kiln Contaminants trapped in the

cement

Fuel oil blending Contaminants discharged to atmosphere

Space heater (at point of collection)

No transport related effects All contaminants sent into the local atmosphere in the flue gas

Chemical waste incineration Contaminants trapped in flue gas treatment system

Loss of value unless used as support fuel.

Stone coating plant Metals trapped in the stone coatings

Possible emissions of chlorinated compounds

Reprocessing (severe)

Provides clean fuel comparable to industrial gas oil

Acid clay re-refining Disposal of residues PAH content of re-refined oil

Modern re-refining with hydrotreatment

Re-refined base oils free of contaminants

Pretreatment and refinery recycling

Use of existing plant

Refinery recycling Use of existing plant Unproven technology Gasification Produces clean fuel gas

All contaminants retained

Source: Concawe. 1996. Collection and Disposal of Used Lubricating Oil. Report No. 5/96. Brussels: Concawe: 55

The advantage of a cement plant is that the contaminants are trapped in the cement. The

next Section will analyze the methods for treatment and management applicable for

36

used oil in developing countries such as Ecuador and it will analyze in more detail any

that are more applicable for the case of Guayaquil.

2.1.3 ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF TREATMENT AND MANAGEMENT

According to the World Bank, the World Health Organization and the United Nations

Environment Programme, for developing countries “the selection of appropriate

treatment and disposal facilities will depend on the types and quantities of hazardous

waste which are generated and on specific local factors. In practice, choices will

depend on the degree of pre-treatment carried out by the waste generator and/or the

availability of suitable facilities for treatment or disposal.”35

According to Dr. Patrick Hettiarachi (2002), integrated waste management is the

selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies and management

programs to achieve specific waste management objectives and goals. The preferable

principal options range from the reduce-reuse option to residual management as shown

in the next Figure. The reduce-reuse option is when it is possible to use the waste for

the same or different applications: for example, reclaiming industrial lubricants by

centrifuging the used oil and using it again in old machines. The recycle option is when

the waste is used again to manufacture the same thing: for example, re-refining used oil

in order to get base oil to produce lubricating oil for engines. The recovery option uses

the waste to generate energy; for example, used oil for industrial processing, and it is

comparable with reprocessing and the direct burning option given by Concawe. Finally,

residual management means sending the waste to landfills or to be incinerated.

35 The World Bank, World Health Organisation, and United Nations Environment Programme, The Safe Disposal of Hazardous Wastes: The Special Needs and Problems of Developing Countries. Vol.I. (Washington, United States: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1989), 98.

37

RESIDUAL MANAGEMENT

RECOVERY

RECYCLE

REDUCE - REUSE

OPTIONS

Figure 2.1 OPTIONS OF INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT Source: Hettiaratchi, P. 2001. ENEV611: Land Pollution&Waste Management in the Energy Sector. University of Calgary. July.

The Environmental Protection Authority of Victoria, Australia (1985), recommends

general recovery and incineration disposal methods for oil. In more detail, they mention

the flammability property for hydrocarbon lubricating oil and recovery, recycling and

incineration as recommended disposal.36

The objectives of any plan for hazardous waste management are to ensure the safe,

efficient and economical collection, treatment and disposal of wastes. In order to reflect

specific local conditions, the plan needs to consider a number of criteria such as health

effects, environmental impact, technical reliability, political acceptability, resource

recovery, economic viability and resource conservation. According to the international

organizations mentioned at the beginning of this Section,37 the description of these

criteria are:

Health Effects: To reduce health risks and the nuisance associated with the

storage, collection, treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes.

36 The World Bank, World Health Organisation, and United Nations Environment Programme, The Safe Disposal of Hazardous Wastes: The Special Needs and Problems of Developing Countries. Vol.I. Table 3-4 (Washington, United States: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1989), 102-105. 37 The World Bank, World Health Organisation, and United Nations Environment Programme, The Safe Disposal of Hazardous Wastes: The Special Needs and Problems of Developing Countries. Vol.I. (Washington, United States: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1989), 68.

38

Environmental impact: To reduce environmental pollution risks associated

with hazardous waste treatment and disposal.

Technical Reliability: To ensure that any hazardous waste technologies

used are proven, safe, flexible, and maintainable under local conditions.

Political Acceptability: Depending on local conditions (maximizing the

number of jobs created and public acceptability of the facilities).

Resource Recovery: To maximize the utilization of both the material and

fuel value of wastes. There may also be a requirement to minimize land

usage or to restore poor quality land.

Economic Viability: To minimize costs, subject to other (often conflicting)

objectives and constraints.

Resource Conservation: To minimize the amount of hazardous wastes

generated and ensure that all such wastes are collected, treated and disposed

of properly.

Table 2.13 summarizes these criteria with the methods recommended methods

mentioned previously and identifies factors affecting them in a local context. The

information in Table 2.13 provides an overview of the recovery, recycling and

incineration methods available for Guayaquil. Based on criteria applied mainly to

political acceptability, economic viability, resource recovery and resource conservation,

the most feasible for Guayaquil are the recovery and incineration options because

impacts on the environment and human health depend greatly on available technology

and the manner in which plants or industries function. In addition, in the next section

the ETAPA case will show that the re-refining method is not a feasible method for the

disposal of used oil in Ecuador. This project will focus on these two options and it will

analyze each furnace that can be used to burn used oil in Guayaquil. The recovery

option is applicable only in some manufacturing industry processes because of the high

temperature needed, such as Brick & Tile, Carbon Black, Cooper Smelting, Glass, Iron

& Steel, Lead Smelter, Lightweight Aggregate, Lime Process, Zinc and Boilers. Other

39

processes have the potential for waste incineration, but generally speaking, they have

not yet served this function on a large scale.38

Table 2.13 COMPARISON OF AVAILABLE METHODS FOR GUAYAQUIL

Recovery Recycling Incineration

Health Effects Minimum if it

considers the limit of

compound emissions

for a specific device.

Depends on the

technology used. It can

affect the acid sludge

produced in some re-

refining processes.

Minimum if it considers

the limit of compound

emissions for a specific

device.

Environmental Impact Depends on operations

of the devices and air

control devices.

It can produce some

environmental impacts,

depending on the

technology used.

Depends on operation

of the devices and the

air control devices.

Technical Reliability Depends on the design

of the equipment.

Specialized personnel

are necessary.

It is safe.

Political Acceptability Currently, it has

acceptability from local

government and from

other stakeholders.

There are some studies

that have not been

applied and the

ETAPA case shows

that there has not been

political acceptability

from some stakeholders

(mainly the producers).

Currently, it has

acceptability from local

government and from

other stakeholders.

R. Recovery Yes No Yes, it is possible.

Economic Viability Depending on the

equipment, it is

normally cheaper than

the re-refining option.

Depends on the

technology;

unfortunately it is the

most expensive option.

It is the cheapest option.

Resource

Conservation

It is high, because there

are some industrial

places where it is

possible to burn for

recovery.

There is no re-refining

plant. The quantity for

used oil is low for a re-

refining plant.

There are incinerators

that can be used.

38 Brunner, C.R., Handbook of Hazardous Waste Incineration, 1st ed. Chapter 7 (United States: Tab

40

It is also important to mention that there has been a steep reduction of oil regenerating

in developed countries such as Germany, France, Italy and the United Kingdom as

shown in the next Figure. The tendency of regeneration in Europe is uncertain because

investors are at risk since it is not known if the latest regeneration technology will be

flexible in proportion to the composition of used oil during the next 10 years or how the

tendency will relate to the possible use of bio-lubricants.39 In 1960, the United States of

America had 150 companies that produced 300 millions of gallons of re-refined oil per

year. At present, there are fewer than 10 plants working.40

Figure 2.2 MANAGEMENT OF WASTE OILS IN THE EU IN 1999 Source: European Comission. 2001. Critical Review of Existing Studies and Life Cycle Analysis on the Regeneration and Incineration of Waste Oils. Final Report VMR/OPA/MSI 20 AW 83-5. Europe: Tylor Nelson Sofres S.A.: 8

Recovery and incineration methods are directly related to the combustion process.

There are specific parameters that need to be considered in the combustion process to

limit the formation of air contaminants which have the potential to damage human

Books Inc., 1989), 143-179. 39 European Comission, Critical Review of Existing Studies and Life Cycle Analysis on the Regeneration and Incineration of Waste Oils, Final Report VMR/OPA/MSI 20 AW 83-5 (Europe: Tylor Nelson Sofres S.A., 2001), 8. 40 Nolan, J.J., Harris, C., and Cavanaugh, P.O., Used Oil: Disposal Options, Management Practices and Potential Liability (United States: Government Institutes Inc., 1989), 35.

41

health and environmental quality. The details of the combustion process are provided in

Appendix B.

In the combustion process it is important to follow several steps to identify

contaminants and prevent impacts. The United States follows the next provisional steps

when issuing requirements for burners.41

1. Identification, by the generator from which the principal organic hazardous

constituent (POHC) will be selected.

2. Operation of incineration equipment to achieve the destruction and removal

efficiency (DRE) of at least 99.99%. The DRE is defined as Win the POHC

mass flow into the system and Wout the POHC mass flow rate leaving the

combustion device for the atmosphere.

DRE = 100% (win –wout)/win

3. If hydrogen chloride exits in the stack at less than four pounds per hour, no

HCl removal is necessary. If the chloride emissions are greater than four

pounds per hour, then 99% of the hydrogen chloride must be removed from

the exhaust gas stream.

4. Particle emissions into the atmosphere must not exceed 0.08 grains/dry

standard cubic foot when corrected to 50 % excess air.

5. Continuous monitoring of combustion temperature, waste feed rate,

combustion gas flow rate and carbon monoxide is required.

The technical requirements or factors that affect the combustion process when

destroying a waste as completely as possible consider the minimization of the formation

of new products (solids and gases) that are noxious for both the environment and human

health to be temperature, time and turbulence. Classically, these factors are known as

the Three Ts of combustion. There is also another parameter that can be added like the

oxygen that is available. Availability of oxygen has an influence on the degree of

destruction of the waste and byproduct formation due to incomplete combustion. And

41 Brunner, C.R., Handbook of Hazardous Waste Incineration, 1st ed. (United States: Tab Books Inc., 1989), 32,33.

42

the excess level of about 100% above the theoretical air requirements is necessary to

ensure oxidation, trying to avoid pyrolytic conditions at all times.42

The criteria that should be considered in the incinerator design are particle properties,

thermal destruction and turbulence. These criteria already take into account the three Ts

of combustion. A brief description of them follows:43

1. Organic Destruction. The organic destruction of a compound depends on

temperature, residence time at that temperature and the properties of the

compound. It also depends on the kinetic reactions that occur in the combustion

chambers.

2. Residence Time. The furnace used to destroy a particular waste requires that

the geometry and temperature distribution within the furnace be taken into

consideration. This is important for the degree of destruction of the organic

compounds.

3. Turbulence. This is defined as the degree of mixing between waste and oxygen

in the combustion air, and the absence of the temperature gradients within the

furnace. Turbulence is an important factor in the combustion chamber design to

improve heat and mass transfer. Turbulence is difficult to quantify. Normally

the Reynolds Number is used to estimate the point at which the turbulent flow

begins.

4. Droplet size. This should be considered carefully in liquid waste, since before

the thermal destruction occurs the waste should vaporize so there is an intimate

mix between the air and the fuel to assure the best combustion. The

evaporization rate is related to the physical characteristics of the material,

pressure, temperature and particle size.

5. Particle size versus destruction and removal efficiency. This criterion is

related to the particle size permitted in the composition waste to avoid their

influence in the destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) desired.

42 The World Bank, World Health Organisation, and United Nations Environment Programme, The Safe Disposal of Hazardous Wastes: The Special Needs and Problems of Developing Countries. Vol.III. (Washington, United States: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1989), 655-656. 43 Brunner, C.R., Handbook of Hazardous Waste Incineration, 1st ed. (United States: Tab Books Inc., 1989), 32,33.

43

In the next Figure, it is possible to observe the residence time of a specific combustion

chamber. The kinetic reactions of several organic compounds are shown in the same

Figure. Organic compounds held above a specific temperature for two seconds will be

completely destroyed.

Figure 2.3 EXAMPLE OF RESIDENCE TIME AND DESTRUCTION OF ORGANIC COMPOUND IN A COMBUSTION CHAMBER

Source: Brunner, C.R. 1989. Handbook of Hazardous Waste Incineration. 1st ed. United States: Tab Books Inc.:309.

The aspects mentioned above are necessary for guaranteeing good combustion and the

destruction of the contaminants that could be in the used oil or formed during the

combustion process. According to the EPA (2001), the main emissions due to an

incomplete combustion of a hazardous waste are:

1. Dioxin and Furans (D/F) emissions.44 As previously indicated, these products may

be generated by burning used oil when it is contaminated with Cl2 or some

compound having Cl. According to the 40CFR279 regulation, it seems that a Cl

concentration above 1000 ppm produces a toxic effect on people, because the EPA

uses another regulation for that case. These emissions may be produced by different

mechanisms, depending greatly on the design, the characteristic combustions such

44 Waterland, L., Bruce, K.R., and Merril, R.G., Risk Burn Guidance for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities, document EPA530-R-01-001 Chapter 4 (Atlanta, Georgia: ARCADI Geraghty&Miller, Inc. and Eastern Research Group, Inc., 2001), 45-102.

44

as F/A ratio, the feed characteristics, the type and the device operation of the air

control equipment.

According to Lustenhouwer (1980), there are three ways to produce D/Fs which are:

a) D/Fs contained in the fuel. Schaub and Tsang (1983) found that the efficient

thermal destruction of D/Fs is at a high temperature and that they decompose

rapidly at 1700°F.

b) Formation of D/F in the gaseous phase due to the homogeneous and

heterogeneous reactions between the combustion products in the gaseous

phase and in the catalytic particles. It was found that there is a formation of

D/Fs in the homogeneous reactions, but they cannot compete with the

destruction reaction at the same temperature, and for that reason, the

formation of D/Fs is low in this reaction (Sidhu and others 1994). Based on

this, it is believed that the main source is due to the heterogeneous reactions

between the catalyzed surface and the gaseous phase in the post-furnace

region (200-400°C), producing the maximum level at 300°C. (Kilgroe and

others 1990).

c) Novo Synthesis of D/F consists of a catalyzed surface between carbon

particles and a donator of chlorine (organic or inorganic). These

heterogeneous reactions may be produced by aromatic chlorides from the

fuel or by their formation in the incomplete combustion. Then, the aromatic

chlorides and the D/F may synthesize again from gas-solid, solid-solid

reactions between carbon particles, air, humidity, or inorganic chlorinated

compounds in the presence of catalytic metal such as activated carbon and

Cu+2.

Molecular chlorine plays an important role in the formation of the D/Fs due to the

substitution reactions of aromatic chlorides. HCl does not participate in chlorination

in a significant way. Only for the Deacon reaction it is necessary to add a catalytic

metal (Cu+2) (Griffin 1986, Gullet and others 1990).

2Hcl +1/2 O2 -> Cl2 + H20

45

Sulfur decreases the emission of D/F, and it has been found that it is a good

inhibitor when the S/Cl is more than 1:1 (up to 0.3 has been found to decrease the

D/Fs greatly).

Cl2 + S O2 + H20 2HCl + SO3

CuO + S O2 + (1/2) O2 Cu SO4

It has also been found that poor combustion and high levels of CO (2000 ppm),

produce an emission increase of the produced D/Fs (Gullet and Rghmuthoin 1997).

When the exhaust emissions contain dioxin and furan, the DRE must be 99.999%.

Appendix E shows the design and operating guidelines for incineration facilities.

When the data are not immediately available for a particular waste, a reasonable

estimation of combustion criteria can be: 45

a) For a non-halogenated hazardous waste, provide 1,832°F (1,000°C) in the

combustion chamber, with a gas residence time of 2 seconds and 2 percent

oxygen in the exhaust. (dry volume basis).

b) For a halogenated waste (one containing at least 0.5 percent chlorine),

provide a temperature of 2,192°F (1,200°C) in the combustion chamber with

a gas residence time of 2 seconds and 3 percent (dry volume basis) in the

exhaust.

At this time, there are different conditions of accepted operation depending on the

jurisdiction of the country. Appendix F shows the operating conditions and emission

limits of acid gases and combustion products established in different jurisdictions in

developed countries. Unfortunately, for the present study it has not been possible to

obtain the kinetic reactions of formation and destruction of the different organic

compounds in the combustion chamber at high temperatures to verify if the required

residence time if the same as those established in the jurisdiction. This is because

most of the information found in the latest research is focused on the combustion of

solid wastes in municipal incinerators and solid fuels as carbon. For example,

45 Brunner, C.R., Handbook of Hazardous Waste Incineration, 1st ed. (United States: Tab Books Inc., 1989), 48-49.

46

Appendix D shows some kinetic reactions of formations of dioxins and furans for

solid fuel that contain chlorine.

2. Organic emissions differ from D/Fs.46 Organic emissions may not be predicted

based on feeding, design or operational practice, and for that reason it is necessary

to list the volatile and semi-volatile compound, to identify the constituent and to

complete the total organic emissions. PCBs may be produced in the same manner as

D/Fs, and can be formed without burning material containing PCB. They are very

toxic and they are bio-accumulative.

Only a limited group of organic compounds may be identified and quantified. Total

organic compound tests only estimate 20% of the organic material in a sample.

Total organic compounds represent the addition of the chromatographic fraction of

volatile gases (boiling point <100°C), the fraction of semi-volatile organic

compounds (100-300°C) and the gravimetric fraction of non-volatile compounds

(>300°C).

3. Metal emissions.47 Metals can be classified in three groups: volatile, semi-volatile

and low-volatile. These are shown in Figure 2.4, but the behavior of metals can

change according to the combustion system. Volatile metals have a high vapor

pressure in the combustion chamber and the control devices for air contamination.

Emissions depend on feed and control techniques for contamination that have

adsorption or absorption, and for that reason, the devices that control the particle

emissions are not included. Typically, the semi-volatile metals have high pressure in

the combustion temperature and low pressure in the temperature of contamination

controllers. For that reason, they depend on vaporization in the combustion chamber

and the condensation process in the particle before entering the contamination

device controls. They also depend on the feed rate and the efficiency of the

46 Waterland, L., Bruce, K.R., and Merril, R.G., Risk Burn Guidance for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities, document EPA530-R-01-001 Chapter 5 (Atlanta, Georgia: ARCADI Geraghty&Miller, Inc. and Eastern Research Group, Inc., 2001), 103-119. 47 Waterland, L., Bruce, K.R., and Merril, R.G., Risk Burn Guidance for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities, document EPA530-R-01-001 Chapter 6 (Atlanta, Georgia: ARCADI Geraghty&Miller, Inc. and Eastern Research Group, Inc., 2001),120-153.

47

equipment that controls fine particles. Low vaporization metals depend less on the

temperature combustion and more on ash formation, other residues, the cement kiln

clinker and particles in the flue gas.

LOW-VOLATILE METALS

SEMIVOLATILE METALS

VOLATILE METALS

Se

Hg

Mn

Ba, Be, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, V

As, Cd, Pb, Sb, Tk, Zn

Figure 2.4 VOLATILE METAL GROUPS Source: Waterland, L., Bruce, K.R., and Merril, R.G. 2001. Risk Burn Guidance for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities. Document EPA530-R-01-001. Atlanta, Georgia: ARCADI Geraghty & Miller, Inc. and Eastern Research Group, Inc.:124.

The distinction between volatile, semi-volatile and low-volatile metal changes

greatly in studies, proof conditions and device types. For that reason, metal

emissions are affected by differences in the design of combustion units, combustion

stechiometry and flue gas flow rates, operation temperature, the physical form of

metal compounds, mineral presence, chlorine (increased volatility of the metal) and

the efficiency of remotion in the control devices. According to Bruno Hening

(1996), one of the advantages of burning used oil in cement plants is that some

elements such as Cl, F, Br, As, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, P, Pb, Sb, Se,

Te, Tl, V, Zn are not emitted and are incorporated into the clinker and absorbed by

the kiln dust. In addition, he mentions that the contents of Cl in the clinker are

48

limited (<0.2 g/kg cli) since a great concentration of Cl can cause a circulation

phenomenon if no dust is discarded and no bypass gas is extracted.48

4. Distribution of the size of particles. In general, particles have the following

implications in the environment as well as in human health. Therefore, we have:49

A major potential risk for health

Increased chemical reactions in the atmosphere

Reduced visibility

Increased possibility of precipitation, fog and clouds

Reduced solar radiation affecting the growth of vegetation

The biology of vegetation affected

Stained materials

Additionally, human health is intimately related to the size of the particle, the

concentration and the element or chemical compound they contain. According to

Dr. Gerardo Mejía (2001), particle disposal zones in the human being function as

follows: Dp > 10µm in the head zone, 5µm < Dp < 10µm in the respiratory tract

and Dp < 5µm in the pulmonary region (alveolii). In general, particles can be or can

contain heavy metals (Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se) and light metals (Na,

Mg, Al, K, Ca) known as primary particles, or they can be or can contain

transference of organic compounds to organic particle forms known as secondary

particles.50 To control particle emissions, different types of air pollution control

equipment (APCE) are used depending on the size of the particle and its volatile

properties. For example, for metal emissions the APCE shown in the next Table is

recommended.51

48 Henning, B., The Use of Waste Products as Secondary Materials and Fuels in the Cement Industry (Costa Rica: Industria Nacional de Cemento S.A. (INCSA),1996), 15. 49 Mejía, G., ENEV609: Air Pollution & Its Impact on the Energy Sector (Quito, Ecuador: ITESM, August 2001). 50 Mejía, G., ENEV609: Air Pollution & Its Impact on the Energy Sector (Quito, Ecuador: ITESM, August 2001). 51 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Operational Parameters for Hazardous Waste Combustion Devices, Seminar Publication EPA/625/R-93/008. (Cincinnati, Ohio: Center for Environmental Research Information, 1993), 64.

49

Table 2.14 GUIDE FOR SELECTING APCE

Increasing velocity

Vapor

Fine particles

Coarse particles

Metal

Likely Form at APCE (Air Pollution Control Equipment)

Most Effective APCE

Hg As Sb Tl Cd Pb Ag Ba Be Cr

Adsorber, Scrubber

Filter, ESP*

Any APCE for particulate matter

control

*ESP Electrostatic Precipitator

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1993. Operational Parameters for Hazardous Waste Combustion Devices. Seminar Publication EPA/625/R-93/008. Cincinnati, Ohio: Center for Environmental Research Information: 64.

It is clear then that for most toxic metallic particle emissions found in used oil, the

Environmental Protection Agency of the United States (EPA) recommends using

filters and an electrostatic precipitator (ESP). Appendix B provides detailed

information on the specific factors affecting particle size and the implications of

their spatial distribution.

According to BUWAL (1997), the transfer of metals and non-metals in a cement

kiln takes place as indicated in the next Table, which shows that the best manner

for the thermal elimination of used oil is in a cement plant.

50

Table 2.15 TYPE OF TRANSFER OF CONTAMINANTS IN THE MANUFAC-TURE OF CEMENT

Class

Type of Transfer

Class of materials

Materials

A

Principal transfer to Clinker

Mineral elements of clinker. Metals little volatile.

Al, Si, Ca, Fe, Cr, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, As, and S of fuel.

B

Principal transfer to outside air

Volatile metals (if there is an additional filter). Combustion gases

Hg, raw organic material, S from raw ground material (if it was integrated as easy decomposition material).

C

Transfer to filter dust and external circuit* though raw ground material. There is an installation of periodical discharge of circuit by aggregation to cement.

Semi-volatile metals

Tl, Hg (partially), Cd (partially).

D

Absorption by the raw ground material in the coldest part of kiln. New liberation in the hottest part of kiln. Internal circuit.** If there is a by-pass these elements can be taken out and take advantage of externally.

Halogen, Alkaline (partially)

Cl, Na y K (partially) the rest leaves with

the clinker.

*External circuit: Condensation of elements in the elctrostatic filter and return with this dust to the kiln. **Internal circuit: Condensation of elements in the coldest part of kiln Source: Weymann, M. 2000. Empfehlungen, um Altöl in Zementöfen zu vewerten. Praktikumsbericht-Swisscontact. Quito, Ecuador: 6.

5. HCl and Cl2 emission.52 These emissions change, depending on the type of

device used to burn the fuel. Normally, the limits are established in the ppmv,

and the HCl equivalent is expressed by ppmv HCl + 2*ppmv Cl2. It is very

difficult to predict the partitioning between HCl and Cl2, and for that reason it

is not possible to estimate emissions based on feeding composition or on the

extrapolation from stack emissions. HCl y Cl2 emissions depend on the feed

composition the Cl2 has and the air control device the plant uses.

52 Waterland, L., Bruce, K.R., and Merril, R.G., Risk Burn Guidance for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities, document EPA530-R-01-001 Chapter 7 (Atlanta, Georgia: ARCADI Geraghty&Miller, Inc. and Eastern Research Group, Inc., 2001), 154-166.

51

For the incineration process, industrial boilers can be used when the following

factors are considered:53

1. The device must have physical provisions for recovering and exporting

thermal energy in the form of steam, hot water or heated gases.

2. The device’s combustion chamber and primary energy recovery

section(s) must be of integral design. In other words, the combustion

chamber and the primary energy recovery section must be physically

inside one manufactured or assembled unit.

3. The device must maintain a thermal energy recovery efficiency of at

least 60% calculated in terms of the recovered energy compared with

the thermal value of the fuel.

4. The device must export at least 75% of the recovered energy, calculated

on an annual basis.

There are also different industries that can burn used oil for energy recovery.

For the city of Guayaquil, the main industrial sectors with facilities capable of

burning used oil are Brick & Tile, Glass, Iron & Steel, Cement, Light-weight

Aggregate, Lime Process, Iron and Steel, and Industrial Boilers.54

Based on the specific information provided in this section, the following

Chapters will apply this knowledge to the specific circumstances of Guayaquil

and look ahead at the feasibility of burning used oil in incinerators or industries

in order to reduce used oil contamination.

53 Brunner, C.R., Handbook of Hazardous Waste Incineration, 1st ed. (United States: Tab Books Inc., 1989), 23,27. 54 Brunner, C.R., Handbook of Hazardous Waste Incineration, 1st ed. Chapter 7 (United States: Tab Books Inc., 1989), 143-179.

52

2.2 CASES AND EXAMPLES OF USED OIL/WASTE OIL MANAGEMENT IN ECUADOR

To understand the management of used oil in a global context, three examples will be

given here before analyzing cases that have occurred in Ecuador. The European

Community has been chosen because it represents a continent that is always in the

vanguard worldwide because of its inclusion of different cultures and manners of

thinking. Latin America has been selected in order to understand globally what is

happening in the region. Lastly, Colombia appears because it is a country extremely

similar to Ecuador in its history, language and culture.

In the European Community55, the re-refining of used oil and its use as fuel takes into

consideration its energetic value, principally in cement and thermoelectric plants. In

2000, the European Community consumed 4,930,000 TM/year of base oil, of which

2,465,000 TM of the consumed oil was lost due to combustion, evaporation and residue

in the tanks. Approximately 1,730,000 TM was collected, and it was estimated that

between 25-30% of the 2,465,000 TM was burned illegally or dumped into the

environment.

There are no problems with technology in the re-refining process for obtaining base oils

of high quality. Normally re-refining plants are not profitable during the first years,

depending on the technology, capacity and market conditions of each member country.

In the free market, re-refining plants cannot compete with non-treated or reprocessed

used oil for combustion, with the exception of large re-refining plants. Normally, re-

refining plants encounter competition in the industrial sector that buys used oil mainly

for energetic use in cement kilns, bricks furnaces and power plants. Because of

differences in prices between fuel and used oil, enterprises have the capacity to pay

more for used oil as a fuel than the re-refining plants, and for this reason, re-refining

plants do not have a guarantee of having sufficient used oil for their process. Also, taxes

on the importation of fuel are high in some countries, although there are exceptions on

some products such as used oil. For this reason, the United Kingdom imports a large

53

amount of used oil from other countries in the European Community. Progressively, the

use of lubricating oil from crankcase engines is changing over to other types of oils

such as synthetic oil because of its high performance, but this tendency is not favorable

for the re-refining of used oil.

Some countries use incentives and measures to promote re-refining. Of the 11 countries

that belong to the European Community, only two --Spain and more recently Germany-

- subsidize the recollection phase. In 2003 there will be a regulation to indicate what

companies can burn used oil in order to reduce the market so re-refining plants can

compete.

At beginning of the 1990s, UNIDO56 evaluated used oil management in Latin America.

This study showed that most used oil was wasted with no control and was utilized

mainly to preserve the wood for construction purposes, for supplementary fuel and for

brick manufacture. In some countries, used oils return to the market as engine lubricant

at a very low price for vehicle motors (taxis, trucks and vans) in bad condition. The

study found that people are not aware of the impacts used oil can produce on the

environment and human health. In the study, it was estimated that the South American

continent is dumping 1,000,000 TM/year of used oil from motors. The greatest problem

with the management of used oil is re-collection and the custom some countries have of

discarding used oil in sewage systems and soil. A combination of legislation and

economic remuneration should be considered as a way of persuading the consumers of

lubricants to return used oil for re-refining in order to avoid its improper use. This study

also indicates that the imposition of a tax on the sale of new lubricants should be

considered.

Finally, this study recommends that governments enforce their legislation to avoid the

non-authorized use of lubricating oil, recognize the necessity of offering incentives in

55 European Comission, Critical Review of Existing Studies and Life Cycle Analysis on the Regeneration and Incineration of Waste Oils, Final Report VMR/OPA/MSI 20 AW 83-5 (Europe: Tylor Nelson Sofres S.A., 2001). 56 Organización de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo Industrial (O.N.U.D.I.), Tecnologías no Contaminantes para la Regeneración de Aceites Lubricantes Usados, Acta Final del Seminario Regional. Project N. US/INT/90/007 US/INT/88/227 (Quito, Ecuador: O.N.U.D.I., 1992).

54

order to encourage the re-collection and re-refining of used lubricating oil, have

information campaigns to teach people about the impacts the mismanagement of used

oil causes, and incinerate used oil containing more than 25 ppm of PCBs.

Colombia57 is currently generating 1.2 million barrels of used oil per year (163,320

TM/year), and only 420,000 barrels (58,212 TM) can be recovered. Approximately 540

barrels/day are incorporated into the fuel market for furnaces and boilers of medium

and small industries such as smelting workshops, metal-mechanic workshops, textile

industries, etc, and for the service sector such as for laundries.

Therefore, an analysis of the feasibility of utilizing used oil as fuel was made in 2001.

What is new about this study is that the PCB content is not noticed in used oil from

crankcase engines in Colombia and therefore, by using sedimentation and centrifuge

processes, the Cl ionic contained in used oil is reduced practically to zero, according to

the tests they have made. According to Dr. Nelson Andrade (June 2002), it is possible

to do this, but it is not possible to eliminate organic chlorine (Cl combined with

hydrocarbon compounds as in PCBs). This eliminates the problems of halogens and

heavy metals, although this study does not refer to the polycycle aromatic hydrocarbons

used oil contains. This study also presents the best options for eliminating the sludge

produced by the centrifuge and sedimentation process, which are incineration,

incorporation into the clinker, vitrification and filling for roads when laying asphalt.

Used oil can then be used as safe fuel in different types of furnaces (boilers, cement

kilns, etc.) and it avoids the social problem of selling used oil without centrifugation as

fuel for inadequate purposes. Tests performed on different types of mixtures of used oil

and known fuels are shown in the next Table. The economic advantage some industries

would have is shown according to the percentage of the mix. For example, Fuel Oil No.

2 is one of the fuels normally utilized in a number of thermoelectric plants that could

reduce their fuel consumption by 52% with used oil. Finally, this study recommends

changing the definition of waste (the term normally used for used oil) to used oil fuel

57 Unidad de Planeación Minero-Energética del Ministerio de Minas y Energía de Colombia, Transformación de los Aceites Usados para su Utilización como Energéticos en Procesos de Combustión, Resumen Ejecutivo (Bogotá, Colombia: República de Colombia Ministerio de Minas y Energía, 2001).

55

after it has been centrifuged under the Colombian regulations. The last results of this

investigation were not available at the time this study was made.

TABLE 2.16 POSSIBLE OPTIONS FOR ENERGETIC MIXTURES

POSSIBLE MIXTURES PROPORTIONS (% VOLUME) RESULTING VISCOSITY

Used Oil ACPM Fuel Oil SSU at 38°C

SSF at 50°C

Fuel Oil No.2 31 69 32.6 Fuel Oil No. 2 52 48 37.9 Fuel Oil No. 4 69 31 45 Fuel Oil No. 4 88 12 125 Fuel Oil No. 5 Light 66 33 123 Fuel Oil No. 5 Heavy 37 63 40

Source: Unidad de Planeación Minero-Energética del Ministerio de Minas y Energía de Colombia. 2001. Transformación de los Aceites Usados para su Utilización como Energéticos en Procesos de Combustión. Resumen Ejecutivo. Bogotá, Colombia: República de Colombia Ministerio de Minas y Energía: 9.

In Ecuador several studies regarding used oil management have been made, but most of

them have focused on the re-refining process of used oil for obtaining base oil. Table

2.17 shows the projects that have been carried out in Ecuador in chronological form

according to all the information gathered for the preparation of this study. Some of

those projects have not been used as a primary reference since some of those

institutions do not exist at present as in the case of the National Institute of Energy

(INE) or are not working in Ecuador now as is the case of the United Nations Industrial

Development Organization (UNIDO).58 Due to the modernization of some institutions,

some files have been discarded, as is the case of the National Department of

Hydrocarbons.59 Generally speaking, some of the relevant information of each study is

mentioned in other studies carried out at a later date. Therefore, Table 2.17 presents a

brief description of the most relevant parts of each study.

58 Oleas, A., Head of Service and Virtual Development of the Documentation Center of the United Nation Organization in Ecuador, Personal communication, June 2002. 59 Gonález, M., Re-refining and Industrialization Coordinator of the Department of National Hydrocarbons (DNH), Personal communication, July 2002.

56

Table 2.17 NATIONAL PROJECTS USING LUBRICATING OIL FROM CRANKCASE ENGINES

Title Author Date Description

Sectorial Report and Study for Taking Advantage of Waste Lubricating Oil in Ecuador

UNIDO US/INT/90/007 Authors: J.A. Gómez Minaña and J.M. Feliz

Quito, September 1991

This project made a detailed analysis prior to the installation of a re-refining plant for used oil in Guayaquil. The most viable plant from the economic viewpoint was identified. A 10,000 TM/year plant using the acid/clay process was recommended.

Report of the Exploratory Mission for the Study of Recycling of Lubricating Oil.

National Institute of Energy (INE)

1992 Mentions the existence of favorable conditions for installing a plant to recycle used oil near the La Libertad refinery, not only because it would be the region of most consumption in the country, but also to take advantage of the auxiliary facilities of the refinery.

Current Situation in Ecuador Regarding Marketing and the Recycling of Used Lubricating Oil

The Ministry of Energy and Mines’ National Department of Hydrocarbons Authors: Antonio Capito C., Luis Castillo N.

Quito, February 1993

Proposes used oil re-collection in a recycling plant (does not indicate how). Recommends building two plants: in the province of Pichincha (10,215 TM/year) and in the province of Guayas (11,145 TM/year).

Report on Used Oil in Ecuador

The Ministry of Urban Housing and Development’s Undersecretary of Environmental Safety

Approximately 1993/1994

Summary of all studies made until that time.

Feasibility Study for the Re-collection and Recycling/Combustion of Used Oil from Crankcase Engines

Swisscontact, Fundación Natura and Ferysol. Author: Marco Cornejo U.

1996 The most important aspect of this project is that through surveys of mechanic shops in the most important cities such as Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca and Ambato, an evaluation of the management of used oil in Ecuador was made.

57

CONTINUATION OF TABLE 2.17

Management of Used Oil in Cuenca

ETAPA 1997 Tries to discover the main factors that affect the management of used oil in the city.

Feasibility Study for Re-refining Used Oil in Cuenca

ETAPA (Enterprise of Telecommunication, Drinkable Water and the Sewage System of Cuenca) Author: Oikos Corporation.

Cuenca, February 1998

They make a feasibility study for the installation of a re-refining plant in Cuenca. With the help of the Ministry of Environment, they also make surveys of people in general, mechanic shops and lubrication stations in order to analyze the re-collection of used oil in Cuenca.

Recycling of Lubricant Oils in Ecuador

OLADE/University of Calgary-Master Program, Individual Project of Renán Herrera Carrera

April 1999 Analysis of the possibilities and advantages of a recycling plant in Ecuador.

Adequate Elimination of Used Motor Oil Generated in Quito

Swisscontact August 2000 This project is a feasibility study for an enterprise that could re-collect and clean used oil using a sedimentation process and could also store used oil in Quito.

Source: Fundación Suiza de Cooperación para el Desarrollo Técnico (Swisscontact). 1996. Estudio de Factibilidad para la Recolección, y el Reciclaje/Combustión del Aceite Automotriz Usado. Estudio Base Segundo Informe. Quito, Ecuador.; Empresa de Teléfoos Agua Potable y Alcantarillado (ETAPA). 1997. Manejo de Aceites usados en la ciudad de Cuenca. Cuenca, Ecuador ; Herrera, R.M. 1999. Recycling of Lubricant Oils in Ecuador. Individual Project of the University of Calgary/OLADE Master’s Degree Program in Energy and the Environment. Quito, Ecuador. Hugo Cobol Luzuriaga and Klaus Rudolf Bauer also prepared a manual for ETAPA for

the management of used oil in March 1996. Of all the studies shown, only two are being

carried out at the national level. One is a project for re-refining used oil in Cuenca and

the other is for the re-collection and burning of used oil at Cemento Selva Alegre in

Quito. These two studies have been going on almost simultaneously, although

independently and with different participants. The next Section will analyze each case,

showing both the successes and the failures of each project in order to discover the

lessons learned that are relevant to the current circumstances of Guayaquil.

58

2.2.1. CRITICAL FACTORS IN THE SUCCESS OR FAILURE OF THE EXAMPLES

THE ETAPA CASE ETAPA, the enterprise in charge of telephones, potable water and sewage in Cuenca,

belongs to the Municipality of Cuenca in the province of Azuay in the southern part of

Ecuador. At the end of 1997 and the beginning of 1998, the Municipality of Cuenca

(through ETAPA) finalized the construction of a treatment plant for sewage at an

estimated cost of US$ 35,000,000.60 ETAPA knew beforehand that this project would

encounter difficulties if the sewage were contaminated with lubricating oils because

used oil would cover the oxidation pool’s surface at the plant, preventing oxidization

and eventually causing fires. Because of this, a study was made in 1997 regarding the

management of used oil in Cuenca, and ETAPA built a storage tank and a

sedimentation plant for used oil that had a capacity of 1,000 m3 (264,172 gal), and a

program for the control of contamination produced by used oil was also carried out. In

February 1998, Corporation Oikos, having been hired by ETAPA, finalized their

feasibility study for re-refining used oil in Cuenca. During this study, ETAPA hired

Petroindustrial to make the physical/chemical tests of the used oil. An analysis of the

re-recollection of used oil in Cuenca was also made with the Ministry of Environment

thorough the PATRA project. This project functioned between 1996 and 2001,

providing environmental management assistance.

The objective was to install a re-refining plant for used oil, taking into consideration

environmental variables in Cuenca in order to obtain base oil to use in the manufacture

of lubricating oil and sell it on the Ecuadorian market. ETAPA received three offers to

install a re-refining plant in Cuenca with a capacity of 1,000,000 gallons using different

types of technologies. The companies that responded were: Media & Process

Technology (Pittsburgh, United States of America), offering a membrane process

(ceramic filters); Petroil of Brazil, offering an acid/clay process with modifications in

60 Coorporación Oikos, Estudio de Factibilidad para el Re-refinamiento de Aceites Usados en Cuenca, Informe Final (Cuenca, Ecuador: 1998), 174.

59

the process to avoid the formation of acid sludge; S.A. Resource Management Ltda.

(Edmonton, Alberta, Canada), with their Ecotech re-refining process.61

ETAPA chose the environmentally safe and optimum modified acid/clay process which

additionally offered Diesel No. 2 as a product of the process, since it is used as fuel in

some electric generation plants. ETAPA designed the re-refining used oil plants with

the process that had been selected. Finally, Petroil (Brazil) tested the used oil from

Cuenca at different stages during the re-refining process. However, in practice, the high

cost of implementing the plant produced problems in financing since the plant was

expected to process 1,000,000 gal/yr (3,300 TM/yr) of used oil, but the total cost of the

project including all the variables of management of used oil was between

US$5,000,000 and US$6,000,000.62 Even though ETAPA considered re-collection in

other cities such as Puerto Bolivar in order to obtain used oil from ships and fishing

boats, the project had one important unresolved factor that was the percentage of re-

collection. According to the UNIDO study for Ecuador, the percentage of re-collection

at the national level was between 15% and 25%, but this study had not been updated

(1991) and it is not clear as to what procedure to use to estimate this percentage.63

The producers of lubricating oil like Shell were not against the project as long as the

quality of base oil obtained form the process was within their requirements. However,

their experience in a re-refining plant in Canada had shown them that a re-refining plant

cannot be successful unless the interested enterprise signs an agreement with the

government since it is cheaper to obtain base oil from crude oil than from used oil. In

accord with what has been discussed in this Section, it is now known that the quality of

base oil obtained from the acid/clay process is poor.64

61 Coorporación Oikos. Estudio de Factibilidad para el Re-refinamiento de Aceites Usados en Cuenca. Informe Final. (Cuenca, Ecuador: Corporación Oikos, 1998), 75-81. 62 Sáenz, C., Coordinator of Urban Environmental Management of ETAPA, Personal communication, August 2002. 63 Coorporación Oikos. Estudio de Factibilidad para el Re-refinamiento de Aceites Usados en Cuenca. Informe Final. (Cuenca, Ecuador: Corporación Oikos, 1998), 44. 64 Tinoco, Technical Director of Shell Ecuador, Personal communication, August 2002.

60

Mainly because of a lack of financing, the project for re-refining used oil failed, but

ETAPA executed the re-recollection programs for used oil that were functioning by

helping with an awareness program. This program consisted in informing people about

environmental problems caused by the improper use of used oil. It used radio, flyers,

posters, adhesives, and talks with professional groups and with persons who work in

mechanic shops and lubrication stations. In the beginning, ETAPA had some problems

because of the black market for used oil that existed at that time and still exists because

of the demand. Used oil is utilized as fuel for brick kilns in Cuenca and in the entire

province. In the Amazon region it serves as a lubricant for chain saws used for cutting

trees, to dampen the dust on roads and to disinfect livestock as a way of controlling a

type of tick found in that region. At this time, there is greater awareness regarding the

management of used oil, and the black market has been reduced due to the prohibition

to cut trees now in effect in the Amazon region.39

In the re-collection process, ETAPA has had some problems, mostly because of the

inadequate storage of used oil in lubrication stations and mechanic shops. Tanks used to

store used oil are not located in good places, used oil is mixed with other oils and

substances in lubrication stations and mechanic shops, some sites do not have a system

for separating used oil from water before discarding it into the sewage system (grease

tramps), and another problem is the black market since ETAPA does not pay lubrication

stations or mechanic shops for used oil when it is re-collected and the lubrication

stations and mechanic shops sell their used oil before the re-collection car arrives.

ETAPA has registered 400 sites that include lubrication stations, mechanic shops and

car washes which they estimate will generate 640,000 gallons this year. At this time,

studies show that ETAPA re-collects approximately 16,000 gal/month at a cost of

US$0.18/gal which includes the cost of operation (driver, secretary, etc), and they

estimate that re-collection at present is approximately 24%.65

The method of financing the re-collection of used oil is carried out through the

enterprise’s annual budget, using a percentage of the tax charged for the service of

potable water. ETAPA feels it is difficult to charge a direct tax to the lubrication

61

stations and mechanic shops, because the point of view of these places is that they are

already losing the used oil that was once a source of income, and paying a tax on it also

would be more than unfair.39

On the other hand, the Holcim firm (before known as Holderbank), very well-known

internationally in the world of cement manufacture, began in the 1980s the idea of

serving the community by burning industrial waste such as rubber (used tires, technical

rubber, etc.), plastics (used oil containers, bottles, agrochemicals, etc.), oils (Shell,

Castrol, Texaco, Mobil, Repsol, etc) and solvents (paints, etc.) in all its branches. At the

end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, they began to introduce the same

approach in Latin America. Therefore, the firm in Brazil having the name of Holcim

created a foundation using the name “Resotec.” In Costa Rica the firm is known as

INCSA, which has created a foundation with the name of “Resiterm.” In Mexico one of

their branches is Apasco, which has created a foundation called “Ecotec.” In Argentina

the firm Minett has created a foundation called “Ecoblend.” All the countries in Latin

America where Holcim has investments have done something similar.66

In Ecuador at the beginning of the 1990s Cemento Nacional, a branch of Holcim,

enlarged the installations of one of its plants (Cerro Blanco). Cemento Nacional in

Guayaquil now has two cement plants. One is the San Eduardo Plant that has three

cement kilns used primarily to dry sand and lime, and sometimes one of the kilns is

used to make clinker. The other is the Cerro Blanco plant that has two cement kilns that

have a total production capacity of 5,000 TM/day. In July 2000, Cemento Nacional

created the Pro-Ambiente Foundation having the same approach, but with the advantage

of knowing the ssuccesses and failures the foundations of the firm’s branches had had

in Latin American countries. Pro-Ambiente’s base of operations for burning used oil is

the Cerro Blanco plant. The philosophy of Pro-Ambiente is that the industries pay them

for the service of burning industrial waste such as that of used oil.

65 Crespo, J., ETAPA staff, Personal communication, November 2001. 66 Sotomayor, B., Executive Director of Pro Ambiente, Personal communication, November 2001.

62

ETAPA contacted Cemento Guapán, a cement plant located near Cuenca, but

unfortunately no interest was shown in the project. Therefore, ETAPA contacted

Cemento Nacional to offer burning their used oil. ETAPA and Cemento Nacional

signed an agreement to burn used oil, with the main stipulation being that ETAPA pay

the transportation from Cuenca to Guayaquil and Cemento Nacional would not charge

for the service of burning the used oil. According to ETAPA, Cemento Nacional is

helping the community of Cuenca, and Cemento Nacional does not charge because

ETAPA does not pay the value of the used oil to the lubrication stations or mechanic

shops. Another thing to keep in mind is that ETAPA is a non-profit company

established to serve the community. The agreement was valid for 4 or 5 months until

April 2002, during which time Cemento Nacional burned approximately 170,000

gallons.29 In addition to the help given to the community of Cuenca, it seems that

Cemento Nacional values used oil as fuel because of the properties it has. At this time,

Cemento Nacional and ETAPA are negotiating another agreement. Finally, it is a

known fact that Pro Ambiente is in the process of obtaining a permit from the

Municipality of Guayaquil to burn used oil at the Cerro Blanco Plant, and the only

company authorized to burn used oil in Guayaquil at the time this study was made was

Alfadomus.67

Here then is a summary of the successes and failures of this case:

SUCCESSES:

Their own initiative to carry out the project.

Re-collection of used oil in the city of Cuenca reaches approximately the 24%,

which was their plan.

ETAPA made physical and chemical tests of used oil in their studies.

ETAPA used Petroil to test the used oil at several stages during the re-refining

process.

Awareness was created regarding the problems used oil can cause.

ETAPA looked for other options for the disposal of used oil.

67 Arriaga, L., Director of the Environmental Department of the Municipality of Guayaquil, Personal communication, July 2002.

63

ETAPA has an agreement with Cemento Nacional of Guayaquil for burning

used oil.

FAILURES:

Low percentage of re-collection of used oil at the national level.

Low amount of used oil generated in the Cuenca area.

High cost of the re-refining plant

ETAPA does not have a business vision and views itself only as a service to the

community.

ETAPA has not tested the PCB and PAH content at the present time.

At the time of making this study, Cemento Nacional had not received

authorization from the Municipality of Guayaquil to burn used oil.

There is a black market for used oil.

The long distance between Guayaquil and Cuenca.

No adequate financing, because ETAPA does not recover the investment.

Inadequate storage of used oil in lubrication stations and mechanic shops.

The 55-gallon tanks of used oil are not properly situated in the stations and

shops.

Some sites do not use separation systems for water and used oil before

discarding it in the sewage system (grease tramps).

ETAPA does not pay the value of the used oil generated in the lubrication

stations and mechanic shops when they recollect the used oil.

Different types of used oil are not classified at the lubrication stations or

mechanic shops.

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THE CASE OF THE MUNICIPALITY OF QUITO, SWISSCONTACT AND CEMENTO SELVA ALEGRE Cemento Selva Alegre is a cement plant located near the city of Otavalo in the province

of Imbabura north of Quito. At present, this plant produces 1,500 TM of clinker per

day. At first, the national government was the owner of this industry, but after a time it

passed to the private sector. Seven years ago, they began with the idea of burning used

oil and toxic wastes in the plant, and for this they hired F.L. Smith of Denmark, an

internationally well-known company in the realm of cement manufacture and Pillard of

France, another well-know international company for burners and combustion processes

at the industrial level.68 The objective F.L. Smith and Pillard had was to indicate to

Cemento Selva Alegre what changes should be made in the plant for burning industrial

wastes such as used oil. Cemento Selva Alegre followed the recommendation of these

companies, and F.L. Smith and Pillard worked together on the technical analysis they

made in the plant, such as temperature measurements of the kiln flame, the estimations

of gas temperatures, the residence time of solid particles in the complete process, the

residence time of gases in the entire process, as well as other measurements. The first

tests and measurements took between one and two years. Based on them, they carried

out continual monitoring of these parameters with a computer program. This computer

program was established with some of the required values of the tests and

measurements made. After this, Cemento Selva Alegre divided their project into two

phases. The first phase consists of guaranteeing the supply of 6% of their fuel

consumption and the second phase consists of guaranteeing the supply of 30% of their

fuel consumption with used oil, following the recommendations of F.L. Smith and

Pillard.

On the other hand, Swisscontact, a foundation of cooperation for development

established in 1959 by groups from the private sector and schools of higher education in

Switzerland, carried out a feasibility study at the national level in 1996 on the re-

collection and recycling and/or combustion of used automotive oil in Ecuador.

Swisscontact is a non-governmental organization that has been in the country for 15

years and has had 4 years of experience in environmental issues. Based on the results of

68 Granja, C., Technical Manager of Cemento Selva Alegre, Personal communication, July 2002.

65

its study, they contacted the Municipality of Quito in order to obtain support from the

government and other institutions. The Department of Environment of the Municipality

of Quito was created in 1994 with the objective of preventing and controlling

contamination in Quito. At that time, the Municipality of Quito did not give

Swisscontact all the support they had hoped to receive.69 Because of their mutual

interests, Swisscontact and Cemento Selva Alegre began to work together. Later,

Swisscontact strengthened its relationship with the Municipality of Quito and they

signed an agreement of mutual cooperation in 1999. Swisscontact carried out another

feasibility study on used oil focused only in the city of Quito in 2000. The Department

of Environment in Quito was restructured and its name was changed to the Department

of Environmental Management in 2000. At that time the Soil Resource Group was

created, and it now manages the used oil project in Quito.

The objective of Swisscontact was to create a company to re-collect used oil that could

be self-sufficient and guarantee a specific quantity of its supply of used oil to Cemento

Selva Alegre. Swisscontact was to terminate its relationship with this company after

two years of management. The reasons are not clear about why the relationship between

Cemento Selva Alegre and Swisscontact ended.70 The Municipality of Quito became

interested in the project later and looked for another option like burning used oil at

Adelca (a steel industry near Quito), but because of the poor quality of the used oil,

Adelca was not interested in the project unless the used oil were cleaned.71

At present, Cemento Selva Alegre is burning used oil in its plant. To guarantee the

supply of used oil, they have established agreements with service stations,

thermoelectric plants, Repsol, OCP and other institutions, enterprises and industries.

They are also working directly with the Municipality of Quito in the re-recollection of

used oil from lubrication stations and mechanic shops in 55-gallon tanks which they

exchange. In other words, the Municipality gives them the tanks provided by Cemento

Selva Alegre, and then the Municipality receives the tanks of used oil from the

69 Peñafiel, H., Coordinator of Ecology of Swisscontact, Personal communication, October 2001. 70 Peñafiel, H., Coordinator of Ecology of Swisscontact, and Granja, C., Technical Manager of Cemento Selva Alegre, Personal communication, July 2002. 71 Sánchez, T., Head of the Soil Resource Department of the Municipality of Quito, Personal communication, November 2001.

66

lubrication stations or mechanic shops. The cost of re-recollection is totally covered by

the Department of Environment of the Municipality of Quito.

Cemento Selva Alegre has tested the used oil and has classified it according to its origin

as good or bad quality. They normally know what percentage should be mixed in each

type of used oil to give an optimum quality for burning. For example, used oil from

Quito is of bad quality resulting from mixes of different substances that take place at

lubrication stations and mechanic shops. This does not happen with used oil from

Repsol that is classified as good quality. Cemento Selva Alegre has also been working

with local universities such as Central University for two or three years on the emission

measurements of combustion gases in the factory.

Finally, the Municipality of Otavalo is demanding that Cemento Selva Alegre avoid the

burning of used oil because of the toxic contaminants it contains and comply with the

process required to obtain authorization. At the time this study was made, the

Municipality of Otavalo was being supported in this demand by a NGO. This could

result in other implications, since the present Ministry of Environment is going to

introduce a regulation that will require enterprises to obtain their respective permit for

transportation across the borders between provinces when they move dangerous toxic

products, thereby applying the same principles as the Basel Agreement.72 This means

that in the near future Cemento Selva Alegre will have to request authorization to

transport used oil from Quito (in the province of Pichincha) to Otavalo (in the province

of Imbabura).

Following are the successes and failures of this case

SUCCESSES:

Cemento Selva Alegre has a protective vision of the environment, shown in all

its technical considerations and actions.

72 Barriga, A., Viceminister of Environmental Quality of the Ministry of Environment, Personal communication, July 2002.

67

Cemento Selva Alegre is a proactive company open to all types of discussion

(technical, economic, management, etc.) in order to find solutions.

Technically, Cemento Selva Alegre guarantees that the burning of used oil or

toxic wastes can be carried out in the plant.

The work carried out by the Municipality of Quito and Cemento Selva Alegre

for the re-collection of used oil in Quito is done jointly.

Support was sought by Cemento Selva Alegre from Central University for

measuring air emissions.

Cemento Selva Alegre classifies and tests used oil that originates in different

places.

FAILURES:

Lack of trust Cemento Selva Alegre has with the NGOs because of previous

negative experiences.

Possible problems because of the need to cross borders between provinces to

transport hazardous wastes because of the present refusal of the Municipality of

Otavalo regarding burning used oil.

There is no guarantee of the total supply of used oil required by Cemento Selva

Alegre to pass from the first phase to the second phase of their project.

Costs for adapting equipment.

The Municipality of Quito does not pay the value of used oil generated in

lubrication stations and mechanic shops when they re-collect used oil.

The cost of re-collection is totally covered by the Municipality of Quito. 2.2.2 LESSONS LEARNED AND THEIR RELEVANCE TO SPECIFIC

CIRCUMSTANCES IN GUAYAQUIL In contrast with Quito and Cuenca, Guayaquil is a city on the coast in the Guayas basin

having a tropical climate. It is common knowledge among Ecuadorians, especially

people from Guayaquil, that the Guayas River is the most abundant river in South

America and that it terminates in the Pacific Ocean. Another fact is that a great number

of ships that come to Ecuador normally pass through Guayaquil for commercial

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reasons. Therefore, the probability that the Guayas basin is contaminated by lubricating

oils when ships are repaired is very high. Guayaquil is the city in Ecuador having the

greatest number of industries, and it is also the city with the highest number of

inhabitants. Since Guayaquil is a commercial city and is considered the economic

capital of Ecuador, there are problems (air, water and soil contamination) due to the

mismanagement of used oil (by the black market) and the impacts that occur are surely

more severe than in the cities of Quito or Cuenca.

Cemento Nacional is located in Guayaquil. Its two plants have been mentioned

previously: Cerro Blanco and San Eduardo. These two plants cover approximately 60%

of the national demand for cement.73 It has also been mentioned previously that they are

very interested in providing the service of burning industrial waste such as used oil for

industries.

Table 2.18 MAXIMUM LIMIT OF CONTAMINANTS IN WASTES FOR

CEMENT PLANTS

Switzerland (ppm) Canada*(ppm) Australia*(ppm) C. Nacional (ppm) As 15 100 Sb 5 200 Ba 200 6000 Be 5 5 Pb 200 100-200 < 1600 4000 Cd 2 4-5 100 Cr 100 10 < 100 3000 Co 20 Cu 100 < 100 Ni 100 100 Hg 0.5 10 Se 5 100 Ag 5 100 Tl 3 100 V 100 1500 Zn 400 1500 Sn 10 S < 1.2 wt% < 1-2 wt% < 6 wt% 10000 ppm Cl < 0.5 wt% 1000-1500 < 55 0.5 % PCBs 10 (PCB y PCT) 5 < 1 10 ppm PAHs < 30 H2O < 5 wt%

* Limits for burning used oil in cement plants Source: Swiss Federal Office of Environment. 2000. Swiss Regulations for Incineration of Waste Fractions in Cement Kilns. p.V.123; Shell. 1993. Used Oil Management: The Cement Kiln Option. Briefing Paper G/L/93/D/0435. London: Supply and Marketing, Shell International Petroleum Company Limited, Shell Centre: 3; Sotomayor, B., Executive Director of Pro Ambiente, Personal communication, November 2001. 73 Sotomayor, B., Executive Director of Pro Ambiente, Personal communication, November 2001.

69

Table 2.18 shows the regulations that are applied in Switzerland regarding the

maximum content of contaminants that can be admitted in wastes to be burned in a

cement plant. The Table also shows Canadian and Australian regulations regarding the

maximum limits of contaminants in used oil to be burned in cement plants. Finally, the

Table shows the maximum contaminant contents in waste accepted by Cemento

Nacional for burning. It is clear that the maximum limits utilized by Cemento Nacional

are quite superior to the international norms.

Therefore, the three producer plants of lubricating oil in Ecuador are located in

Guayaquil and its outlying areas. They base their process on mixes of base oil with the

respective additives necessary for manufacturing lubricating oils. These production

plants are Lyteca, Celsa and Cangel. Most of their production originates from the

importation of base oil and additives, applying formulations that carry out the

specifications of Petroecuador. There is another remnant that is imported by several

commercial brands as the final product for consumers.

The Lyteca plant was founded in 1965 and belongs to Texaco. They had 33.85% of the

national production in 2001, and they also produce plastic and metal recipients.74 The

Celsa plant was founded in 1965 with external capital (Shell). During 2001, they

participated with 35.34% of the national production. The Cangel plant was founded in

1975 and belongs to an Ecuadorian group. They joined the national market in 1983,

having previously been making lubricating grease for the industrial sector. During

2001, they had 30.81% of the national production. Each plant manufactures lubricating

oil for different commercial brands: the Celsa Plant for Shell, Castrol, Veedol,

Lubrilaca and PDVSA; the Lyteca Plant for Texaco; the Cangel Plant for Valvoline,

Esso, Gulf, Golden Bear, Zuccoil, Mobil and Vanderbilt. More information related to

national production of lubricating oil is found in Appendix I.

Using a density of lubricating oil of 3.3 Kg/gal, it seems --based on the database used

by the producers (blenders) of lubricating oil-- that in the year 2000 they produced

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51,763.2 TM and during 2001 they produced 51,901.6 TM of lubricating oil for

Ecuador.

According to records of the Department of External Commerce of the Central Bank of

Ecuador, Ecuador imported 52,239 TM of base oil and 10,258 TM of lubricating oil

(other lubricating oil, spindle oil and white oil) in 2000, and in 2001 imported 47,230

TM of base oil and 10,229 TM of lubricating oil. Based on the production of the

national plants and the importation of lubricating oil, it can be estimated that the total

amount of lubricating oil in the national market was 62,367 TM in 2000 and 62,130 TM

in 2001.

According to the National Institute of Statistics and Census, 187,602 vehicles were

registered in the province of Guayas in 2000. And according to the Guayas Transit

Commission, 92.68% of the total number of vehicles in the province of Guayas was

from Guayaquil that same year. Based on the experience of an automobile technician

who has had 20 years of experience repairing vehicles and changing oil in Guayaquil,

the consumption of lubricating oil for each change of motor engine oil is shown in the

next Table, taking into account the type of engine most used for different types of

transportation and the distance traveled. Consequently, it can be estimated that for 2000

the consumption of vehicles in Guayaquil was approximately 8,814 TM.

74 Organización de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo Industrial (O.N.U.D.I.), Tecnologías no Contaminantes para la Regeneración de Aceites Lubricantes Usados, Acta Final del Seminario Regional. Project N. US/INT/90/007 US/INT/88/227 (Quito, Ecuador: O.N.U.D.I., 1992), 59.

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Table 2.19 RELEVANT INFORMATION REGARDING VEHICLE TRANS-PORTATION IN GUAYAQUIL

Type of Vehicle Quantity of

Vehicles Consumption of lubricating oil

Oil Change/year

Light Car

74,230

1 gal (After 1800 cm3, they

normally use 5lt)

8

Bus 4,361 4 gal 12 Middle Bus 1,094 4 gal 12

Jeep 20,918 4lt – 6 lt (1.6 gal) 8 Station 6,117 5 – 6 lt (1.6 gal) 8

Motorcycle 10,598 0.5 lt - 2 lt (0.5 gal) 8 Van 54,239 1 gal 8

Baggage Car 60 5 – 6 lt (1.6 gal) 8 Trucks 11,424 5 gal 15

Tank Car 902 5 gal 12 Tip Car 1,816 5 gal 12 Trailer 1,481 8 gal 15 Others 362 1 gal 8

Source: Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censo (INEC). 2000. Estadísticas de Transporte: Número de Vehículos Motorizados Matriculados por Clase, según Provincias. Quito, Ecuador; Jacinto Santa Cruz. 2002. Automobile technician. Personal communication.

According to the Technical Director of Shell Ecuador (July 2002), to calculate their

production, they estimate that the consumption of gallons per month in the vehicle

sector in Guayaquil fluctuates between 200,000 gal (660 TM) and 300,000 gal (990

TM). This study will use the estimated figure of 8,814 TM/year.

According to the Andean Project for Competition carried out by ESPOL-Harvard

University, “in Ecuador there is no experience in the application of environmental

regulations or of their execution and impacts on the production of industry since only

recently the national Municipalities have begun to assume responsibility for the

environment”.75 In the case of Guayaquil, this is because in the 1990s the Municipality

hired Espey Huston & Associates to make a study they entitled “Plan for the Prevention

and Control of Industrial and Other Types of Contamination in Guayaquil” with

financing from the Interamerican Development Bank between October 1996 and March

75 Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL) and Harvard University, Determinantes del Desempeño Ambiental del Sector Industrial Ecuatoriano, Proyecto Andino de Competitividad, Reporte Final (Guayaquil, Ecuador: ESPOL and Harvard University, 2001), 34.

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1998.76 The recommendations of this study were used to create the Department of

Environment of the Municipality of Guayaquil in January 1998.

No regulation was known at the time of making this study regarding used oil

management, norms and emission in incinerators at either the national or the

Municipality level in Guayaquil, Quito or Cuenca. However, at the beginning of 2001,

the Municipality of Guayaquil decreed an ordinance to regulate the transportation of

dangerous substances and products in Guayaquil that could be applicable for the re-

collection of used oil since it regulates the capacity of vehicles, the main avenues used

and the allowed times for circulation. Regulations regarding air emissions exist in

Ecuador, but the analysis of the combustion process shows that depending on the

contaminants in the wastes (for the present study this is used oil) that will burn at high

temperature, the existent regulations are not applicable. It is known that the Board of

the Municipality of Quito has approved a regulation for the management of used oil and

expects to make it public in the official register soon. It also defines as a dangerous

chemical product “any product that for its physical and chemical characteristics

presents or can present risk to health, the environment or destruction of goods,

compelling the control of its use and the limiting of its exposure.” Based on these

definitions, this regimen cannot be applied for used oil because it is a waste.77 However,

since the characteristics of used oil are similar to those of fuel, this regimen could be

applied to supply, transportation, storage, commercialization, use and final use.

Unfortunately, this regimen is only a basic legal framework, but there are Ecuadorian

norms such as INEN:2288 for labeling and packing dangerous products and the

INEN:2266 norm for storage and transportation of dangerous products that could be

applied to used oil. The Ministry of Environment is now working on regulations for

used oil and for the transportation of toxic and dangerous products between provinces

76 Espey, Huston & Assciates - COPADE, Plan de Prevención y Control de la Contaminación Industrial y Otras Fuentes en la Ciudad de Guayaquil, Resumen Ejecutivo (Guayaquil, Ecuador: Espey, Huston & Associates-COPADE, 1998), 1. 77 Orvea, M., Cooordinator of Dangerous Chemical Products of the Ministry of Environment, Personal communication, November 2001.

73

which it expects to publish at end of this year or the beginning of next year.78 However,

this may be difficult because there will be a change of government during that time.

Based on present circumstances in Guayaquil, the lessons learned from these cases are: THE ETAPA CASE

It is common knowledge that the financing of a project is related to its

profitability. Consequently, the re-refining project for used oil in Ecuador seems

not to be profitable.

The success of re-refining used oil in Ecuador is directly related to the

consumption of lubricating oil and the percentage of re-collection at the national

level.

Because of the demand of lubricating oil from crankcase engines in the

Ecuadorian market and the location of lubricating oil producers in Ecuador, a re-

refining plant should be located in Guayaquil.

A re-refining plant in Ecuador will not be successful unless it receives help from

the government or through external capital.

Awareness regarding the environmental impacts and effects on human health

that used oil may cause can be achieved through the mass media.

The re-collection process should be financed correctly to avoid economic losses.

A re-collection project for used oil should not be applied unless the method of

final disposal chosen is feasible technically, environmentally and economically.

However, the ETAPA case is justified by the cost of investment in the Residual

Water Treatment Plant.

Because of the black market for used oil, an economic compensation for the

value of used oil should exist in order to stop lubrication stations and mechanic

shops from evading taxes and not carrying out regulations and laws applied for

the management of used oil.

The main factors involved in the success or failure of the re-collection process

are the percentage of re-collection of used oil, the quality of used oil (if it is

78 Barriga, A., Viceminister of Environmental Quality of the Ministry of Environment, Personal communication, July 2002.

74

mixed or contaminated with other substances or elements), the value (price) of

used oil and the awareness of people.

The thermal elimination of used oil from crankcases continues to be the best

option for Ecuador.

THE CASE OF THE MUNICIPALITY OF QUITO, SWISSCONTACT AND CEMENTO SELVA ALEGRE

The cement plant should guarantee technically and clearly that the burning of

used oil or hazardous waste in the plant is feasible, offering proof through tests

and continuous measurement of the parameters (especially temperature for

residence time) made in the plant.

The quality of used oil is a main factor regarding the management of used oil.

Used oil should be classified according to its origin by using physical-chemical

testing. These tests should include the properties of used oil and the

contaminants.

The adaptation process of a cement plant to be able to burn hazardous waste

takes time because of the tests and measurements that must be made such as the

temperature distribution of the flame, the temperature distribution of the

combustion gases throughout the kiln, and other tests that depend on changes in

the process in the manufacture of cement in order to maintain a product of high

quality.

The presence of a neutral third actor such a university is favorable for used oil

management because a university and a cement plant have different objectives.

With this basis, the Municipality can check the technical parameters given by

the cement plant.

A relationship of mutual cooperation between the Municipality and the cement

plant should exist and should be good.

The process of re-collection of used oil should be financed correctly to avoid

economic losses.

Permission to transport dangerous toxic products between provinces should be

considered.

75

CHAPTER THREE

RESULTS OF THE WORK DONE, CONCLUSIONS AND ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

3.0 INTRODUCTION This Chapter shows the results of the fieldwork carried out by the Municipality of

Guayaquil and the author of this study in relation to both the technical aspect of the

furnaces at the selected plants as well as with the lubrication stations. At the end of the

Chapter, there is an analysis of all the work that has been done in regard to the

management of used oil in the city of Guayaquil and there are also conclusions that may

be considered for use in future studies.

3.1 THE RESULTS OF INCINERATION, LUBRICATION STATION

SURVEYS, THE RE-COLLECTION ROUTE AND INFORMATION GATHERING

3.1.1 PRINCIPAL COLLECTION ROUTES The computerized map of Guayaquil was used to locate the lubrication stations shown

on the lists the Municipality has of the census made by the Department of Usage of

Space and Public Roads. After finishing this task, the streets and avenues that had been

designated by the Department of Transportation of the Municipality in its regulation for

the Transportation of Dangerous Substances and Products in Guayaquil were identified

on the computerized map the Department maintains.

This made it possible to acquire both a physical and a global perception of the location

of the lubrication stations as well as the distance between them in order to see if some

of the lubrication stations are very close together or how much distance there is between

them. As the surveys were being made, information started accumulating regarding the

amount of used oil each station was generating. To get a preliminary idea of the

amount, the assumption was made that some lubrication stations generate the same

amount of used oil as others nearby that had not yet provided information. Then, the

76

layout of the avenues of the city was determined by using other computerized maps

available in order to obtain a better idea of the circulation of vehicles in the city.

With all this information, the city was divided into six sectors or zones, according to the

main avenues and streets that have the best circulation and easiest access as determined

by the regulation of transportation mentioned previously. The main routes for the re-

collection of used oil that would be utilized by lubrication stations only were

pinpointed.

Figure 3.0 ZONES OF GUAYAQUIL Finally, a tour through the route in the first zone was made by car to discover the main

factors that would affect the re-collection process. The following was clarified:

Distribution of the lubrication stations in each sector.

Avenues with light traffic and security for transportation.

Location of the collection center in the city.

Selection of the shortest routes in each sector to be used to re-collect the

used oil, lubrication station by lubrication station.

Capacity of the tanker.

Capacity of the collection center.

Frequency of re-collection.

Time needed for transportation.

Price of 55-gallon tank of used oil at each lubrication station.

Amount of used oil generated by each lubrication station.

77

3.1.2 LUBRICATION STATION SURVEYS The surveys of lubrication stations were carried out in order to gather relevant

information for the management of used oil in the city. Nevertheless, six lubrication

statons that gave information cannot be located on the city map because of problems

with their addresses. Due to the lack of previous studies of lubrication stations, it was

necessary to ask questions for the preparation of a database. Therefore, the survey had 8

open and 14 closed questions. For this study, overlapping questions were asked so as to

obtain the information desired regarding the amount of used oil generated by each

lubrication station, the amount charged for the 55-gallon tanks of used oil, the final

destination of the used oil, other wastes generated by the lubrication station, the number

of persons that work directly at the lubrication station and the perception the lubrication

station has of the size of its business. Since it was surmised that the lubrication stations

would tend not to tell the truth when answering the questions for fear of irregularities

the Municipality might discover --especially in regard to used oil on the existing black

market-- the survey was designed so the first questions would not be very relevant to

the objective of the information required for this study, but the questions that followed

gradually focused on the real objectives. For example, in the section referring to general

information, the questions are about the number of vehicles attended daily, monthly and

yearly. Question 10 asks about the amount of oil the lubrication station buys, and

Question 16 asks about the amount of used oil the lubrication station generates. As the

information was entered into the computer program, the coherency of the answers was

verified. The survey form for lubrication stations is shown in Appendix L and the list of

lubrication stations contacted is in Appendix M.

The multi-variable Tables here show what has been considered important for the

management of used oil in the city. The complete Tables are found in Appendix N.

78

Table 3.0 VEHICLES/MONTH – FINAL DESTINATION OF USED OIL – AMOUNT OF USED OIL GENERATED – SECTOR ONE

Final disposal of used oil

Vehicles/month Control Dust on Roads

Fuel Fungicide Lubricant To mark soil

To water-proof wood

(blank) Grand Total

8 25 25 16 25 25 24 40 40 28 6 6 40 220 220 48 110 110 60 55 110 220 385 80 165 110 135 410 84 110 110 100 204 204 120 127 55 95 277 140 160 83 55 137.5180 0 0 200 140 140 280 165 55 220 N.A. 0 0 Total 55 790 369 110 986 2309.5

In the first column, Table 3.0 shows the number of vehicles attended by lubrication

stations during the month. The following columns show the amount of used oil

generated according to the lubrication stations that have indicated a specific final

disposal of used oil considering the number of vehicles attended during the month in

Sector One. Table N-2 in Appendix N refers to the number of lubrication stations that

responded regarding the final disposal of used oil according to the number of vehicles

attended per month. Observations:

The main use of used oil is for fuel in all the Sectors of the city.

The amount of used oil generated for fuel is 7,157.5 gal/month, for fungicide

is 1,466.5 gal/month and for lubricant for chainsaws used to cut trees,

especially in the province of Esmeraldas, is 1,591.5 gal/month.

79

In Sector One and in Sector Two a large amount of used oil is sold or given

away for fungicide.

Sectors Two and Four generate the greatest amount of used oil in the city.

Of the 157 lubrication stations, only one recycles used oil for reuse, and it is

in Sector Five. However, this lubrication station did not specify the number

of gallons of used oil they recycle.

It was observed that all the lubrication stations in the city generate the

amount of 16,907 gallons per month (55.79 TM/year), meaning that for the

year the amount is 202,884 gallons (669.52 TM/year).

63 lubrication stations did not know or were not interested in the final

disposal of used oil, meaning that the final disposal of 6,113.5 gal/month of

used oil is not known.

The lubrications stations that attend 100 vehicles or more per month are the

lubrication stations that generate most of the used oil. They comprise 55% of

the lubrication stations in the city.

Representatively, the following was found:

- 51 lubrication stations out of 157 sell or give away used oil for fuel.

- 18 lubrication stations out of 157 sell or give away used oil for

fungicide.

- 10 lubrication stations out of 157 sell or give away used oil for

lubricant to cut trees in Esmeraldas.

- 63 lubrication stations out of 157 do not know what the final disposal

is.

- The other lubrication stations sell or give away used oil to control

dust on roads, for insecticide, for septic tanks, to mark the soil and to

waterproof wood.

80

Table 3.1 OTHER WASTES – FINAL DISPOSAL OF OTHER WASTES – VEHICLES/MONTH – SECTOR ONE

Final Disposal of Other Wastes

Other wastes Anybody Landfill N.A. Recycling (blank) Grand Total

Cardboard Boxes 100 120 160 380 Cardboard Boxes and Filters 84 84 Cardboard Boxes and Plastic Containers

180 180

Filters 744 744 Filters and Plastic Containers 48 48 Filters and Spark plugs 120 120 Fuel 24 24 Trash 60 60 Grease 200 200 N.A. 168 168 Nothing 624 624 Sludge 160 160 (blank) 140 140 Total 124 1336 1172 160 140 2932

The first column of Table 3.1 shows the different wastes that are generated in

lubrication stations other than used oil. The following columns show the number of

vehicles attended by the lubrication stations per month in relation to the final disposal

of the wastes indicated in Sector One. Appendix N shows the other Sectors. Table N-4

in Appendix N refers to the number of lubrication stations that responded regarding the

final disposal of different wastes generated in the lubrication stations in relation to the

number of vehicles per month.

Observations:

64 lubrication stations did not anything about the final disposal of different

wastes other than the used oil they generate.

Filters are always disposed of in a landfill.

Most wastes generated in the lubrication stations are from servicing 6,288

vehicles/month and they go to a landfill.

The sectors that generate most waste other than used oils are Sectors Three

and Six.

Sector One generates most of the spark plugs.

81

Only 8 lubrication stations out of 157 recycle, and that is mainly cardboard

boxes and plastic containers.

15,100 vehicles are attended monthly in all the lubrication stations.

TABLE 3.2 FREQUENCY OF PURCHASE OF NEW LUBRICATING OIL –

QUANTITY OF USED OIL GENERATED - SECTOR ONE

Sector Every 2 weeks Once a Month Other (months) Total

1 No No 1.5 3 25 6 110 (blank) 135 No Total 270 Yes (blank) 1281 Yes Total 1281 No Total 1551 Yes No (blank) 758.5 No Total 758.5 Yes Total 758.5

Total 2309.5 Table 3.2 shows the frequency of purchase of new lubricating oil at the lubrication

stations and the amount of used oil generated by Sector One. Table N-5 in Appendix N

shows the frequency of purchase of new lubricating oil and the number of lubrication

stations that indicated the frequency of purchase.

Observations:

Most of the lubrication stations buy lubricating oil (new oil) for the business

once a month and they generate 8,978.5 gallons (29.63 TM/month) of used

oil.

The lubrication stations that buy lubricating oil (new oil) for the business

every two weeks generate 4,259.5 gallons (140.56 TM/month).

The Sectors that buy new lubricating oil every two weeks and generate most

used oil are Sector Six (910 gal/month) and Sector Four (1095 gal/month).

The Sector that buys new lubricating oil once a month and generates most

used oil is Sector Two (2,943 gal/month).

82

The Sectors that buy new lubricating oil at different intervals and generate

most used oil are Sector Two (934 gal/month), Sector Three (959 gal/month)

and Sector Four (907.5 gal/month).

Table 3.3 FREQUENCY OF PURCHASE OF NEW LUBRICATING OIL –

VEHICLES ATTENDED PER MONTH – ALL SECTORS

Frequency Sector Every two weeks

Once a Month

Other (months)

1 2 3 4 5 6 Not Contacted

(blank) Grand Total

No 60 (blank) 16 16 60 Total 16 16 No 0.25 320 80 40 440 0.67 52 52 1.5 140 280 120 60 600 2 288 0 244 120 80 20 752 2.5 12 12 24 3 8 80 32 8 16 144 6 200 48 248 12 28 28 21 260 260 (blank) 360 40 40 120 560 No Total 708 420 932 504 220 264 60 3108 Yes 1.5 148 148 2 120 120 No 12 240 252 (blank) 1220 1784 1912 444 572 1792 72 7796 Yes Total 1220 1904 1912 604 572 2032 72 8316

No Total 1928 2324 2844 1108 808 2296 132 11440 The first column of Table 3.3 shows the frequency of purchase of new lubricating oil,

and the others show the number of vehicles attended in each Sector.

Observations:

The lubrication stations that buy new lubricating oil once a month and attend

the largest number of vehicles are in Sector Two (1,904 vehicles), Sector

Three (1,912 vehicles) and Sector Six (2,032 vehicles).

The lubrication stations that buy new lubricating oil every two weeks and

attend the largest number of vehicles are in Sector One (1,004 vehicles).

The lubrication stations that buy the greatest amount of lubricating oil at

different intervals and attend the largest number of vehicles are located in

Sector Three (932 vehicles).

83

The number of vehicles attended per month is 2,932 in Sector One, 3,356 in

Sector Two, 1,536 in Sector Four, 1,060 in Sector Five, 3,236 in Sector Six

and 332 in the lubrication stations that were not contacted.

Table 3.4 AMOUNT OF USED OIL GENERATED – AVERAGE PRICE OF 55-

GALLON TANKS OF USED OIL – SIZE OF LUBRICATION STATIONS – SECTOR ONE

Size of Business

Waste Big Middle Small 5 6

12 14 15 18 19 20 10.00 25 5.50

27.5 28 30 35 37 48 50 55 10.33 15.00 72 8.00 80

82.5 10.00 83 95 2.00 96 100 2.00 104 8.00 110 12.00 10.00 130 140 165 6.00 220 5.00 8.00 250

84

CONTINUATION Table 3.4

Size of Business Waste Big Middle Small

250 275 440 550 825 880 N.A.

Grand Total 2.00 8.81 9.00 The first column of Table 3.4 shows the amount of used oil generated. The following

columns indicate the average selling price of 55-gallon tanks of used oil in each Sector

at lubrication stations classified as big, middle and small according to the definition

each one makes of the activities it carries out.

Observations:

The small lubrication stations in Sectors Two, Six and those not contacted

tend to sell 55-gallon tanks of used oil at lower prices.

Sectors Three and Six sell the 55-gallon tanks of used oil at the highest

prices.

Sectors Five, One and those not contacted sell at the lowest prices.

There is no coherent relationship between the amount of used oil generated

and the average price for which used oil is sold in relation to the size of the

lubrication stations, but there is a small tendency to reduce the price when

the generated amount of used oil is greater in lubrication stations that

generate between 82.5 and 104 gal/month.

The average price for all the lubrication stations is $8.77 per 55-gallon tank

of used oil, according to those who answered the surveys.

The price of a 55-gallon tank of used oil varied between 2 and 20 USA

dollars in different places of the city.

85

Table 3.5 VEHICLES/MONTH – AMOUNT OF USED OIL GENERATED AT

LUBRICATION STATIONS – SIZE OF THE BUSINESS – NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES WHO WORK AT LUBRICATION STATIONS – SECTOR ONE

Business Workers Big Big Total

Months 2 3 4 5 6 8

16 24 28 40 48 60 80 84 100 120 95 95 140 160 180 200 140 140 280 N.A. Total 140 95 235

The first column of Table 3.5 shows the number of vehicles attended per month in the

lubrication stations. The second column shows the amount of used oil generated by the

lubrication stations according to their size and the number of workers.

Observations:

In all Sectors, middle-sized lubrication stations range between 12 and 360

vehicles per month and hire between two and three workers, except for

Sectors Six and Five.

The big lubrication stations attend 100 to 600 vehicles per month.

The small lubrication stations attend 8 to 160 vehicles per month, except for

Sector Six.

86

The classification made by the lubrication stations as to big, middle and

small is related to the number of vehicles per month and the number of

workers.

There is more used oil generated in Sector Two by big lubrication stations

(2,533 gal/month of used oil).

Except for Sectors Two and Four, middle-sized lubrication stations generate

most of the used oil.

The small lubrication stations in Sector Four generate most of the used oil.

The lubrication stations that attend 200 vehicles per month and those not

contacted generate the most used oil in Sector Four.

The lubrication stations that attend 80 vehicles per month generate the most

used oil in Sectors One and Six.

The lubrication stations that attend 120 vehicles per month in Sector Two

generate the most used oil.

The lubrication stations that attend 240 vehicles per month in Sector Three

generate the most used oil.

Small lubrication stations have between one and two workers.

Big lubrication stations have between 2 and 8 workers.

The middle-sized lubrication stations generate the most used oil in the city

(8,792 gal/month).

The lubrication stations that have two workers are those that generate most

used oil --6,272.5 gal/month--, and those that have three workers generate

3,153 gal/month of used oil.

87

Table 3.6 AVERAGE AMOUNT OF USED OIL BY BRAND - SECTORS

Sector Data 1 2 3 4 5 6 Not

Con-tacted

Grand Total

Average of Exxon 32.50 2.67 27.50 18.33 10.00 100.00 22.36 Average of Shell 23.40 22.75 28.00 29.88 31.50 53.50 8.40 28.45

Average of Golden Bear 15.09 16.00 24.11 17.00 42.60 57.50 7.00 23.13 Average of Valvoline 31.85 20.00 32.63 17.77 29.67 48.75 20.00 27.63

Average of Quaker State 11.18 12.89 5.43 6.50 11.80 29.90 8.00 14.43 Average of YPF 11.10 7.40 15.40 16.75 14.40 26.88 27.33 16.53

Average of Havoline (Texaco) 48.70 51.30 56.04 43.90 47.07 64.38 45.83 51.17 Average of Castrol 31.00 17.08 33.56 30.00 23.13 46.43 15.60 28.72 Average of Mobil 20.00 22.14 10.50 4.00 15.00 24.00 13.50 17.70 Average of Veedol Average of Penzoil 15.89 10.25 19.00 12.50 5.00 17.14 5.00 14.63

Average of Maraven 7.50 6.67 28.60 10.00 5.00 25.00 50.00 16.65 Average of SPI 8.00 10.00 9.00

Average of Caterpillar Average of Torco 1.00 5.00 3.00

Average of Chevron 10.00 3.75 31.00 10.50 15.00 4.00 12.44

The first column of Table 3.6 shows the brand of lubricating oil used in the city. The

following columns show the percentage of use according to lubrication stations by

sectors.

Observations:

The brand most used in all the Sectors except in Sector 6 is Texaco

(51.15%), followed by Castrol (28.72 %) and Shell (28.45 %).

The brands less used are Caterpillar and Torco.

88

Table 3.7 WHAT IS DONE WITH USED OIL AT LUBRICATION STATIONS –

AMOUNT OF USED OIL GENERATED – SECTORS Summary of Waste Sectors What do you do with it? 1 2 3 4 5 6 Not

Contacted Grand Total

N.A. 55 138 0 0 165 358Given away 226 295 445 235 87 96 20 1404Sold 2028.5 3912.5 2100.5 2862 1633.5 1673 935 15145Sewage system 0 0 0(blank) Grand Total 2309.5 4345.5 2545.5 3097 1720.5 1934 955 16907

Table 3.8 WHAT IS DONE WITH USED OIL AT LUBRICATION STATIONS –NUMBER OF LUBRICATION STATIONS – SECTORS

Sectors What do you do with it? 1 2 3 4 5 6 Not

Contacted Grand Total

N.A. 1 2 1 1 2 7 Given away 4 4 6 5 4 2 1 26 Sold 23 23 22 19 12 15 5 119 Sewage system 1 1 2 (blank) Grand Total 29 29 29 24 18 19 6 154

The first column of Table 3.7 shows what lubrication stations do with used oil in the

city, and the other columns indicate the amount of used oil generated by Sector,

according to the activities of the lubrication stations. The first column of Table 3.8

shows what lubrication stations do with used oil in the city, and the other columns

indicate the number of lubrication stations in each Sector that answered this question in

the surveys.

Observations:

The major activity in all Sectors is selling used oil.

During the month, 119 lubrication stations sell 15,145 gal and 26 lubrication

stations give away 1,404 gal of the 16,907 that is generated.

There are two lubrication stations that dump used oil in the sewage systems,

but they did not mention the quantity.

89

What seven lubrication stations do with 358 gallons a month is not known.

Table 3.9 DIFFERENT WAYS OF MARKETING NEW LUBRICATION OIL

– AMOUNT OF USED OIL GENERATED – SECTORS

Different Ways of Marketing Sector Bulk 1-liter

containers 1-gallon

containers Others

1 2 3 4 5 6 Not

con-tacted

Grand Total

No No No Yes 950 950 No Total 950 950 Yes No 529.5 2625.5 926.5 385 805.5 690 5962 Yes 275 380 655 Yes Total 529.5 2900.5 926.5 765 805.5 690 6617 No Total 529.5 2900.5 926.5 1715 805.5 690 7567 Yes No No 50 220 82.5 55 110 20 537.5 Yes 220 220 No Total 50 440 82.5 55 110 20 757.5 Yes No 256 658 32.5 339.5 585 124 1995 Yes 110 570 680 Yes Total 366 658 32.5 339.5 585 694 2675 Yes Total 416 1098 115 394.5 585 804 20 3432.5

No Total

945.5 3998.5 1041.5 2109.5 1390.5 1494 20 10999.5

Yes No No No 639 83 459 247.5 302.5 165 385 2281 No Total 639 83 459 247.5 302.5 165 385 2281 Yes No 80 55 135 Yes Total 80 55 135 No Total 719 83 514 247.5 302.5 165 385 2416 Yes No No 80 0 80 No Total 80 0 80 Yes No 645 264 990 660 27.5 275 550 3411.5 Yes Total 645 264 990 660 27.5 275 550 3411.5 Yes Total 645 264 990 740 27.5 275 550 3491.5

Yes Total

1364 347 1504 987.5 330 440 935 5907.5

(blank) (blank) (blank) (blank) (blank) Total (blank) Total Grand Total 2310 4345.5 2545.5 3097 1720.5 1934 955 16907

The first column of Table 3.9 shows the way lubrication stations market lubricating oil

and the others indicate the quantity of used oil generated by each Sector in relation to

their way of marketing.

90

Observations: The lubrication stations that buy new lubricating oil in bulk generate 5,907.5

gal/months of used oil. Sector Three (1,504 gal/month) and Sector Two

(1,364 gal/month) generate the most.

The lubrication stations that buy more new lubricating oil in 1-liter

containers generate 3,432.5 gal/month of used oil. Sector Two (1,098 gal/

month) generates the most.

The lubrication stations that buy used oil in one-gallon containers generate

6,617 gal/month of used oil. Sector Three (926 gal/month) and Sector Two

(2,900.5 gal/month) generate the most.

There are lubrication stations that generate 950 gal/month and buy used oil

in different manners than those previously mentioned.

Additionally, 12 lubrication stations were visited in order to learn more in detail about

their present management of used oil. In general, it was found that:

1) The customer asks for an oil change.

2) The employee at the lubrication station puts a container under the car and

drains the used oil from the engine.

3) The employee changes the filter and puts the old filter in the container of

used oil.

4) Then the employee puts the used oil in 55-gallon tanks and puts the filter in

boxes or in similar tanks.

5) The employees clean the engine with lubricating oil sold in bulk (poor

quality) or with diesel, which they put in the same tank where the used oil is

stored.

6) Sometimes, the new lubricating oil is mixed with additives that are good for

maintaining the viscosity of oil.

7) They usually cover the storage tanks with a board, or in some places the

tanks are left uncovered in small enclosed spaces.

8) No classification of different types of collected oil is made at the lubrication

stations. For example, transmission oil from vehicles is mixed with

lubricating oil from engines.

91

9) The people who re-collect used oil transport it in tankers varying in capacity

between 2,000 and 4,000 gallons or in pick-up trucks that haul smaller tanks.

3.1.3 INCINERATION SURVEYS As mentioned previously, nine industries were chosen in agreement with the criteria

stated in Section 1.3.1. These industries were Cemento Nacional, Anibal Santos

Thermoelectric Plant, Gonzalo Zevallos Thermoelectric Plant, Trinitaria Thermoelectric

Plant, Calquero Huayco, Andec, Alfadomus, Poliquim and Cridesa and they are listed

in Table 1.1 of that Section. The purpose of this survey was to obtain enough technical

information to be able to calculate residence time in the furnaces of each industry and

know what type of devices they use to avoid air pollution.

Each survey was designed according to whether or not the industry had a boiler, an

incinerator, a kiln or an industrial furnace. The survey form is described in Appendix J

and the technical information regarding each industry is found in Appendix K. The

following paragraphs describe each type of industry listed above using the information

gathered from the survey:

a) Raúl Lascano, Manager of the Aníbal Santos Plant, answered the survey

questions. He has worked at this plant for 26 years. The plant has 54 workers

and a generation capacity of 33 MW. They have one aqua-tubular type boiler

(Babcock & Wilcox), and they have a SMA 90 Bailey Smart gas analyzer to

control the percentage of O2 and the ppm of CO. They use combustion

efficiency, %CO and %O2 as parameters. They do not have experience in

burning used lubricating oil, but they think they can burn large quantities

without contamination by mixing it with Bunker C.

b) Reynaldo Loor, Head of Operations of the Gonzalo Zevallos Plant answered the

survey questions. He has worked at the plant for 20 years. This plant has 90

workers and a generation capacity of 146 MW. They have two aqua-tubular type

boilers but they do not have equipment for controlling air pollution. They use

combustion efficiency, % CO and % O2 as parameters. They do not use

alternative fuel.

92

c) Mario Villalba, Head of Chemistry Control at the Trinitaria plant, answered the

survey questions. He has worked at the plant for 5 years. This plant has 90

workers and a generation capacity of 133 MW. They have a mill-hopper to

collect ash. They use % O2 as a parameter. They do not use alternative fuel and

they collect the ashes in large inverted pyramid-shaped containers.

d) Dr. Luis Felipe Borja Barrezueta, President of Alfadomus (ceramic industry),

answered the survey questions. He has worked there for 30 years. The plant has

50 workers and one Migeon-type industrial furnace. They do not have

equipment for controlling air pollution, but they do hire external service for this.

They use combustion efficiency as a parameter and they do not have problems

in using alternative oil. They have 20 injectors with 10 injector transporters. At

this time, they are burning used lubricating oil, and they pay $0,24/gal without

transportation and $0,29/gal including transportation from the lubrication station

to the industry. They usually mix bunker with 30-40% used oil, and they decant

the used oil before using it.

e) Dr. Juan Suescum, Production Manager of Poliquim (chemical industry),

answered the survey questions. He has worked at the plant for 26 years. The

plant has one incinerator with two combustion chambers and 18 workers. They

use a scrubber system with an alkaline solution. They use combustion

efficiency, destruction removal efficiency, destruction efficiency, % CO, % O2

and SOx as parameters.

f) The National Cement Corporation belonging to the Holdercim group was known

as Holderbank before 1995. As indicated before, they have two cement plants.

One is Cerro Blanco which has two clinker furnaces. The other is San Eduardo

which has three furnaces for dry sand, lime and clinker. Luis Main Gon, the

Production Assistant, answered the survey questions. He has worked at the plant

for 15 years. The Cerro Blanco Plant employs 200 to 250 persons and has rotary

type industrial furnaces. They use PM45 filters before the gases exit, they have a

gas analyzer for O2, CO and NO, and they have an electrostatic precipitator. At

present, they burn used oil with a 10% bunker substitution. They mix the used

oil with their 1000 TM bunker in the storage tanks. The injection system of the

kiln is the same as that of the pre-calcinators that reach a maximum temperature

93

of 1000°C. One kiln at the Cerro Blanco Plant is a 1977 Polysius (D) and the

other is a 1981 FLS (DK). The cost of bunker in the plant is $120/TM.79 Since

they have now enlarged their capacity from 2,000 TM/day to 3,000 TM/day,

they have considered only the analysis of the kiln that has the greatest capacity

(3,000 TM/day).

g) Wilson Pita, Head of the Energy and Environment Department of ANDEC-

FUNASA, answered the survey questions. He has worked at the plant for 5

years. This plant has one short-bar furnace and 450 workers. The furnace is not

equipped for controlling emissions because the gas analyzer has demonstrated

this furnace meets the municipality regulations. They use combustion efficiency,

%CO, %O2, CO2, NOx and SO as parameters. They have not tested the new

bunker burners acquired in 1998 with other fuels. This furnace functions year

round.

h) Huayco is an industry belonging to the Holdercim firm. According to Benigno

Sotomayor, this furnace is not adequate for burning different types of waste as it

functions poorly with them. They had tested the furnace previously; therefore,

the corporation is not interested in burning used oil in this furnace.

The calculation of residence time is based on the type of fuel used in each plant. The

composition of the fuels was obtained through information Petroindustrial gave to

OLADE (See Appendix H). Technical Data on Fuel (1962), The Chemical Engineers’

Handbook (1966), The Petroleum Products Handbook (1960), The Mechanical

Engineers’ Handbook (1995) and The Handbook of Hazardous Waste Incineration

(1989) were consulted for technical information regarding the properties and correlation

of the combustion theory. The results of these calculations are shown in the next Table.

79 COSUDE, Swisscontact and CNPML, Incineración de Residuos Peligrosos, Informe del Viaje de Max Harzenmoser del 27 de Enero hasta el 5 de Febrero (Quito, Ecuador: EMPA, 2002).

94

Table 3.10 RESIDENCE TIME OF EACH SELECTED INDUSTRY

Name of the Industry Residence Time over

1000°C @ 2% O2(seconds)

Residence Time over 1200°C

@ 3% O2(seconds)

Capacity to Burn Used Oil

(TM/d)

Type of Fuel

National Cement (3000 TM Cli/day)

2.93 2.34 27 Fuel Oil No.6

Selva Alegre (1500 TM Cli/day)

4.78 2.94 7.13 Fuel Oil No.6

Andec – Funasa 3.64 0.64 5.45 Fuel Oil No.6

Poliquim 3.87 2.01 0.09 Diesel No. 2

Gonzalo Zevallos 0.64 0 133.74 Fuel Oil No.6

Aníbal Santos 0.71 0.23 68.1 Fuel Oil No.6

Trinitaria 0.43 0 217.56 Fuel Oil Light No.4

Cridesa N/A N/A N/A N/A

Huayco N/A N/A N/A N/A

Alfadomus 9.93 0 4.56 Fuel Oil No.6

3.1.4 COST OF USED OIL TREATMENT PLANT Figure 3.1 shows the diagram of a used oil treatment plant using filtration and

centrifuging to eliminate the heavy metals contained in the used oil. The selected plant

operates with approximately 22.5% (600,000 gallons per year) of the used oil that is

generated from crankcase engines in Guayaquil. This represents approximately 3.19%

of the total market of used lubricating oil (industrial and automotive) in Ecuador. This

percentage was determined based on the experience of ETAPA which now has a

percentage of re-collection of approximately 24%.

95

Figure 3.1 USED OIL TREATMENT PLANT The next Tables show the costs of the management plant mentioned above, taking into

consideration the cost of used oil in the lubrication station. The most relevant aspects

that directly influence production costs have been considered in order to arrive at the

most probable figure. Costs can fluctuate, depending on the suppliers, but this serves as

a reference for the cost of a used oil treatment plant having the characteristics shown in

Figure 3.1 as well as other charactheristics that will be discussed later. Social benefit

costs are calculated according to Ecuadorian regulations. Quotations used as references

are shown in Appendix P.

Table 3.11 COST OF DIRECT MATERIAL

Cost of Direct Material Item Unit Capacity Unit Cost Total Cost

US $ Used Oil (raw material) 600000 0.16 96,000.00 Reception Tanks 2 25000 gal 12,575.00 25,150.00 Filters (Fuel) 2 2,016.00 4,032.00 Process Tank 1 2500 gal 3,042.00 3,042.00 Centrifuge 1 1200 l/h 95,060.00 95,060.00 Residual Water Tank 1 2000 gal 1,613.00 1,613.00 Filters (Water) 2 1,411.00 2,822.00 Storage Tank 1 25000 gal 12,575.00 12,575.00 Pumps 2 5,040.00 10,080.00 Pipelines 2,334.98 2,334.98 Compressor 300.00 300.00 Tanker 40,000.00 40,000.00

96

Total 293,008.98 Table 3.12 COST OF DIRECT PERSONAL

Cost of Direct Personnel Item Quantity Salary/month Annual Cost

US $ Technician 1 400.00 4,800.00 Worker 1 200.00 2,400.00 Sum 7,200.00

Social Benefits Social Security (IESS) 936.00 13th salary 600.00 14th salary 16.00 Vacations 300.00 Others 200.00 Sum 2,052.00 Total of Direct Personnel 9,252.00 Table 3.13 COST OF INDIRECT MATERIAL

Cost of Indirect Material Item Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

US $ Shed (contruction in m2) 50 180.00 9,000.00 Office (construction in m2) 40 300.00 12,000.00 Desk 1 150.00 150.00 Desk 1 100.00 100.00 Swivel Chairs 2 50.00 100.00 Chairs 6 20.00 120.00 Air Conditioning 1 600.00 600.00 Computer 1 1,000.00 1,000.00 Telephone 1 80.00 80.00 Filing Cabinet 1 120.00 120.00 Modular Shelves 1 100.00 100.00 Fax 1 250.00 250.00Curtains 1 80.00 80.00 Electric Calculator 1 60.00 60.00 Computer Table 1 150.00 150.00 Total of Indirect Costs 23,910.00

97

Table 3.14 COST OF INDIRECT PERSONNEL

Cost of Indirect Personnel Item Quantity Salary/month Annual Cost

US $ Driver 1 300.00 3,600.00 Assistant 1 150.00 1,800.00 Sum 5,400.00 Social Benefits Social Security (IESS) 702.00 13th salary 450.00 14th salary 16.00 Vacations 225.00 Others 90.00 Sum 1,483.00

Total Cost of Indirect Personal 6,883.00

Table 3.15 DEPRECIATION

Depreciation Item Unit Capacity Unit Cost Total Cost

US $ Useful Life Depreciation

US $ Reception Tanks

2 25000 gal 12,575.00 25,150.00 20 1,257.50

Filtres (Fuel) 2 2,016.00 4,032.00 5 806.40 Process Tank 1 2500 gal 3,042.00 3,042.00 20 152.10 Centrifuge 1 1200 l/h 95,060.00 95,060.00 10 9,506.00 Residual Water Tanks

1 2000 gal 1,613.00 1,613.00 20 80.65

Filtres (water) 2 1,411.00 2,822.00 5 564.40 Storage Tanks 1 25000 gal 12,575.00 12,575.00 20 628.75 Pumps 1 5,040.00 5,040.00 5 1,008.00 Pipelines 2,334.98 2,334.98 20 116.75 Compressor

300.00 300.00 10 30.00

Tanker 40,000.00 40,000.00 5 8,000.00 Total 191,968.98 22,150.55

98

Table 3.16 COST OF OFFICE SUPPLIES

Cost of Office Supplies Item Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost US $

Folders 24 0.12 2.88 Manila Envelopes 36 0.06 2.16 Filing Folders 12 0.75 9.00 Pencils 12 0.15 1.80 Pens 12 0.20 2.40 Rulers 2 0.35 0.70 Paper (reams) 2 3.50 7.00 Erasers 2 0.25 0.50 Liquid Paper 2 0.80 1.60 Highlighters 3 1.00 3.00 Paper Clips (box, simple) 3 0.40 1.20 Clips (box, butterfly) 1 0.50 0.50 Notebooks 1 1.50 1.50 Diskettes (box) 2 3.50 7.00 Ink 10 35.00 350.00 Telephone, monthly expense 12 30.00 360.00 Total for Office Supplies 751.24

Table 3.17 COST OF SUPPLIES FOR PLANT

Costs of Supplies for Plant

Tanker Performance Mileage in kilometers

Unit Costs Annual Costs US $

Fuel 35 40,000.00 1 1142.857143 Centrifuge Power (KW) h/d Energy

Consumption (Kw-H/d)

Energy Consumption

(Kw-h/yr)

Cost US $

Energy 15 8 120 28800 2,438.61 Pumping Power (KW) Quantity h/d Energy

Consumption (Kw-H/d)

Energy Consumption (Kw-h/yr)

Cost US $

Pump 1.12 1 8 8.96 2150.4 187.56Compresor

Power (KW) Quantity h/d Energy Consumption

(Kw-H/d)

Energy Consumption (Kw-h/yr)

Costs US $

Energy 1.12 1 8 8.96 2150.4 187.56Total 3,956.58

99

Table 3.18 REPAIRS AND MAINTAINANCE

Repairs and Maintenance Useful Life Repairs Cost of

Repairs Annual Cost

US $

Pumps 5 2 10 504.00 Compresors 5 1 5 15.00

Tanks 20 5 5 377.25 Process Tank 20 5 5 30.42

Residual Water Tanks

20 5 5 16.13

Tanker Performance Number of Oil Changes

Consumption (gal/changes)

Unit Cost Total Cost US $

Lubricating Oil 2500 16.00 19.20 10 192.00 Cost per

month Cost per year

US $

Filters, ABC, Maintenance

80 960

Unit Cost Quantity Annual Cost US $

Tires 60 6 540 Total Cost 2,634.80

Table 3.19 TOTAL COST OF PRODUCTION

Total Cost of Production Direct Costs US $ Direct Materials 293,008.98 Direct Personnel 9,252.00 Direct Cost 302,260.98 Indirect Costs Indirect Materials 23,910.00 Indirect Personnel 6,883.00 Depreciation 22,150.55 Office Supply Costs 751.24 Plant Supplies 3,956.58 Repairs and Maintenance 2,634.80 Insurance 875.00 Unforseen 1,834.84 Indirect Costs 62,996.00 Total Cost of Production 365,256.98 Quantity of Used Oil Treated 600000

Average Cost of Production 0.61

100

This plant processes only 2,500 gal/day of used oil during an 8-hr/day from Monday to

Friday. This plant is not feasible from market point of view, because the production cost

is $0.61/gal and on the market the cost of bunker is $0.39/gal. The cost of land is not

considered because the Municipality supposedly owns it. To reduce this cost to

approximately $0.26/gal, the plant would need to increase production to at least

2,700,000 gallons/year and work from Monday to Saturday on an 8-hr/day schedule

based on the same conditions of the calculation of costs of the original plant. According

to the Alfa Laval technician, the selected centrifuge is the smallest on the market for

this use with a range of 500 l/h to 1200 l/h. For the Guayaquil market, this increase in

production would represents approximately 75% of the used oil from crankcase engines

and 10.62% of the total market of lubricating oil (industrial and automotive oil) in

Ecuador. Considering the total Ecuadorian market, this is quite feasible, because the

percentage of re-collection in the country is lower than the percentage of re-collection

in the city.

3.2 CONCLUSIONS AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS The lack of environmental awareness lubrication stations have is apparent since two

lubrication stations were found that still dump used oil into the sewage system. Another

fact is that 63 lubrication stations do not know what the final disposal of used oil is, and

64 lubrication stations do not know what the final disposal of other wastes generated in

the business is. The next Section will analyze the most important points regarding the

management of used oil in Guayaquil such as the quality of used oil, the capacity to

incinerate, the costs of management of used oil and its benefits, and efficiency in re-

collection.

3.2.1 QUALITY OF OIL, VARIABILITY AND CONTAMINATION FROM

CURRENT PRACTICES It has already been said that one of the most important factors in burning used oil is

quality. In other words, the question is to what extent used oil has become contaminated

with other substances. One of the most common practices seen in the 12 lubrication

stations that were visited was that when oil is changed and the filter is changed, it

101

comes into contact with the re-collected used oil from the crankcase engine in the tray

used for draining, creating the possibility of the used oil becoming contaminated with

metallic particles or other impurities present precisely because of the function the filter

fulfils.

The next Section will refer to what has already been noted: burning used oil should take

into consideration the quantity of PCBs (Max. 5 ppm for burning in a cement plant) and

the quantity of PAHs (Max 30 ppm for burning in a cement plant) that the used oil

contains in order to determine the conditions and characteristics industrial furnaces or

boilers should have. In other words, these considerations will determine which boilers

or industrial furnaces can burn used oil under specific circumstances in Guayaquil.

Unfortunately, no tests have been made of these contaminants in used oil taken from

crankcase engines in Guayaquil. The only information found in the projects that were

reviewed for the preparation of this study is that of UNIDO. However, the samples used

in Ecuador for these tests were two from Quito --used oil from crankcase diesel and

gasoline engines-- and one from Guayaquil, which was from a boat engine. Another

important fact mentioned earlier is that when the tests were made, gasoline in Ecuador

contained additives with tetraethyl of lead (TEL) that is normally mixed with other

additives that contain chlorine and bromine to avoid the formation of ash. Therefore,

the probability of used oil being contaminated with halogens at that time is great.

Although at present Petroindustrial is not putting additives with TEL in gasoline in the

refineries, it is not known if the additive compounds sold in Ecuador for fuel and

lubricating oils available to any vehicle user on the market when oil is changed or when

the vehicle is filled with fuel, contain or do not contain halogen in their chemical

composition. According to Swisscontact, 56.28% of the engines in Ecuador in 1994

were more than nine years old. This could have implications now because if the

combustion of these vehicles is poor, they will produce a high quantity of PAHs and

then the probability of the used oil being contaminated will be very great. According to

Dr. Nelson Andrade (2002), it is possible to precipitate the PCBs through the freezing

point, but is necessary to make some tests and verify through the analytic spot that

consists of finding the cations that are precipitated or the different elements that are

precipitated. For example, chlorine can precipitate with magnesium, copper and other

102

metals. Regarding the PAHs, they can be removed through the distillation process.

However, tests of used oil should be carried out to validate the application of these

methods.

In the 12 lubrication stations visited, it was also noted that they always mix different

types of used oil, especially that from crankcase engines with transmission oils. Another

fact is that when the containers are washed, solvents are generally used, and because of

this, the used oil can become contaminated with halogens. Finally, according to Dr.

Nelson Andrade (2002), a feasible way of determining which used oils have or do not

have a high amount of halogen contaminants is by checking the chlorine content. One

way to verify it is to use the litmus paper commonly used to measure pH. By

determining the quantity of hydrogen ions, it can be established how many are needed

to obtain HCl and make a fast inference using a scale.

Any method chosen should be proven beforehand with tests made on used oil to verify

its applicability and to determine the exact quantity of contaminants and obtain the

corresponding scales. It is also known that the universities in Guayaquil have

equipment to make these tests. For example, the Superior Polytechnic School of the

Littoral (Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral ESPOL) has chromatography

equipment at the laboratories of its Chemistry Institute, and the University of Guayaquil

can make the qualitative and quantitative tests of used oil in its laboratories at the

School of Chemical Engineering.

A last point is that the lubrication stations usually store used oil in 55-gallon tanks, but

these tanks are not kept in proper places and they are not labeled either. Some are left in

the open where they can easily be contaminated with rainwater. Others are kept in

enclosed spaces and the vapor is unhealthy. Some are left near water supplies and there

is the possibility that by accident the used oil could be spilled and contaminate the

water. Normally, used oil contains water from the combustion process that takes place

in the internal combustion of a gasoline or diesel engine. This can affect the calorific

capacity of the used oil and decrease its quality as a fuel. Tests made in other cities in

103

Ecuador show that the water content is variable (0.05 – 4.00%), and this is a factor that

needs to be kept in mind because it directly affects the use of used oil as a fuel.

3.2.2 CAPACITY FOR INCINERATORS In Guayaquil, there are sufficient places to burn used oil from crankcase engines in

accord with the consumption or capacity of the plants. For example, Cemento Nacional

can substitute 10% (27 TM/day) of its consumption of Fuel Oil No. 6 for used oil in its

cement kiln of 3000 TM Cli/day, equivalent to 810 TM/month of consumed used oil. So

approximately the same amount as all the used oil generated in Guayaquil from

crankcase engines can be handled in one of the two kilns Cemento Nacional has at the

Cerro Blanco Plant.

The most important point to be considered regarding the kilns is the residence time of

the combustion gases above a specific temperature and the control devices that prevent

air pollution caused by the contaminants found in used oil. These two aspects will now

be analysed in greater detail.

3.2.2.1 HALOGENS VS. NON-HALOGENS To incinerate a product, there are basically two regulations. The first is for those

products that are contaminated with halogens and the second is for those are not. It has

been shown that the first group needs at least a temperature of 1200°C with a residence

time of 2 seconds with 3% O2 in the flue gas. The second group needs a temperature of

at least 1000°C with a residence time of 2 seconds with 2% O2 in the flue gas. It has

also been stated that this depends greatly on the regulation that is applied. For example,

in Quebec (Canada) the regulation indicates that to incinerate a product, it should be

burned at 1250°C with 2.5 seconds of residence time to 3% minimum O2 in the flue

gases. In some regulations the parameters for continuos monitoring are CO, O2 and

temperature. To decide what method to use, how to measure, where to measure, what to

calculate and other information on cement furnaces, boilers and incinerators, Risk Burn

Guidance for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities by EPA (July 2001) is

recommended.

104

The regulation of the United States mentions two distinctions for the incineration of

halogen and non-halogen compounds.80 According to this regulation, PAHs are in the

category of non-halogen compounds; but the National Guidelines for Hazardous Waste

Incineration Facilities of Canada makes two distinctions for the incineration of halogens

or polynuclear wastes and non-halogen or non-polynuclear wastes. According to these

guidelines, PAHs are in the category of halogen and polynuclear waste, because PAHs

are known as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PNA) or polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAH). For this reason, it was necessary to use the Canadian regulation

for this aspect.

Since no tests of used oil generated in Guayaquil have been made, other cities in

Ecuador like Cuenca and Quito are used as a reference, and it can be seen that used oil

contains contaminants such as PCBs and PAHs. As indicated previously, for the

thermal elimination of PCBs and polynuclear wastes such as PAHs, a temperature

above 1200°C is needed. With this reference, it is necessary to presume that used oil in

Guayaquil is contaminated with the same elements.

According to Table 3.10, for Guayaquil there is only one plant that can burn used oil

under these conditions --Cemento Nacional-- since Poliquim has a very low capacity for

burning used oil as compared with the amount generated in the city, residence time is at

the limit and the energy content of used oil is not taken advantage of (an incinerator

eliminates wastes at a high temperature), and therefore, this incinerator has not been

considered.

The residence time shown in the Table 3.10 is the maximum the plant can have under

the conditions chosen. It is ideal, because the calculation had to make some

assumptions. Focusing only on a cement plant, the assumptions made are:

1. The flame temperature used to calculate the residence time of Cemento Nacional’s

kiln was 1850°C. The adiabatic temperature flame for Fuel Oil No. 6 is usually

80 Brunner, C.R., Handbook of Hazardous Waste Incineration, 1st ed. Chapter 2 (United States: Tab Books Inc., 1989), 48.

105

2102°C81. According to Menoscal (1989) in his thesis Obtención de Alta Temperatura

en un Horno Basculante para Fundir Acero por Recuperación de Calor, this is an ideal

temperature and is based on complete combustion, with stichometric proportions, with

perfect homogeneous mixes and in the shortest time. Flame temperature depends

basically on the heating power of the fuel and its composition, the type of combustive

agent (air, oxygen or a mixture of both) and combustion velocity. To calculate the flame

temperature, it is necessary to consider the disassociation of the combustion products

(above 1800°C), the excess of air to complete the reaction and the losses of heat by

irradiation that depends on the real conditions of the environment. Finally, he says that

the hottest flames are those whose final products are more stable and are not those that

theoretically correspond to the maximum liberation of energy. According to Ignacio

Wiesner (2002), professor of ESPOL in the Area of Smelting, the flame temperature

cannot be that high since in practice the refractories would smelt, and he estimates that

the flame temperature could be near 1650°C. Flame temperature also varies from its

nucleus towards its external part in three dimensions, as shown in the next Figure of an

afterburner considering only one section and one dimension.

Figure 3.2 TEMPERATURE FLAME DISTRIBUTION IN AN AFTERBURNER

CHAMBER Source: Hasberg, W., and Dorn, I. 1989. Description of the Residence Time Behaviour and Burnout of PCDD, PCDF and Other High Chlorinated Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Industrial Waste Incineration Plants. Chemosphere. Vol.19. No.1-6. 565-571. Figure 3. 81 Perry, J.H., Manual del Ingeniero Químico. Vol.II. Table 2 (Mexico: UTEA, 1976), 2533.

106

In measurements of flame, Cemento Selva Alegre averages a temperature of 1650°C

and reaches a distance of 18m. Although the locations are different, the process of

cement manufacture and the physical dimension of the two plants are very similar.

2. The outside temperature of the flue gases of the kiln used to calculate the residence

time for Cemento Nacional was 1100°C. This temperature is high for two reasons: first,

the temperature of the clinker according to Main Gon (2002) when entering the cement

kiln is 900°C, and second, when compared to Cemento Selva Alegre, the outside

temperature of the flue gases is 850°C.

The next Figure shows that if the exit temperature of the flue gases of the kiln is

maintained ideally at 1100°C and the average flame temperature is decreased, this

effect alone will increase the residence time. If the average flame temperature is

maintained ideally at 1850°C and the exit temperature of the flue gases of the kiln is

increased, this effect alone will decrease the residence time. This is because the density

of the flue gases changes because of the temperature: the higher temperature, the lower

the density of the flue gases. This makes the residence time of the flue gases at high

temperature tend to decrease. This Figure has been calculated with 3% O2 in the flue

gases, 12% of the volume of the kiln occupied by clinker, no crust formation in the

combustion chamber, the characteristics of Fuel Oil No.6 sold in Ecuador, and with the

refractory thickness of 20 cm. In practice this does not occur independently, because the

average flame temperature and the outside temperature of the flue gases depend

principally on the thermal load and on the losses from radiation. The combined effect

can be seen if the same kiln is used at Cemento Nacional with the temperatures

measured at Cementos Selva Alegre, meaning that if the average flame temperature and

the outside flue gases are 850°C, the residence time will be above 1200° with 3% O2,

which would be approximately 1.6 seconds.

107

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3

Residence Time (Seconds)

Tem

pera

ture

(°C

)

Constant Maximum Temperature - 1850°C

Constant Minimum Temperature - 1100°C

Figure 3.3 AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE FLAME AND TEMPE-RATURE OF THE FLUE GASES VERSUS TOTAL RESIDENCE TIME OF THE FLUE GASES IN THE COMBUSTION CHAM-BER (3% O2)

3. For a preliminary calculation of the residence time, the distribution of temperature in

relation to the distance (length of kiln) is assumed to be lineal. In practice, this is not

real because the higher the temperature, the faster is its decrease, which the next Figure

shows. This Figure shows the distribution of the temperature of the flue gases and the

clinker in a wet process in the manufacture of cement.

Figure 3.4 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OF FLUE GASES IN A CEMENT

KILN WITH WET PROCESS Source: Perry, J.H. 1976. Manual del Ingeniero Químico. Tomo II Figure 9. Mexico: UTEA.: 2548.

108

4. In the manufacture of cement, at high temperatures the clinker reacts chemically with

the refractories in the kiln, producing a layer on the surface of the refractories called

“crust” that can be as thick as 40 cm82. The formation of this “crust” makes the

effective area in the transversal section of the kiln decrease while the velocity of the

flow of combustion gases increases and the residence time decreases. It is also normal

that 12% of the area of the transversal section be occupied with the clinker, and this

causes similar implications to those already mentioned. Figure 3.5 shows that if the

thickness of the crust increases, the residence time decreases. This Figure shows the

kiln of Cemento Nacional having an average flame temperature of 1850°C with the exit

of the flue gases from the kiln at 1100°C. It is assumed that the crust is only produced

in the 35m along the length of the kiln, which is the hottest side according to Granja

(2002). It has considered the Canadian regulation with 3% O2 in the flue gases, and also

12% of the volume of the kiln occupied by clinker, the characteristics of Fuel Oil No.6

sold in Ecuador and the refractory thickness of 20 cm.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

2.05 2.1 2.15 2.2 2.25 2.3 2.35 2.4

Residence Time (Seconds)

Thic

k (c

m)

Figure 3.5 THICKNESS OF THE CRUST VERSUS RESIDENCE TIME

82 Granja, C., Technical Manager of Cementos Selva Alegre, Personal communication, July 2002.

109

For these reasons, it is necessary to measure the temperature of the flame and the

temperature of the combustion gases in the kiln in order to obtain the real residence

time. Comparing the two kilns of Cemento Nacional and Cemento Selva Alegre, the

important difference between the two plants is production capacity. Another factor is

that the kilns of Cemento Nacional were designed for low production capacity, and over

time production has been increased. This is noted in the recent increase at the beginning

of this year with Kiln Number Two at the Cerro Blanco Plant which increased from

2,000 TM Cli/day to 3,000 TM Cli/day. In other words, when production in a cement

kiln is low, the tendency of the residence time is to increase. This can be observed in

Figure 3.6 that shows Cemento Nacional’s kiln having the assumed conditions of

1850°C for average flame temperature and 1100°C for the temperature of the

combustion gases, 3% O2 in the flue gases, 12% of the volume of the kiln occupied by

clinker, no crust formation in the combustion chamber, the characteristics Ecuadorian

Fuel Oil No.6, and the refractory thickness of 20 cm.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Residence Time (seconds)

TM F

uel O

il N

o.6/

day

14

Figure 3.6 CONSUMPTION OF FUEL OIL No.6 AND RESIDENCE TIME ABOVE 1200°C WITH 3% O2 IN THE FLUE GASES

110

Another implication that should be considered it is that Cemento Nacional’s kiln has the

same fuel supply system to the kiln as that for the precalcinator and operates at

approximately 1000°C. It is then necessary to make a small modification, because

Cemento Nacional mixes used oil with the whole storage tank (1,000 TM of Fuel Oil

No. 6), and this is the same tank used to supply both the precalcinator and the cement

kiln.83

If used oil is not contaminated with halogens and a high content of PAHs, other plants

can burn the used oil, not just Cemento Nacional, Andec, Poliquim and Alfadomus, as

long as they have boilers and industrial furnaces, but it is necessary to filtrate and

centrifuge the used oil to eliminate the heavy metals. This will be discussed in the next

Section. In relation to the PAH content, an understandable reason is that gasoline

usually contains a percentage of PAHs according to the polycycliaromatic used to

improve the octane number. Unfortunately, that depends on the content level of PAHs

and PCBs, but it could be possible to burn used oil as fuel and have a similar situation

to that of Colombia.

3.2.2.2 END PRODUCTS To eliminate such contaminants as heavy metals and other organic substances in used

oil, the best option is to burn used oil in a cement plant because the metallic

contaminants are incorporated into the clinker and the organic substances are destroyed

at a high temperature as was seen in the previous Chapter. Cemento Nacional has

banghouse filters and an electrostatic precipitator, devices recommended by the EPA to

eliminate metallic elements according to their volatility.

Unfortunately, Alfadomus and Andec do not have these devices at their plants, and

since quantity and type of contaminants in used oil generated in Guayaquil is not

known, burning used oil cannot be recommended unless the used oil is cleaned by

centrifuge before use, the PCB content is insignificant, and the PAH content is at

permitted levels.

83 Sotomayor, B., Executive Director of Pro Ambiente, Personal communication, 2002.

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In addition, the management of used oil generates other types of wastes such as

cardboard, filters and containers (plastic and metal). To get an idea regarding the

amount of waste, lubrication stations attend 15,100 vehicles per month. The lubrication

stations do not have a recycling culture or tradition. This was seen in the fact that only 8

lubrication stations out of 157 recycle cardboard and plastic containers. Most of these

wastes go to a landfill, and this could produce problems if the landfill has not been

designed for non-organic materials. Since the re-use of toxic elements contained in used

oil is not recommended, the Latin American Crop Protection Association recommends a

strategy to eliminate containers that have been used for substances such as herbicides,

insecticides and fungicides, by using other chemical compounds that could be equally

or even more toxic than those found in used oil in order to accomplish energy recovery

by grinding plastic containers before burning them in a cement kiln or sending metal

containers to smelting industries.84 Also, the EPA indicates that filters are normally

used as fuel in the cement industry. In the case of Guayaquil, metal containers could be

used in Andec (steel industry), plastic containers could be used in Cemento Nacional

and filters in Cemento Nacional.

There are other types of contaminants that could be generated in the filtration and

centrifuging process that have a high content of heavy metals such as sludge. According

to a study made by Unidad de Planeación Minero Energética in Colombia, after

analysing different cases the recommendation was that the best final disposal of sludge

was incineration, encapsulation in the clinker, vitrification or making it into ceramic,

and as fill for roads when laying asphalt. In Guayaquil, it would be ideal to burn at

Cemento Nacional.

In general, if there are other wastes that can be incinerated or used to recover energy

without PCB and PAH contaminants, they could be burned at Cemento Nacional,

84 Latin American Crop Protection Association (LACPA), Envasado de Productos para la Protección de Cultivos y Eliminación de los Envases Vacíos. Capacitación para Encargads de Registro (Guayaquil, Ecuador: LACPA, 2002).

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Andec, Poliquim and Alfadomus, keeping in mind the same technical aspects discussed

in this work.

3.2.3 COSTS OF WASTE, THE OIL MARKET AND INCINERATION WITH ITS POTENTIAL COSTS AND BENEFITS FOR THE CITY AND FOR STAKEHOLDERS

The elimination of used oil in Guayaquil would provide some intangible benefits for the

city from the social point of view since the poor and inadequate combustion of used oil

can produce dioxins and furans, which are carcinogenic substances, and because of

other impacts on the environment caused by its mismanagement. Since there is no

information regarding the risks a person has of getting cancer as the result of contact

with these substances, most of which are burned in Guayaquil, it was not possible to

quantify the costs of benefits for the city from the elimination of those substances in

relation to health. However, there are statistics in Ecuador in relation to the number of

years of healthy life lost in premature death and handicaps related to specific illnesses,

but this does not mean every type of cancer a person can acquire in Guayaquil stems

from these substances.

Depending on the quality of used oil in Guayaquil, there are a number of economic

benefits for some industries, especially regarding the costs of used oil in relation to

bunker (Fuel Oil No. 6). The next Table shows the economic benefits per year these

industries would have if they burned used oil. The fourth column has been calculated

using the current price of $0.29/gal (cost of used oil and transportation) paid by

Alfadomus. The price of Fuel Oil No. 6 was calculated at approximately $0.39/gal85.

85 COSUDE, Swisscontact and CNPML.Incineración de Residuos Peligrosos. Informe del Viaje de Max Harzenmoser del 27 de Enero hasta el 5 de Febrero. (Quito, Ecuador: EMPA, 2002).

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Table 3.20 ESTIMATED SAVINGS FOR SELECTED INDUSTRIES

Industry TM/day TM/year* Savings ($) Cemento Nacional** 450 15,075 1,187,727.3** Andec*** 18.15 1,824.1 55,275 Alfadomus*** 15.2 1,527.6 46,291

*Considering that they work 335 days/year, discounting time for maintenance. **They can burn 10% of their consumption and the cost of used oil is $0.13/gal, which is the difference between what Alfadomus normally pays in relation to the average price sold at lubrication stations. *** They can burn 30% of their consumption.

Once again, because of the lack of tests made on used oil from crankcase engines in

Guayaquil, it is necessary to consider two scenarios. The first indicates that used oil is

contaminated with PCBs, PAHs and heavy metals; consequently, after having analyzed

the industries, the only option for Guayaquil is Cemento Nacional. The second indicates

that if used oil is not contaminated or does not contain a significant amount of PCBs or

PAHs, then it is possible that any boiler or industrial furnace could burn used oil as fuel.

Table 3.21 DIFFERENT SCENARIOS

Scenario Description Option Costs

1

Used oil contaminated with PCBs, PAHs and heavy metals*

Cement Kiln

(Cemento Nacional)

$ 240,000.00

Adaptation of Cement Kiln

2

Used Oil contaminated with heavy metals and low quantity of PCBs and PAHs

Any type boiler or industrial furnace

Centrifuge $ 84,875.00

Used Oil Treatment

Plant** $ 157,000.00

*Using the reference that the maximum level of PAH content in used oil to be burned in a cement kiln industry is 30ppm and that of PCBs is 5 ppm. ** This is only the total cost of the equipment for the treatment plant For the first scenario, the only cleaning needed is to sieve the large particles at the same

cement plant at the moment the used oil is stored, just as Cemento Nacional is now

doing. According to Jorge Granja (2002), the Technical Manager of Cemento Selva

Alegre, they also have burners that permit burning up to 3mm of the diameter of the

particles. Costs for the adaptation of the cement kiln are approximately $240,000. These

costs are covered by the cement industry. The Municipality should also prohibit burning

used oil in other types of industries that do not meet technical requirements.

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In the second scenario, the Municipality has two options. The first option would require

the industries that want to burn used oil as fuel to use a centrifuge because of the heavy

metals. The second option is that the Municipality decide to carry out the tasks of

filtration, centrifuging and selling used oil as fuel. The profits of this plant would

depend on the price the Municipality wants to charge for used oil and the efficiency of

re-collection. Ecuadorian enterprises normally calculate a margin of 30% over the

production cost to cover the operating expenses of selling, administration and financing,

deducting benefits the workers receive and income tax paid to the government, and the

net margin of profit is the benefit the enterprises receive for their commercial activities.

Therefore, the product should be sold for at least 30% more than the production cost

($0.34/gal).

3.2.4 OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS FOR COLLECTION ROUTE

EFFICIENCY The efficiency of re-collection is very important for the success of the project of final

disposal of used oil, and it is directly related to the amount of used oil generated in the

city. Since it is apparent that the amount of used oil the lubrication stations generate is

not enough and is not representative, then it is necessary to make a similar investigation

of mechanic shops in order to obtain useful information and complement the study to

help make an environmental management plan and strategy for used oil for Guayaquil.

Because lubrication stations and mechanic shops are different types of businesses, the

results of the census made of lubrication stations cannot and should not be used to

quantify the impacts mechanic shops could have, because even if the businesses were

similar, how mechanic shops function would not be known. In other words, large

mechanic shops manage used oil the same as small mechanic shops, there are more

large mechanic shops than middle-sized and small mechanic shops, the proportion in

all this which this occurs, etc.

With the information obtained through the census of lubrication stations, it is possible

to get a general idea of what is occurring in Guayaquil in relation to the management of

used oil and the effect it will have on the re-collection of used oil. According to

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observations made of the results, the general impression is that 7,157.5 gal/month of

used oil is utilized as fuel, 1,466.5 gal/month as fungicide, and 1,591.5 gal/month of

used oil has a direct relationship with other environmental problems such as cutting

trees, especially in the province of Esmeraldas. Also, the average cost of a 55-gallon

tank at lubrication stations is $8.77, varying between $2 and $20 in different parts of the

city. Therefore, 15,145 gal/month (119 lubrication stations) of used oil are sold and

1,404 gal/month (26 lubrication stations) of used oil are given away. Consequently, it is

important to consider that for efficient re-collection it is necessary that used oil be

considered valuable so lubrication stations do not hide or sell it.

For re-collection, in order to determine which lubrication stations generate more used

oil, it was established that the middle-sized lubrication stations are more representative

because they generate 8,792 gal/month of used oil. The lubrication stations that have

two workers generate 6,272.5 gal/month. They are followed by lubrication stations that

have three workers and generate 3,153 gal/month of used oil. Also, lubrication stations

that buy new lubricating oil on a monthly basis generate more used oil (8,978.5

gal/month) by attending the largest number of vehicles in relation to those who buy

every two weeks or at some other interval. Finally, lubrication stations that sell in bulk

generate (5,907.5 gal/month) more used oil than the others. They are followed by

businesses that sell gallon containers (6,617 gal/month) and 1-liter containers (3,432.5

gal/month). All this information is important, because it identifies through the database

exactly who the lubrication stations are, their location in the city, the owners of the

lubrication stations, their business names and how to contact them (telephone number).

This is a great help in determining the internal routes in each Sector for the process of

re-collection in the city. More details regarding each Sector are given in the

observations made in Section 3.1.2.

Another way to improve efficiency is through re-collection by applying the curbside

method or using central collection stations. The curbside method is the trash collection

system that consists of going from lubrication station to lubrication station, re-collecting

the used oil on different days and hours during the week in different sectors. The second

method consists of storing a quantity of used oil in a specific place ready to be re-

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collected. The experience of the United States shows that curbside collection is more

convenient, and is therefore the more effective method.86

For more efficient re-collection, a computer program was prepared to determine the

shortest route according to the direction the streets run, the location of the lubrication

stations and the distance between them. The program consists of an imaginary net

applied to a small sector or that could be applied to the entire city. Each intersection of

an avenue or a street represents a node (109 nodes). Lubrication stations are identified

according to their distance from the nodes. Then the distance between nodes takes into

account the direction the streets run. By applying the dijkstra algorithm, the net can

establish the shortest and best route between two points in the net. This might be the

location of a vehicle nearest a node and the location of the lubrication station. The code

for the program is in Appendix O. This program can now be improved with the

database that has been obtained. For example, iterations can determine the route a

vehicle should follow according to the capacity of the vehicle, the used oil generated in

each lubrication station, fuel consumption, and the speed of the vehicle for deciding

how long re-collection takes, and finally the best hours of the day.

86 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), How to Set-up a Local Program to Recycle Used Oil (United States: EPA, 1989), 14.

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CHAPTER FOUR RECOMMENDATIONS AND NEXT STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

MUNICIPALITY ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR USED OIL IN GUAYAQUIL.

4.0 INTRODUCTION This Chapter focuses on recommendations made based on the analysis of the current

management of used oil in Guayaquil and lessons learned regarding different applicable

cases from Ecuador. It finishes with the steps that should be taken in the short term and

in the long term to develop an environmental management strategy in the city of

Guayaquil.

4.1. RECOMMENDATIONS AND PRELIMINARY FEASIBILITY ASSESS-

MENT The results of this study have been used to make the following Section which is divided

in two parts. The first is related to important technical information and the second is

about opportunities and problems regarding incineration, re-collection, quality of

control for used oil, and economic considerations and incentives.

4.1.1 FURTHER STUDY AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION REQUIRE-

MENTS

Make a census of lubrication stations once a year in order to control used oil.

This will make it possible to have a history that will show tendencies or help

predict the future.

Make a computerized application that will help manage a database obtained

from the census of lubrication stations and then be able to carry out

management based on years, reports, and graphics. This will avoid making

annual manual analysis, and it will help in all the other organizational

aspects.

Train the people who make the surveys and establish a plan for supervising

that will guarantee that surveys are correctly filled out.

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Make a pilot study to determine the behavior and variability of mechanic

shops since a large standard deviation will produce a large sample and vice-

versa in the case of surveys. In the case of censuses, the methodology used

in this study should be followed.

Carry out tests to learn what kind of and how many contaminants are present

in used oil in Guayaquil, paying special attention to the quantity of PCBs

and PAHs permitted in used oil according to the international standards set

out in this study.

Samples used for testing of both lubrication stations and mechanic shops

should be taken in different sectors of the city.

Measure the flame temperature and make estimates of the temperature

distribution of the combustion gases in the combustion chamber of the

industrial furnaces at those industries that decide to burn used oil, since this

plays an important role in calculating the residence time of the flue gases

over a specific temperature in accordance with the international technical

standards mentioned in this study.

4.1.2 OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS FOR INCINERATION,

COLLECTION, QUALITY CONTROL OF USED OIL, ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS AND INCENTIVES

Test methods that measure the quantity of halogens that can be applied in

Guayaquil as explained in this study.

Consider how much the 55-gallon tank of used oil used at lubrication

stations is worth in order to improve the efficiency of the re-collection of

used oil.

It is necessary to take into consideration the control of the additive quality of

lubricating oil and fuel that is sold in Guayaquil according to the

contaminants mentioned in this study such as halogens.

A regulation is needed for managing used oil in Guayaquil that especially

indicates ways to store, locate and classify used oil, that classifies other

wastes (filters, cardboard, plastic and metal containers), and outlines the care

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that should be taken when using solvents or when changing oil and filters at

the same time.

Depending on the quality of used oil and if it contains a low concentration of

PCBs and PAHs and if the Municipality decides to re-collect and clean the

used oil, different methods of financing should be studied. Examples are

taxing the owners of vehicles who register their vehicles and emission tests

of their engines show that the combustion process is inadequate (produces

too many PAHs), studying the possibility of charging a taxing for the re-

collection and treatment of used oil, and finally look for support from

international organizations (such as the Japanese organization JICA) since

this is a social project that will benefit the entire city.

The concept of group responsibility should be taught. This means that the

company that produces a product should be responsible for the final disposal

of all the wastes and impacts that are produced by this product during its

entire life cycle. According to this concept, the producers (Texaco, Shell and

Cangel) should be responsible for the re-collection and final disposal of used

oil. This would increase the sales of new lubricating oil.

Incentives offered to lubrication stations such as lowering the taxes they pay

the Municipality every year for the right to operate. This would encourage

them to handle used oil correctly.

Any industry selected to burn used oil should guarantee any person in

Guayaquil who asks or requires technical proof of the tests made in the plant

of the parameter measures (temperature and emissions) to prove that it is

totally safe to burn used oil in that specific plant.

According to the technical analysis presented in this study, Cemento

Nacional can burn used oil under certain operating conditions and technical

requirements.

Carry out an awareness campaign regarding the correct way to manage used

oil for all levels of society in Guayaquil, but especially for lubrication

stations and mechanic shops.

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The principles of the Basel Agreement should be considered by the

Municipality of Guayaquil when preparing new resolutions related to the

transportation of dangerous substances and products between provinces.

In the case of used oil, it is possible to apply energy recovery in high

intensity combustion chambers of industries in Guayaquil, because in so

doing, mutual benefits for the city and for the industries will result since the

characteristics of used oil are similar to fuel. However, there will be other

substances that will not serve for energy recovery and consequently,

incineration will have to be chosen as their final disposal. Guayaquil does

not have the capacity for incineration on a large scale, and neither does it

have regulations for the highly toxic substances and wastes they want to

elminate, according to what was possible to see while carrying out this work.

It is important that the Municipality of Guayaquil consider the installation or

construction of a Municipal incinerator as well as specific regulations for

incineration that will benefit the city.

4.2. NEXT STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUNICIPALITY ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR USED OIL IN GUAYAQUIL

The Ecuadorian Government is involved in a decentralization program focused on

energy and environment. At the beginning of 2002, the Municipality of Guayaquil was

given total responsibility for environmental protection and waste management by the

Ministry of Environment.

In the case of Quito, a NGO has been given the responsibility for pollution control,

monitoring and solutions as a bridge with local authorities who work in environmental

aspects87. This bridging strategy was used by the Alberta Energy Company (AEC) and

the Ñian Paz Foundation (a NGO) to solve environmental and social problems for an oil

company in Ecuador.88 This form of management does not increase bureaucracy in the

87 El Comercio, Quito Gestión 2000-2002: $11,000,000 para Varios Proyectos Ambientales, Sección Quito Sustentable (Quito, Ecuador: El Comercio, 10 August 2002), 3. 88 Vredenburg, H., and Hall, J., ENEV623. Strategic Environmental Planning for Energy Organizations (Quito, Ecuador: University of Calgary, October 2001).

121

Municipalities and it opens up possibilities for the collaboration of specialized

personnel and international institutions.

By integrating the EPA recommendations, the study cases and the present conditions in

the management of used oil in Guayaquil, both short term and long term stages for

developing a Municipal environmental strategy for used oil in Guayaquil. This

discussion follows.

4.2.1 SHORT-TERM ACTIONS

Make standard regulations for the management of used oil in

Guayaquil. Ecuador has no regulations for used oil generators, collection

centers and gathering points, transportation and transfer facilities, processors

and re-refiners, used oil burners that burn off specified used oil for energy

recovery, used oil fuel marketers, public participation and standards for use

as a dust suppressant and disposal of used oil.

Analyze, decide and design a collection method for the city. There are

two basic collection programs that have already been discussed: 1) at

curbside and 2) at central collection stations.

Build a network of support and information. It is important that the city

have a source of information regarding programs being carried out not only

in the city but also in other places in Ecuador. A network of professionals

could offer support or help each other and perhaps even find financial

support (Collaboration Networks, Vredenburg 2001).

Promote a used oil program. This process is innovative and for its

implementation, it will be necessary to educate the public about the used oil

problem and to encourage more responsibility for oil management

(Vredenburg 2001). There are different methods for promotion such as a

program kick-off, used oil recycling hotline, newspapers, television, radio,

posters, handouts, brochures, mailings, schools and incentive programs.

Make specific site risk assessments. Locate places in Guayaquil where

waste lubricating oil can be burned, including indirect exposure in an

incinerator and BIF (Boiler and Industrial Furnaces).

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Enhance public participation in permitting incinerators and BIFs. It is

important to give people the opportunity to facilitate safe operation in their

neighborhoods and to collaborate during the risk assessment process at

combustion facilities. Some of these parameters have been mentioned in this

Chapter.

Establish a priority for reaching final permit decisions for incinerators

and BIF facilities. Establish a schedule for calling in all BIF permits for

final determinations. Authorization for permits should encompass effective

control with safe operation as the goal.

Enhance inspection and enforcement for incinerators and BIFs. At this

point it is important to train the people who will be inspectors. The

Municipality should encourage the use of permanent on-site inspectors at

commercial incinerators and BIFs if the city has them.

The Municipality. Permitting authorization for new permits at incinerator

and BIF facilities is necessary to protect health, to impose upgraded

particulate matter standards and, if necessary, additional metal emission

controls and to impose limits on dioxin/furan emissions.

4.2.2 LONG-TERM ACTIONS

Upgrade rules on emission controls at combustion facilities and on

continuous emission monitoring techniques. It is important to know the

feasibility of a technology with respect to setting emission controls on

metals, dioxins and furans, acid gases, particulate matter, and products of

incomplete combustion.

Upgrade rules on the permitting of and the public involvement process

for combustion facilities. It is important to reform the permit appeal

process for combustion units, because generations are in constant change.

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PERSONAL COMMUNICATION Albán, A. 2001. Technical Engineer of Shell. Quito. Ecuador. Andrade, N. 2002. Professor of University of Guayaquil. Guayaquil. Ecuador. Arriaga, L. 2001. Director of the Environmental Department. Guayaquil. Ecuador. Barriga, A. 2002. Viceminister of Environmental Quality of the Ministry of Environment. Quito. Ecuador. Barrit, S.( OGUK-OGML/2), and Bracken, J. (OGUK-OGMF/2) 2002. Lubricants Technical Service Unit. Shell Global Solutions. January 14,16. Email: [email protected] and [email protected]. Crespo, J. 2002. ETAPA official. Cuenca. Ecuador. Elías, X. 2002. Director of Ecotermia Cerámica SL Spain. January 28. Email: [email protected] Gimenez, E. 2001. Departamento de Atención Ciudadana. Junta de Residus. March 14. Email: [email protected]. González, M. 2002. Coordinator of Refining and Industrialization of the National Department of Hydrocarbons. Quito. Ecuador. Granja, C. 2002. Technical Manager of Cemento Selva Alegre. Otavalo. Ecuador Hermans, A. 2002. Concawe. January 17. Email: [email protected] Hernández, A. 2002. Director of Projects of the Superior Institute of Research of Central University. Quito. Ecuador. Hernández, M. 2001. Team Member of the Dangerous Chemical Dangerous Products Process of the Ministry of Environment. Quito. Ecuador. Oleas, A. 2002. Head of Service and Virtual Development of the Documentation Center of the United Nation Organization in Ecuador. Quito. Ecuador. Orvea, M. 2001. Cooordinator of Dangerous Chemical Products of the Ministry of Environment. Quito. Ecuador. Peñafiel, H. 2001. Coordinator of Ecology of Swisscontact. Quito. Ecuador. Rehpani, N. 2001. Chief of Shell Production . Guayaquil. Ecuador.

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

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Sáenz, C. 2002. Coordinator of Urban Environmental Management of ETAPA Cuenca. Ecuador. Sánchez, T. 2001. Head of the Soil Resource Department of the Municipality of Quito. Quito. Ecuador. Silva, B. 2001. Agripac Manager. Guayaquil. Ecuador. Sotomayor, B. 2002. Executive Director of Pro-Ambiente. Planta Cerro Blanco Km. 18.5 de la Vía a la Costa. Guayaquil. Ecuador Spin, E. 2001. Coordinator of Environmental Control and Monitoring of the Ministry of Environment. Quito. Ecuador. Tinoco. 2002. Technical Director of Shell Ecuador. Guayaquil. Ecuador. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2002. January 29 and April 2. : Email: [email protected]

APPENDIX A89

DIFFERENT DISPOSAL METHODS FOR USED OIL

Figure A-1 DISPOSAL AND RE-PROCESSING OPTIONS FOR USED OIL Source: Concawe. 1996. Collection and Disposal of Used Lubricating Oil. Report No. 5/96. Brussels: Concawe: 20.

1. DUMPING AND ILLEGAL DISPOSAL

Dumping is considered an illegal disposal of used oil, because any used oil that is

discarded in an uncontrolled manner causes possible damage to the environment

and to human health. This has been explained in the section of definition and

characteristics.

89 Concawe. Collection and Disposal of Used Lubricating Oil. Report No. 5/96, Chapter 4 (Brussels, Belgium: Concawe, 1996), 17-19.

2. RECLAIMING INDUSTRIAL LUBRICANTS

Reclaiming consists of a simple cleaning of oils used at the industrial level, being

utilized again in its original use or as an inferior quality lubricant. There are two

main forms: the first is known as laundering and the second is simple reclaim.

Laundering utilizes used oils from hydraulic systems and cut oil. This process

contains several stages such as heating, filtration to remove solid particles,

dewatering, testing and finally, the addition of new additives. In this way, economic

feasibility for the final disposal of used oil exists, since it compares favorably with

the price of new oil. Normally, this process is used by power plants, the

transportation industry and other main industries in Europe.

Simple reclaim utilizes used oils from hydraulic systems. Used oils are centrifuged

and/or filtrated, and then used again.

3. BURNING OPTIONS

3.1 DIRECT BURNING OPTIONS

Used oil is burned directly without pre-treatment. This method is the one most used

by European countries, depending on their regulations and economic situation.

There are different methods that take advantage of the energy content in used oil.

Three important ways of doing this exist: the cement industry, space heaters and

incinerators.

In the cement industry, electricity and fuels may represent 70% of its variable costs.

For this reason, energy used to generate heat in kilns can come from used oil or its

mixing with other organic materials such as paints, solvents or cleaning substances.

Normally, those components are known as secondary liquid fuels. Currently, kiln

furnaces work with coal or petroleum coke. In Europe, the cement industry has

estimated that secondary liquid fuels have replaced 50% of the traditional fuels in

some cases, representing a use of more than 300,000 tons in 1994.

Space heaters are used on a small scale. In the United Kingdom, this method burns

30,000 tons per year in garages, workshops and greenhouses. Space heaters are

specially designed for this use, reducing heating costs. This method can produce

significant air contamination.

Incinerators may be classified by their use, such as municipal waste and chemical

waste. Normally, municipal waste incinerators do not accept the bulk of used oils or

other hazardous waste. For this reason, oil that is to be burned should be mixed with

household waste. Chemical waste incinerators can accept large quantities of used

oil. The only way to take advantage of the caloric capacity of used oil in an

incinerator is to use it for the energy requirements of an incinerator. This helps to

replace gas or gas oil used as fuel.

3.2 BURNING AFTER “MILD” REPROCESSING

The term “mild” refers to separating the water and sediments contained in used oil

by settling, using a demulsifier. During the settling process, it is necessary to heat

the tank above 70/80°C. After settling, filters are used. The water and sediments

produced during the process are treated before their final disposal.

After this process, used oil is utilized in different ways. For example, it can be

mixed with other fuels. taking into consideration ash content (0.1 % max) and

viscosity. In Europe, it is not clear how it is used, but it is thought that used oil

mixed with other fuel is sold as bunker for road stone plants and power plants. Also,

used oil can be burned to dry limestone or stones used as raw material for road

manufacture. This use is very common in Belgium and the United Kingdom, but it

is not permitted in Italy. Another use of used oil is in power plants for fuel to start

the combustion process or as the main fuel.

3.3 BURNING AFTER “SEVERE” REPROCESSING

The term “severe” means transforming used oil into fuel that has similar emissions

to that of traditional fuels when burned.

Process units for treatment of used oil contain a heat column for removing water, a

distillation column that works under high vacuum pressure to remove light oil and

gas, and a distillation column that works under low vacuum pressure producing

distillates and residuals within sediments, heavy hydrocarbons, metals and

additives. Organic compounds of chlorine are maintained in distillates.

There are two patented processes. The first is called the Vaxon process by

ENPROTEC. This process consists of several vacuum cyclone evaporators,

followed by chemical treatment to obtain distillates. The second is called the

Trailblazer process by Texaco. This process consists of used oil dehydration in a

flash tower, heat soaked followed by vacuum distillation. The vacuum distillation

produces three products: 1) light hydrocarbons containing gasoline, kerosene and

others; 2) vacuum distillates containing free ash hydrocarbons in the range of diesel

that can be used the same as diesel for maritime transportation; 3) asphalt,

considered a secondary product within metals, additives and degraded products. The

metals are encased in the asphalt with low diffusivity. An example of this is a plant

in Lousiana (USA) that has a capacity of 150,000 tons/year.

Figure A-2 TRAILBLAZER PROCESS Source: Concawe. 1996. Collection and Disposal of Used Lubricating Oil. Report No. 5/96. Brussels: Concawe: 25. 3.4 RE-REFINING

Introduced for the first time in the 1930s, its use increased during the Second World

War and continued through the 1970s. After the petroleum crisis, it competed very

well with the burning option. Used oil was utilized because of its low price as a

substitute for fuel, and at the same time, it was considered an alternative for raw

material used in the processing of new oils.

When environmental consciousness increased during the 1980s, the following

implications arose:

A decrease of re-refining plants that use the acid/clay process, mainly in

the United States, for economic and environmental reasons.

Improvement in the equipment utilized for burning used oil, significantly

decreasing the contamination produced by burning.

Improvement of the re-refining technology considering improvement in

the quality of the product as well as contamination of the environment.

Currently, there are 400 re-refining plants around the world having a total capacity

of 1,800,000 tons/year. Some of those plants located in Asia (India, China and

Pakistan) have an average individual capacity of approximately 2,000 tons/year.

Following is a brief description of the different technologies used for operation at

the world level.

Table A-1 RE-REFINING PROCESS FOR USED OIL

Process Name Process Description Comments

Acid /Clay

It consists of four stages. The first consists of heating used oil in atmospheric pressure to eliminate water, light hydrocarbons and fuels. The second uses sulfuric acid to eliminate additives, polymers, oxidized and degraded products from used oil, producing sludge from those substances by settling. The third stage consists of utilizing clay to eliminate undesirable compounds through an absorption process. Finally, the fourth stage consists of neutralizing and filtrating using Ca(OH)2 .

This process is the most commercially used with more 60 plants working around the world.

Base oil quality obtained from this process is questionable.

Sludge produced and clay used in this process may cause some environmental problems in their final disposal.

Distillation /Clay

It consists of two stages. The first uses a pre-heating unit followed by the second stage that uses a lot of clay to eliminate some compounds through the absorption process.

Base oil obtained in this process has poor characteristics in relation to viscosity and volatility, because it was not stabilized or fractionated through a distillation process.

Base oil from this process, is used in some lubricating oil manufacture.

Clay can make a huge impact on the environment.

Few plants use this process and they are currently making modifications to adapt to the use of the acid/clay process.

Distillation / Chemical

Treatment or Solvent

Extraction

Basically, it consists of a cyclone evaporator sequence working with vacuum pressure followed by chemical treatment. In the first stage, it removes water, naphtha and light hydrocarbons present in used oil. In the second stage, it removes gas oil and light fuels contained in the remainder of the used oil. The third stage separates different kinds of lubricant oil. Finally, the fourth stage separates lubricating oils from the residuals. Chemical treatment is carried out after the third stage and following the fourth stage that consists of a distillation process to correct the flash point and volatility. The chemical reactor decreases the contaminant quantity. For example, chlorine is left under 5 ppm. Additionally, an extraction solvent stage can be used to eliminate poly-aromatic hydrocarbons.

Patented by ENPROTEC

with the name Re-refining Vaxon Process.

There is only one plant working with this process and it is in Spain.

CONTINUATION Table A-1

Propane De-asphalting

Basically, it consists of two stages. The first is very similar to the acid/clay process or it can use one or two vacuum columns for the same reason. The second consists of utilizing liquid propane to produce the fraction of residual asphalt within metals, additives, polymers and degraded products. This stage can be done two ways: 1) It consists of clarifying the oil through propane followed by fractionating in a vacuum unit to obtain the desired oil. 2) After using propane, the oil is distillated and fractionated, and then the hydro-treatment unit follows. The residuals from the fractionating unit return to the propane unit.

Investment and operation

costs are very high. The process with the first

method in the second stage was applied in 1968 in Pieve Fissiraga (Italy).

The process with the second method in the second stage was applied in 1982 in Ceccana (Italy).

Interline

It consists of two stages. The first is the mixing of the used oil with the propane-based solvent to recover hydrocarbon fractions. Residuals and water are separated by settling. The second stage consists of flashing the oil in atmospheric pressure to remove light hydrocarbons. The oil remnant is distillated by a vacuum unit obtaining base oil, diesel and residuals that are mixed with solid residuals from the first stage to dispose of as asphalt.

Low cost investment as

compared with other re-refining technologies.

A plant has been functioning at Draper (Utah) since 1993.

Film

Evaporator and Hydro-

treating

It consists of three stages. The first is pre-flash to eliminate water and light hydrocarbons, and chemical treatment to minimize corrosive effects. The second stage consists of de-asphalting through heating to a high temperature and high vacuum pressure. The oil remainder is then hydro-treated. Finally, it has a destination unit to fractionate the base oils in different types.

KTI, Chemical Engineering

Partners (CEP), Breslube-Safetyklen and Buss Luwa use this technology.

Thermal De-asphalting

It consists of four stages. The first is similar to the previous process using pre-flash and chemical treatment. The second consists of settling the heating oil in a special tank. In the third stage, de-asphalting is produced through heating from the bottom of the distillation column, obtaining different types of base oils. Finally, the fourth stage can be accomplished by clay treatment or by hydro-treatment.

This process has been

developed by Agip-Petroil/Viscolube, with plants functioning in Spain.

CONTINUATION Table A-1

Pre-treatment and Lu-

bricating Oil Refinery

Recycling

It consists of two stages. The first is pre-flash in a distillation column to separate water, fuels and light hydrocarbons. The oil is de-asphalted by the film evaporator. Then oil is fractionated, condensed, cooled and sent to the lubricating oil refinery. The second stage consists of removing the poly-aromatic hydrocarbon and other compounds using the aromatic extraction unit, and finally, the hydro-treatment to improve oil quality such as color, oxidation and thermal stability.

Currently, it is

commercialized by DEA in Germany.

UOP

De-asphalting is obtained by using hydrogen at a high temperature. With the hydrogen rich stream, it continues to take out water, light hydrocarbons and it finally utilizes a fractionating unit.

Under study.

ENTRA

It uses a pre-flash process and then it mixes sodium and belching earth in a tubular reactor, breaking the metal organic compound chain.

Under study.

Supercriti-cal Extraction

It applies the technology of de-asphalting and fractionating in an advanced method in a re-refining plant. Pre-flash and hydro-treatment are very similar to de-asphalting by propane.

Under study

Refinery Recycling

It requires a re-processing plant very similar to the “severe” type. Normally, it consists of the pre-flash of used oil directly by a vacuum column in an existing refinery. The main product of this process is gas oil, which is useful for a catalytic cracker feedstock or lubricant oil production.

Currently, it is being tested

in France. Cost reduction is expected.

Source: Concawe. 1996. Collection and Disposal of Used Lubricating Oil. Report No. 5/96. Brussels: Concawe: 26-37. 3.5 GASIFICATION

This technology has been developed by Texaco and used by more than 100 plants

around the world to convert carbon that contains materials for the synthesis of gas

(CO and H2). The process uses gas, oil and solids such as coal or petroleum coke.

The reaction is carried out at 2500°F and the main organic compound is methane.90

Sulfur compounds contained in used oil are converted into hydrogen sulfide. They

are removed by traditional methods. There are no dioxins or metal emissions during

this process.

The size of those plants is greater than that of others required for used oil, because

they have not been designed for that purpose.

90 Teintze, L.M., Used Oil Issues and Opportunities, Paper presented at the 1991 NPRA National Fuels and Lubricants Meeting (White Plain, New York: Texaco Inc., 1991), 15.

APPENDIX B

COMBUSTION 1. BASIC CONCEPTS

The combustion process is a fast oxidation process of some substance. Oxidation is

an exothermic chemical reaction. There are three important components in a

combustion system: fuel, oxidant and diluent.

Fuel: It is formed by chains of C-C, C-H, and H-H. These chains contain sources of

chemical energy.

Oxidant: It reacts with fuel during the combustion process, changing the stored

chemical energy in the fuel to thermal energy. The most common oxidant is the

oxygen that is in the air.

Diluent: It is a substance that does not participate in the chemical reactions of either

the fuel or the oxidant. It limits the temperature reached in the combustion. For

example, it may be nitrogen, water vapour or others such as oxygen. Oxygen in

excess acts as a diluent in the combustion process; therefore, it is present physically

but does not act chemically.

There are different manners used to classify the combustion process such as

premixed flame or diffusion flame, monopropellant and propellant combustion, and

explosions. This depends on the initial state of the fuel and the oxidant. The

different types of reaction in the combustion process are:

Pyrolysis: This type of reaction occurs without oxygen. Normally, it is influenced

by different concentrations and types of species produced in the combustion.

Homogeneous y Heterogeneous: A homogeneous reaction is anyone that occurs in

one phase and heterogeneous is anyone that occurs in at least two phases. The

heterogeneous reaction describes the catalytic reaction (occurring on a solid surface)

and the non-catalytic reaction (particle oxidation in hot gases).

The Flame and Non-flame Process: Flame zones are fast oxidation reaction in

which great discontinuity results in its composition and temperature.

Partial and Complete Combustion: This refers to the oxidation state of products.

One form of measuring complete or incomplete combustion is to use a stichometric

mixture of fuel and oxidant. This indicates that the oxidant quantity present is

sufficient to totally complete the fuel oxidation for the combustion process. The

mixture with oxidant excess is called “lean,” and the opposite is called “rich.” The

generic form for hydrocarbon combustion is:

( )

22

22222

2179

221

21

2179

NnObaan

HbyObHCOaaCONnnOCH y

⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛+⎥⎦

⎤⎢⎣⎡ −

−−−+

⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛ −++−+→⎟

⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛++

In addition, the relation of fuel and air is measured with:

⎥⎦

⎤⎢⎣

⎡⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛+

=⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛

21791n

nAF f

mol

In which the hydrocarbon composition is normalized with respect to the number of

atoms of C. (y=H/C)

Also, the different combustion processes are normally compared to see their

richness or leanness. For that reason, the following equation is used to show the

relation between F/A present with F/A stichiometric.

( )( ) tricoEstequiomé

Actual

FAFA

//

=φ

2. THE COMBUSTION PROCESS

This section will explain the combustion process according to Edwards (1975).

Combustion can be classified depending on whether fuel and oxidant are mixed

before the flame zone or not --in other words, premixed flame or diffusion flame.

In premixed flames, the fuel is mixed in the molecular level with oxidant, and all

the combustion process is managed by chemical reactions, such as occurs in an

internal combustion gasoline engine or Bunsen burner.

Figure B-1 PREMIXED COMBUSTION OF A GASEOUS MIXTURE FLOWING THROUGH A PIPE

Source: Edwards, J.B. 1974. Combustion: Formation and Emission of Trace Species. United States: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.:26.

Premixed flame is formed by three stages clearly identified as pre-combustion

reactions, combustion reactions and post-combustion reactions.

A. Pre-combustion Reactions: These are all the chemical reactions that occur

before ignition. These reactions are influenced by the combustion reactions due to

counter flow produced by the diffusion process and the flame radiation.

These reactions can be:

OHCHHCOHCHHC

OHHRCCHCHOHRCHCHCH

OHROHRH

radicalArylAromatic

radicalAllylOlefin

RadicalAlkylAlkane

2256356

2222

2

+−→+−

+=→+=

+→+

••

••

•

•R (R is a complex group with methyl CH3) formed by reactions before and can

have the following paths to react:

•• +→+ RROOHRHROO •• →+ ROOOR 2

ROOHROO •• →

A direct reaction that may occur in this stage is between hydrocarbon molecule RH

and one of oxygen, with a temperature between 900-1000°F, it may be:

•• +→+ OHRORH 22 (endothermic reaction)

The Chain Branching Reaction increases throughout all the process and ends with

the ignition. Before the ignition , some compounds such as aldehydes, ketones,

alcohols y O-heterocyclics are produced.

•RO

Pre-combustion reactions influence the combustion process, and the temperature

increases up to the combustion zone ( )dxdT (dT/dx=105 °C/cm), depending on the

concentration of the species and the diffusion coefficient.

Additionally, the pre-combustion reaction has an influence over the nature of the

hydrocarbon and particulate emissions in the combustion process, changing the

mixture of the F/A.

Ignition occurs between the pre-combustion phase and the combustion phase. It

occurs when the temperature of the mixture increases and the chemical chains are

broken, freeing the energy and changing their composition rapidly.

The reactions produce a rapidly increased free radical concentration. Then other

chemical compounds react with the molecules of the fuel. If the combustion is not

maintained and there is no propagation of the flame, the ignition is said to be false.

Normally, not all the F/A mixture is burned, due to a quench layer produced by the

walls, because the walls have a lower temperature than the flame. This region is

called “quench.” Incomplete reactions occur near the walls and the chemical

compounds may advance to the post-combustion zone where they can oxidize or

produce a pyrolysis reaction, depending on its composition.

B. Combustion Reactions. In this process, CO2, CO, H2O and H2, are produced,

and NO can also be produced and particles may begin to be produced.

222

1222

1

42224

22

3.68

8.212

0.94

HmolkcalOHOH

CHmolkcalOHCOOCH

CmolkcalCOOC

+→+

++→+

+→+

Combustion heat in standard conditions can be calculated:

producto del moléculas las deformación deCalor

ecombustibl del moléculas las deformación deCalor combustión deCalor

,

,

1,

1,

=

==∆

−=∆ ∑∑==

if

jf

C

m

iif

p

jjfC

H

HH

HHH

If reactions occur instantaneously and there is no time for heat transfer, the process

can then be considered adiabatic.

Thermodynamically, the volume of the reactant gases may be constant or the

pressure of reactant gases may maintain constant. The adiabatic temperature can be

obtained, depending on the process.

The maximum adiabatic temperature of the flame occurs near the stechiometric

mixture. If φ > 1, then diluents such as N produce a diminishing of temperature. If

φ <1 exist, part of the fuel is not burned, and the combustion heat decreases. The

energy that is not released is maintained in the bond between compounds, and this

produces a decrease of temperature.

The type of fuel has an influence. If H/C is less, then the adiabatic temperature

increases because it needs less air to complete the combustion.

The presence of CO2 and H2O that depends on the ratio of the H/C of the

hydrocarbons influences the temperature for the dissociation process. This process

is endothermic. Besides, it is known that at a higher temperature, there is more

dissociation and with more pressure, less dissociation is produced. For this reason,

the less the dissociation is, the greater the adiabatic temperature will be.

••

••

+→

+→

HHOOH

OCOCO

2

2

(Dissociation Reactions)

Finally, depending on the combustion process, if the volume is constant, there is no

work of gases and they do not expand and the energy is maintained in the system as

internal energy, producing an increase of adiabatic temperature. This does not occur

at constant pressure.

In addition, radiant energy may be produced by the particles formed, and this energy

is part of flame luminosity.

C. Post Flame Reaction. This zone appears after the combustion reactions. It

includes the zone that can emit luminous radiation. The reactants are particles and

compounds in the gas phase. The reactants can participate in heterogeneous

reactions and homogeneous reactions that may be oxidation reactions and pyrolysis.

In this phase, there may be reactions from the re-combination of radicals, oxidation

of CO, pyrolysis reactions, particle formation and chemical reactions that can occur

in the flue gas.

1) Re-combination of radical. These reactions are slower than those occurring at

higher temperatures. The reactions that have more probability of occurring are any

that are produced by the collision of two bodies.

energy internal their of absorption for the molecules theStabilizes2

2

=+→++

+→++••

••

MMOHMOHH

MOMOO

2) Oxidation of CO. This reaction is produced so rapidly that it can maintain the

four compounds in equilibrium:

molkcalHCOOHCO 252 ++⇔+ ••

The quick cooling favors NO formation and does not favor the reduction of CO, and

vice versa when the cooling is slow.

3) Pyrolysis reactions. These reactions occur when oxidation is absent or nearly

absent in the compounds. These reactions are endothermic and they need high-

energy activation (the necessary energy to active a chemical reaction) supplied by a

thermal source.

Endothermal reactions produce compounds with low molecular weight from the

most complex compounds.

At a low temperature, hydrocarbons can appear in one of two ways:

1. When produced by combustion, they are a simple structure and are not so

saturated by dehydrogenation reactions produced at high temperatures:

nHydrocarbonHydrocarbonHydrocarboAcetylenicOlefinicSaturated

∆∆→→

2. They can come from a quenched layer of high flame gases. If their temperature is

high, a breaking of their chains may be produced, and if their temperature is low,

they may combine with other compounds.

Pyrolisis reactions produced sequentially may produce the synthesis of more

complex molecules in the exhaust gases such as polyaromaticbenzo-(a)-pyrene.

In addition, pyrolysis reactions have the tendency to produce polinuclear

compounds:

ParaffinsOlefinsnsCycloolefiAromatics >>>

The reaction of the hydrocarbons basically has two paths of reaction --oxidation and

pyrolysis. Finally, the products of these reactions can produce particles.

4) Particle formation. They may be formed by organic-metallic or inorganic

substances induced by fuel and air.

The inorganic matter present in the fuel is recognized as ash that could not be

destroyed in the fuel ignition.

Organic-metallic may be present in the fuel because of additives. These are oxidized

in the flame and they appear as inorganic oxide or salts.

Fine inorganic matter is present in the environment and is carried by the air. The

size of the particles depends on the vaporization and re-condensation of gases.

Another particle source may be hydrocarbons from pyrolytic reactions that can be

considered the precursors when there is 50.0/00.0 << CH

Other mechanisms such as organic nucleation and agglomeration may be present.

Everything (size, MW, etc) depends on the residence time of the particles, the

temperature and the degree of oxidation in high-temperature conditions.

5) Reactions in the exhaust gases. These are all the reactions that can occur in the

exhaust gases including compounds of the gas phase, condensation, and reactions

between the liquid and the solid phase.

a) Chemical reactions. There exists a great variety of compounds as the product of

partial or complete reactions. In some cases, there are reactions between different

compounds when the conditions are favorable. The residence time is so short that

some reactions do not occur.

b) Condensation. This occurs when the temperature of the gas is below the dew

point --in other words, when the gas is saturated with water vapor. The dew point

for hydrocarbon combustion is relatively low (100-140°F).

Water may come from the combustion or from the excess of a second combustion

process. An excess of water does not participate in the chemical reactions or

increase the dew point. If the particles are hydroscopic, then they absorb the air

humidity and remove the water vapor in the exhaust gases. Some fuel additives can

perform this function, such as SO3 which is hygroscopic, producing sulfuric acid. In

addition, the hydroscopic particles may absorb the soluble components in the gases

and produce corrosive or catalytic reactions.

c) Reactions with the surface. This occurs between surfaces and exhaust gases.

Some materials present on the surface can work as catalysts, such as V2O5 produced

by waste fuel.

One of the differences between diffusion flame and premixed flame is that pre-

combustion reactions occur before mixing fuel and air. The pre-combustion zone in

the diffusion flame does not contain oxidant components (O,OH, O2, etc), and for

that reason, it is expected that the reactions will be similar to pyrolysis, depending

on the contra-flow that carries thermal energy and active components from the

combustion zone to the pre-combustion zone. Due to these reactions, non-saturated

compounds are formed, such as olefin, acetylene and particle formation due to

reactions between them or by polymerization. When the particles go to the flame,

they radiate energy as black bodies. The particles produced in the pre-combustion

zone absorb radiated energy from the combustion zone. That energy is transferred to

the gases, increasing their temperature and promoting pyrolitic reactions in the gas

phase. In this zone, the reactions are endothermic in contrast with the premixed

flame where they are exothermic.

The ignition in the diffusion flame is controlled by physics processes that are

included in the mixture as turbulence and system geometry because the oxidation of

the fuel does not occur indifferently to the increase in temperature before the

mixture is produced. Different is what occurs in the premixed flame controlled by

kinetic chemistry that influences the released heat and the break of the chemical

chain.

Another important point is that oxidation does not occur until the fuel and the

oxidant are mixed; for that reason, the pyrolytic reaction may continue until the

mixture occurs. If the final mixture is poor, then it produces more particles and

other compounds due to pyrolytic reactions.

The following figure shows that the fuel and the oxidant are separated and the flame

is produced in the intermediate zone where the two meet and mix. It can be seen

then that, on the one hand, the relation between fuel and oxygen is so great that the

combustion cannot be maintained, and on the other hand, the same rate can be so

small that there is not enough fuel to maintain the combustion. The width of the

zone of combustion depends on the relationship between the molecules of the fuel

and the oxidant. Therefore, it is possible to conclude two things: 1) It is not possible

to control the combustion with a specific ratio between air/fuel that will be

favorable with respect to the products of the desired reactions. 2) The mixture of

fuel will always exist at a point between the air and fuel flow, and it will not occur

if one of the two components is totally interrupted, the flame becoming more stable.

Figure B-2 SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP OF FUEL AND OXIDANT IN

A DIFFUSION FLAME Source: Edwards, J.B. 1974. Combustion: Formation and Emission of Trace Species. United States: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.:127.

All kinds of fuels can be burned, whether liquid, gas or solid. The following figure

shows that if the velocity of the premixed reactants produced from the neck of the

nozzle is greater than the burning rate between the air and the fuel, then the flame

will die down and return inside the chamber.

3. LIQUID COMBUSTION

The first step in burning the liquid fuel is vaporization, in which the vapor is mixed

with the air surrounding it, producing the fuel mixture. If the fuel that is burned is

more liquid than gas, then it is necessary to add the vaporization stage.

The vaporization and mixture steps are in series in which the vaporization

influences and controls the combustion.

3.1 VAPORIZATION

The most important factors that have an influence in the vaporization are liquid

dispersion, the vaporization process and pressure.

a. Liquid Dispersion. When the surface area increases, vaporization also increases;

for this reason, the liquid fuel is broken down (atomized, etc) into spray form. It is

important to mention that the diameter of the particles over 1cm are known as

“pools” and diameters between 104 u – 102 u as “droplets.”

b. Vaporization Process. This process is endothermic, and the energy necessary for

converting the liquid fuel in vapor is commonly called latent heat vaporization.

When the heat is supplied by surrounding gases or by cooling liquids, the process is

commonly called evaporation. The combustion process is a fast conversion from

liquid fuel to vapor fuel, in which energy is usually supplied by the combustion

process.

Liquid fuels contain two or more chemical components. Some of them have high-

pressure vaporization, so they evaporate rapidly, and others evaporate until they

reach their vaporization temperature. For this reason, the temperature of the process

is not constant. If the temperature in the liquid phase is higher than the

decomposition temperature, then it may produce pyrolysis in the liquid phase with

high molecular weight carbons resistant to oxidation appearing in the exhaust gases

as particles.

c. Pressure. By increasing the pressure, the temperature required to vaporize the

fuel is higher also. Increasing the temperature in the liquid phase, the probability of

getting weight components in pyrolytic reactions is high. In addition, it is important

to mention whether or not the critical pressure of one or more fuel components

increases. Fuel dispersion is normally for the application of high hydrostatic

pressure that forces the liquid fuel through the nozzle to form little droplets. The

result of mixing the air with vapor fuel is important to start the pre-combustion

reactions.

3.2 MIXTURE

After the liquid fuel has been vaporized, it needs to be mixed with air before

combustion occurs. In the diffusion flame, the liquid is completely vaporized before

combustion. The thermal energy received from the combustion zone may accelerate

the vaporization rate of the fuel. Little droplets present a greater area per liquid mass

unit in which the evaporation occurs.

Droplet vaporization is driven by the radiant energy of the flame. The volume

between the surface droplet and the concentration of the diffused flame contains

vapor fuel that is carried by pyrolytic reactions of pre-combustion. The fuel

concentration, the oxidant and the product reactions are functions of the radial

distance of the droplet as shown in the following figure. The oxidant concentration

decreases in the reaction zone near the external part because of the dilution of the air

by the combustion products.

Figure B-3: COMBUSTION OF A LIQUID FUEL DROPLET ENVELOPED IN A DIFFUSION FLAME

Source: Edwards, J.B. 1974. Combustion: Formation and Emission of Trace Species. United States: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.:133.

The concentration profile shown in the center is perhaps the result of a reaction with

NO. The formation rate is the function of the oxygen concentration, the temperature

and the time of the reaction of the gases maintained at high temperature. As the gas

reactions go through the combustion zone, the formation rate of NO is expected to

reach the maximum because of the temperature and perhaps the concentration of

CO is similar.

Volatile compounds are heated and they diffuse to the droplet surface. The

volatilization continues and the temperature of the remaining liquid may increase up

to the point where the pyrolysis reactions occur in the liquid phase.

If the heating continues in the non-vaporized viscous material, vitreous mass may

be produced in the exhaust gases. This is known as cenosphere.

This model of spherical reaction is ideal. When the droplet has relative movement

with the air, then the reaction zone is not concentric.

If the air temperature is high enough, oxidation in the homogeneous phase may

occur. This may produce complete or partial oxidation, depending on the air

temperature and the time available.

4. COMBUSTION FUEL SPRAY

Droplet combustion takes place because of the interactions the droplets may have

with nearby droplets. It may occur in two cases:

1. When there is no overlapping between regions, combustion may occur in

lean fuel conditions.

2. When there is overlapping in the air volume, enough air is not available

for complete combustion. For that reason, there is rich combustion based

on the mass average.

When the droplets are near each other, a fuel-rich combustion is created. Not all the

available energy is released and the net temperature in the flame may be

considerably less than when the droplets are far from each other during combustion.

The space between droplets changes with time and position.

From the tri-dimensional point of view, the distribution of the droplets changes, for

example, in atomization with a nozzle, spinning disc or ultrasonic.

The size of the distribution of the droplets depends on the geometry of spray and the

manner of interaction between droplets and air in the primary combustion chamber.

The air in the primary combustion chamber may change the geometry and size

distribution of the fuel in the spray. In addition, there are other factors such as

vaporization and evaporation in spray geometry.

When the atomization pressure increases, more work is applied to the fuel and the

droplet size in the distribution tends to be small. For that reason, viscosity, surface

tension and density are important.

If the surface area per fuel mass unit increases, then the vaporization and

evaporation rates also increase, and then the mixing between vapor fuel and primary

air combustion is faster.

If the velocity of the droplets is constant in the spray, then the individual

momentum of the droplets is constant. This tends to decrease when the diameter

also decreases. This produces a diminishing of spray penetration and reduces the

volume required for primary combustion. When the distance between the air

particles and the fuel decreases, then more pyrolytic reactions appear than oxidation

reactions. For this reason, the net result in some situations depends on different

factors such as the initial point and the changes that occur.

Figure B-4: ATOMIZATION AND COMBUSTION OF A LIQUID FUEL Source: Edwards, J.B. 1974. Combustion: Formation and Emission of Trace Species. United States: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.:140.

According to the figure:

a) The spread of fuel is created by the force of the hydrostatic pressure applied

through the nozzle. The work carried out by the fuel increases its internal

energy. Part of this increase is due to the increasing of the kinetic energy

related to the high velocity of droplets from the nozzle, and the liquid is also

spread at a small divergent angle.

b) Similar to the previous case, but with a more divergent angle.

c) A great separation of droplets is produced when they are atomized by the

centrifugal force of the spinning disc.

d) This is known as air blast atomization. Another atomization method is when

a portion of liquid fuel is compressed and mixed with air, producing two

phases through the nozzle. This increases the available oxygen as compared

to the above cases.

An O2 excess is necessary to ensure the complete oxidation of the products from the

pyrolytic reactions in the pre-combustion and to compensate the changes of the

stequiometric mixture through the spray.

The flow of liquid fuel from the injector produces droplets of different sizes. The

different sizes of the droplets behave differently in the flow. The large droplets have

great momentum and penetrate into the flow of air before the axial velocity

disappears because of the residence time.

Combustion depends on:

1. Vaporization rate and mixture of vapor fuel with air.

2. Temperature and pressure of air.

3. Presence of radiant energy from the nearness of the flame or other source

of ignition where it begins and controls the pre-combustion reactions.

The small lightweight droplets have less momentum. In addition, they evaporate

more quickly due the great surface area, and they may evaporate completely before

the combustion of the vaporized fuel. Before the vaporization of the droplets, there

may be different paths, especially when the droplets are large.

The objective of burning liquid fuel with spray instead of pool is to increase the

combustion intensity (thermal energy released/m3s).

There may be natural convection, and this force is used to burn liquid fuel. The

associated flow and turbulence is referred to as primary flow or turbulence flow.

The combustion process induces variations of flow and turbulence as the product of

combustion heat that expands in the combustor known as secondary flow or

turbulence.

5. ATOMIZER91

Before defining an atomizer, it is important to mention what is known about

burners. A burner is a device that has all the mechanisms for the supply of fuel and

oxidant and also the environment where the mixing of the fuel and oxidant and the

thermo-chemical process (rapid oxidation) is produced.

Atomizers are devices that inject liquid fuel as fine droplets into the combustion

chamber. The main reason for using atomizers is that atomization is an intermediate

step breaking down the continuous liquid and producing rapid evaporation.

There are three basic ways to atomize:

5.1 ATOMIZATION UNDER PRESSURE

This type of atomization consists of hitting the liquid fuel flow against different

surfaces, changing the direction of the flow and producing fractions of the fuel.

Figure B-5 CENTRIFUGE ATOMIZER Source: Menoscal, V.E. 1989. Obtención de alta temperatura en un horno basculante para fundir acero por recuperación de calor. Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL). Tesis Previa al grado de Ingeniero Mecánico. Guayaquil, Ecuador:22.

5.2 ATOMIZATION OF DOUBLE FLUID

This type of atomization consists of breaking down the liquid fuel by the viscose

shear force induced by a fluid under pressure.

91 Patiño, M., FIMP02485 Combustion, (Guayaquil, Ecuador: Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, 1999).

Figure B-6 PILLARD ATOMIZER Source: Menoscal, V.E. 1989. Obtención de alta temperatura en un horno basculante para fundir acero por recuperación de calor. Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL). Tesis Previa al grado de Ingeniero Mecánico. Guayaquil, Ecuador:33.

5.3 ATOMIZATION BY ROTATING COP

This type of atomization is due to the centrifugal force and the spiral geometry of

the atomizer making the fluid go to the cop exit, producing liquid fuel as a fine

conic layer that hits the air outside, inducing shear force and producing liquid fuel

fractions. Due to the conic shape, the surface area of the fuel increases, making the

thickness of the layer decrease.

Figure B-7 ROTATING COP ATOMIZER Source: Menoscal, V.E. 1989. Obtención de alta temperatura en un horno basculante para fundir acero por recuperación de calor. Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL). Tesis Previa al grado de Ingeniero Mecánico. Guayaquil, Ecuador:38.

APPENDIX C92

MATHEMATICS CORRELATION FOR BURNING

Organic Destruction

kCdtdC −=

C = concentration at time t (seconds)

k = rate constant

The rate constant, k, in Arrehenius form:

( )RT

EVek −=

Combining the last equations, the destruction efficiency is:

( )RTEVteeN

/

1−−−=

Then the incinerator temperature is:

( )( )( )( )VNtRET /1lnlnln −−+=

Where:

N= destruction efficiency

V= frequency factor (second-1)

E = activation energy (cal/g –mole)

R = universal gas constant (1.987 cal/g –mole- °K)

T = incinerator temperature (°K)

92 Brunner, C.R., Handbook of Hazardous Waste Incineration, 1st ed. (United States: Tab Books Inc., 1989), 307; and Mejía, G., ENEV609: Air Pollution & Its Impact on the Energy Sector (Quito,

Residence Time

First, the time-temperature curve assumes that there is no mixing of the gaseous

combustion product (plug flow) and there is no change in the temperature

(isothermal) along the flow path.

( )60QVT =

In where:

T = mean residence time, seconds

V = furnace volume, cubic feet

Q = volumetric flow rate, scfm

The instant flow rate is proportional to temperature:

( )460' TQQ =

In where:

Q’= actual flow rate, scfm

T = temperature, °R

Then:

QTVT 600,27=

The differential mean residence time, dt, across an element of volume, dV, can

be expressed:

Ecuador: ITESM, August 2001).

dxQTAdt ⎟

⎠⎞⎜

⎝⎛= 600,27

Assuming an approximation solution with a linear gas temperature-axial

distance profile between the point of maximum temperature and the furnace

exit:

( )( )

( )( )me

me

m

mxx

TTxx

TT−

−=−−

Combining the two equations and integrating:

( ) ( )( ) ( )( )em

TT

emQA

m TTxx

tt m

−−

=−ln600,27

The assumption is that the maximum temperature in the furnace (Tm) occurs

close to the furnace entrance, or Xm<<Xe at the data point in time which defines

tm=0, then:

( )me

m

TTQT

TVt

−

⎟⎠⎞⎜

⎝⎛

=ln600,27

For the minimum residence time (fast path residence time), that is assumed to

be ½ the mean residence time.

( )me

m

TTQT

TVt

−

⎟⎠⎞⎜

⎝⎛

=ln800,13

Turbulence

baabD

vVD

e +=

=

2

Re

APPENDIX D

KINETIC MODEL FOR FORMATION OF CHLORINATED DIOXINS

Table D-1 KINETIC REACTIONS

No. Reaction log A n E, kcal/mole 1 Cs + O2 (CO)s + O 11.30 - 18.00 2 Cs + O (CO)s + H 13.34 - 4.53 3 (CO)s CO + products 11.40 - 13.90 4 (CO)s + (CO)s DD + products 23.04 -2.92 15.89 5 DD + O2 products 11.30 - 18.00 6 DD + O products 13.34 - 4.53 7 DD + OH products 13.11 - 10.60 8 H + O2 O + OH 14.30 - 16.79 9 H2O + O OH + OH 10.17 1.14 16.98

10 HCl + H Cl + H2 13.45 - 4.08 11 HCl + O Cl + OH 12.72 - 6.40 12 Cl + OH HCl + O 12.59 - 5.4 13 HCl + OH Cl + H2O 12.34 - 1.00 14 Cl + H2O OH + HCl 13.21 - 16.88 15 Cl + Cl + M Cl2 + M 15.10 - -1.63 16 Cl2 + H HCl + Cl 13.93 - 1.17 17 DD + Cl PCDD + H 13.67 - 26.73 18 PCDD + O2 products 11.30 - 18.00 19 PCDD + O products 13.34 - 4.53 20 PCDD + OH products 13.11 - 10.60

Note: The rate constante k=ATnexp(-E/RT) is measured in (cm3/mole)m-1.sec-1 (m is the order of the reaction)

Source: Gersimov, G. Ya. 2001. Formation of Dioxins by Incineration of Chlorine-Containing Fuels. Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves. Vol. 37 No. 2. 148-152.

APPENDIX E93

DESIGN AND OPERATING GUIDELINES FOR INCINERATOR

Table E-1 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATORS

Parameter Design Guideline Minimum Incinerator Design Temperature

1100°C*

Minimum Retention Time 2 seconds Primary Air Injection .Multi-port injection to

Maximize distribution Secondary Air injection Capacity, penetration and mixing Auxiliary Burner capacity 100% of primary and secondary design heat capacity

*For halogenated or poly-nuclear hazardous waste, the minimum incinerator design temperature should be 1300°C.

Table E-2 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS (CORRECTED TO 11% O2)

Parameter Design Guideline Inlet temperature to particulate control device

< 140°C > acid dew point

Particle Matter Concentration in stack < 20 mg/Rm3

Hydrogen Chloride Concentration in stack*

< 75 mg/Rm3

(50 ppmdv) Hydrogen Chloride Removal* > 90%

*The recommended guideline for HCl can be either the concentration limit or the removal limit.

Table E-3 STACK DISCHARGE LIMITS Parameter Limit (11%

O2) Opacity 5% maximum

Total polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans < 0.5 ng/Rm3*

*Based upon 2, 3, 7, 8 congener specific measurements and the new International Method using toxicity equivalency factors; if only homologue analytical test data are available, the most conservative (largest) equivalency factor shall then be applied.

93 Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, National Guidelines for Hazardous Waste Incineration Facilities: Design and Operating Criteria, Vol.I. (Canada: Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 1992), 2-5.

Table E-4 OPERATING GUIDELINES FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATORS

Parameter Operating Guidelines

Minimum Incinerator Operating Temperature

1000°C*

Minimum Oxygen Concentration at Secondary Chamber Outlet (dry basis)

3 %

Maximum CO Levels (10 minute rolling average)

50 ppmdv (57 mg/Rm3) at 11% O2

Minimum destruction and removal efficiency for agency specified chlorinated hazardous constituents

99.9999%

Minimum destruction and removal efficiency for agency specified non-chlorinated constituents

99.99%

*For halogenated or poly-nuclear hazardous waste, the minimum incinerator operating temperature should be 1200°C.

APPENDIX F INCINERATOR OPERATING CONDITIONS AND

EMISSION STANDARDS SPECIFIED BY VARIOUS JURISDICTION

Table F-1 INCINERATOR OPERATING CONDITION SPECIFIED BY VARIOUS JURISDICTIONS

Jurisdiction

Minimum Operating Temperature (°C)

Residence Time @ Temperature

(seconds)

Minimum Oxygen in Flue Gas

Combustion Efficiency (CE)(%)

Destruction Efficiency (DE) (%)

Destruction & Removal Efficiency

(DRE) (%)

Continuos Monitoring Parameters

Denmark Kommunekemi III

(1980)

900°C in secondary

NS

NS

99.795

99.990

NS

CO, O2, temperature at kiln exit; CE

Great Britain (PCB)

1100°C 2 NS NS NS NS

Re-Chem PCB 1100-1200°C 3.6 Japan 700°C

1100°C (PCB) NS NS NS NS NS

Fed. Republic of Germany

1200°C >0.3 6-8.5 @ HIM

6 NS 99.990 CO and temperature

Sweden 1000-1300°Cslagging>1000°C

mode primary

5

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

Switzerland NS NS NS 99.998 NS NS NSUnited States

RCRA TSCA

As per trial burn

1200°C (PCBs) 1600°C

As per trial burn

2 1.5

As per trial burn

3 2

NS 99.9

NS NS

99.99

99.9999

Temperature Temperature

Canada Quebec

New Existing Ontario

Alberta Swan Hills

British Columbia

1250°C

NS NS

1000°C 1200°C

(low toxicity waste) 1100°C (trial burn)

as per trial

2.5 NS NS 1

2.5

as per trial

3 7 7 6

3

as per trial

99.9 99.9 99.6 NS

NS

NS

NS NS

99.95 NS

NS

NS

99.99 NS NS NS

99.9999 POHC

99.99 POHC

99.9999 PCB, etc.

NS NS NS

CO, temperature

CO, O2, Temperature

NS

NS – not specified in references. Source: Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. 1992. National Guidelines for Hazardous Waste Incineration Facilities: Design and Operating Criteria. 2 vols. Canada: Queen’s Printer for Ontario: 16.

Table F-2 HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATOR EMISSION LIMITS ACID GASES AND COMBUSTION PRODUCTS SPECIFIED BY VARIOUS JURISDICTIONS (VALUES EXPRESSED AS MG/Rm3 @ 11% O2)

Jurisdiction ParticulateMatter

Hydrogen Chlorine

Hydrogen Fluoride

Sulphur Dioxide Oxides of Nitrogen

Carbon Monoxide

Total Hydrocarbons as

CH4

Cl2

Denmark (Kommunekem III)

114 342 6 855 641 192 342 ppm 28

Federal Republic of Germany

28 46 2 93 NS 93 19 NS

Sweden 64* 78* 4 NS NS NS NS NSFinland 78* 78* 4 157 NS NS NS NSSwitzerland 46 28 4 456 456 (NO2) NS NS NSNetherlands** 54 107 2 434 NS NS NS NSJapan 153 712 NS Various 481-1353 NS NS NSUnited States 128 99% NS

Removal if over 1.8 kg/h

NS NS NS NS NS

Canada Québec+

Québec (proposed)*** Ontario Alberta British Columbia

50 25 50 35

75 53.5 107 51

5++

5 4

NS+++

NS+++

463 178

NS NS 217 (NO2)

NS 81 100 342

NS 100 ppm NS NS

NS 100 ppm NS NS

* Values represent maximum operating levels,normally 1/3 of these values ** Daily mean values are wet gas values converted to dry @ 15% moisture (values @ 0.85 of wet) *** New Regulation on Air Quality; this will also include point of impingement standards for CDD and CDF (0.4 ng/Rm3, 15 minute average) and PCBs (10 ng/Rm3, 8 hour average and 20 ng/Rm3, 15 minute average) NS not specified + also phsphorus pentoxide – 10 mg/Rm3; ++ hydrobromic and hydrofluoric acids +++ 200 mg/Rm3 sulphric acid (old standard) & 143 mg/Rm3 (new standard) Source: Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. 1992. National Guidelines for Hazardous Waste Incineration Facilities: Design and Operating Criteria. 2 vols. Canada: Queen’s Printer for Ontario: 17.

must meet current point of impingement standard

Table F-3 SELECTED EMISSION STANDARDS FOR METALS FROM VARIOUS JURISDICTIONS (mg/Rm3 @ 11% O2)

Jurisdiction Cadmium Lead Mercury Italy 0.11 3.2 0.11 Sweden** 0.016 0.43 0.071 Switzerand* 0.21 5.4 0.21 West Germany* 0.21 5.4 0.21 Denmark 0.078 5.7 0.028 Netherlands 0.043 1.4 0.043 Finland** 0.12 - 0.078 Canada British Columbia

0.14

3.6

0.14

France < 0.22 - < 0.22 1 combined total of both metals * Jurisdiction include metals in groups ** Reported for MSW incinerators

Source: Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. 1992. National Guidelines for Hazardous Waste Incineration Facilities: Design and Operating Criteria. 2 vols. Canada: Queen’s Printer for Ontario:19.

Table F-4 WEST GERMAN, SWISS, B.C. AND NETHERLANDS EMISSION STANDARDS (CONCENTRATIONS mg/Rm3 @ 11% O2)

Compound Switzerland W. Germany Burnaby, B.C. Netherlands

Beryllium - 0.11 - - Cadmium 0.21 0.21 0.14 0.043 Vanadium 5.4 5.4 4.4 - Zinc 5.4 - 4.4 46 Manganese 5.4 5.4 4.4 - Cobalt 1.1 1.1 0.93 0.93 Copper 5.4 5.4 4.4 1.9 Lead 5.4 5.4 3.6 1.4 Chromium 1.1 5.4 4.4 4.3 Nickel 1.1 1.1 0.93 0.93 Mercury 0.21 0.21 0.14 0.043 Arsenic 1.1 1.1 0.93 0.43 Antimony 5.4 5.4 4.4 - Selenium 1.1 1.1 0.93 - Tellurium 1.1 1.1 0.93 - Tin - 5.4 - 19

Source: Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. 1992. National Guidelines for Hazardous Waste Incineration Facilities: Design and Operating Criteria. 2 vols. Canada: Queen’s Printer for Ontario:19.

APPENDIX G

PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION OF COMMONLY

USED LUBRICANT ADDITIVES

Table G-1 PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANT ADDITIVES

TYPE OF ADDITIVE

TYPE OF COMPOUNDS USED

REASONS FOR USE

ACTION MECHANISM

Antioxidants or oxidation inhibitors

Organic compounds containing sulfur, phosphorus, or nitrogen such as organic amines, sulfides, hydroxy sulfides, phenols, Metals like tin, zinc, or barium often incorporated.

To prevent varnish and sludge formation on metal parts. To prevent corrosion of alloy bearings.

Decrease amount of oxygen taken up by the oil, thereby reducing formation of acidic bodies. Terminates oil oxidation reactions by formation of inactive soluble compounds or by taking up oxygen. Additive may be oxidized in preference to oil.

Anticorrosives,

corrosion preventives, or

catalyst “poisons”

Organic compounds containing active sulfur, phosphorus, or nitrogen such as organic sulfides, phosphites, metal salts of thiophosphoric acid, and sulfurized waxes.

To prevent failure of alloy bearings by corrosive action. To prevent corrosive attack on other metal surfaces.

Inhibits oxidation so that no acidic bodies are formed or enables a protective film to form on bearings or other metal surfaces. Chemical film formation on metal surfaces decreases catalytic oxidation of the oil.

Detergents

Organometallic compounds such as phosphates, phenolates, sulfonates, alcoholates. High-molecular-weight soaps containing metals like magnesium, barium, calcium, tin.

To keep metal surfaces clean and prevent deposit formation of all types.

By chemical reaction or oxidation direction, oil-soluble oxidation products are prevented from becoming insoluble and depositing on various engine parts.

Dispersants

Organometallic compounds such as naphthenates and sulfonates. Organic salts containing metals, like calcium, cobalt and strontium.

To keep potential sludge forming insolubles in suspension to prevent their depositing on metal parts.

Agglomeration and deposition of duel soot and insoluble oil decomposition products is prevented by breakdown into finely divided state. In colloidal form contaminating particles remain suspended in oil.

Oiliness, film strenght, EP and antiwear agents

Organic compounds containing chlorine, phosphorous and sulfur such as chlorinated waxes, organic phosphates, and phosphites such as tricresyl phosphate and zinc dithiophosphate, and lead soaps such as lead napthenate.

To reduce friction, prevent galling, scoring, and seizure. To reduce wear.

By chemical reaction film is formed on metal contacting surfaces which have lower shear strength than base metal, thereby reducing friction and preventing welding and seizure of contacting surfaces when oil film is ruptured.

CONTINUATION OF Table G-1 Rust preventives

Sulfonates, amines, fatty oils and certain fatty acids, oxidized wax acids, phosphates, halogenated derivatives of certain fatty acids.

To prevent rust of metal parts during shutdown periods, storage or shipment of new or overhauled equipment.

Preferencial adsorption of polar-type surface-active materials on metal surface. This film repels attack of water. Neutralizing corrosive acids.

Metal desactivators

Complex organic nitrogen and sulfur containing compounds such as certain complex amines and sulfides. Some soaps.

Passify, prevent, or counteract catalytic effect of metals on oxidation

Form inactive protective film by physical or chemical adsorption or absorption. Form catalytically inactive complex with soluble or insoluble metal ions.

Stringiness and tackiness agents

Certain high-molecular-weight polymers and aluminum soaps of unsaturated fatty acids.

Increase adhesiveness of lubricant on metal surfaces, form protective coating.

Increases viscosity of lubricant and imparts adhesive and tackiness characteristics.

Water repellents

Organosilicon and other polymers, certain higher aliphatic amines and hydroxy fatty acids.

Provide water-repelent or resistant properties to non-soap thickened greases and other lubricants.

Surface-active agents form protective film on grease thickeners or other components of lubricants to reduce their affinity for water.

Emulsifiers

Certain soaps of fats and fatty acids, sulfonic acids or napthenic acids.

Used to emulsify soluble oils with water to give coolant lubricant-type fluid.

Surface-active chemical agents reduce interfacial tensions so oil can be finally dispersed in water.

Dyes Oil-soluble organic compounds with high coloring power.

Provide distinctive or attractive color.

The organic compounds with high coloring power (dyes) dissolve to impart color.

Color stabilizers

Certain hydroquinones, dithicarbamates, aliphatic amines, dicyclohexylamines.

Stabilize color and prevent formation of undesirable color.

Certain chemicals can destroy color-forming bodies by stopping or changing chemical reaction foaming them. Sometimes accomplished by oxidation inhibitors functioning as indicated above.

CONTINUATION OF Table G-1

Odor-control agents

Certain oil-soluble synthetic perfumes, sometimes nitrobenzol.

Used to provide distinctive or pleasant odor or mask undesirable odors.

Small amounts of highly odoriferous substances impart fragrant or pleasant odor when mixed with lubricants.

Antiseptics (bactericide or disinfectant)

Certain alcohols, aldehydes, phenols, mercuric compounds, and chlorine-containing compounds.

Used to control odor, foaming, metal staining, emulsion breaking in emulsion-type lubricants.

Used in soluble oils to reduce or prevent growth of bacteria causing deleterious effects in emulsion lubricants.

Pour point Wax alkylated naphtalene or phenol and their polymers. Methacrylate polymers.

To lower pour point of lubricating oil.

Wax crystals in oils coated to prevent growth and oil absorption at reduced temperatures.

Viscosity index Polymerized olefins or iso-olefins. Butylene polymers, methacrylic acid ester polymers, alkylated styrene polymers.

To lower rate of change of viscosity with temperature.

Improvers are less affected by temperature change than oil. They raise viscosity at 200°F more in proportion than at 100°F owning to their change in solubilities.

Foam inhibitors

Silicone polymers

To prevent formation of stable foam

Reduces interfacial tension no small air bubblets can combine to form larger bubbles that separate faster.

Source: Guthriee, V.B. Ed. 1960. Petroleum Products Handbook. Section 2. New York: McGraw-Hill: 47-48

APPENDIX H

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECUADORIAN FUEL

Table H-1 LIBERTAD REFINERY

Propiedad Unidad CrudoCarga

GLP GasolinaExtra

Gasolina Motores2

Diesel 1

Diesel 2

Solvente 1

Solvente 2

Trementina Mineral

Aceite Agrícola

JET A1

Fuel Oil Liviano

Fuel Oil Naviero

G35 Punto de anilina °CContenido de Aromáticos %vol 16.29 31.8 17.5Densidad API °API 59.4 61.8 66.7 72.22 47.3 43.4 16.3Gravedad Específica, 15.6/15.6 0.555 0.743 0.7319 0.8126 0.8421 0.714 0.694 0.790 0.8767 0.8094 0.9574 0.9556Punto de Destilación, 10% vol. °C 64 67 173 209 176 Punto de Destilación, 50% vol. °C 110 114 210 267 95 82 171 344 201 Punto de Destilación, 90% vol. °C 165 157 277 345 141 107 184 388 228 Contenido de Cenizas % Peso 0.0 0.001 0.032 0.029 Contenido de Azufre % Peso 0.02 0.03 0.09 0.34 0.01 0.01 0.07 0.59 0.06 1.31 1.26Contenido de Agua % Peso 0.002 0.024 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1Retención de Azufre en las cenizas % Peso Vanadio ppm Pentanos+pesados % V 0.39Cantidd de Producto producido m3 Cantidad de Producto importado m3

Source: Hernández, G. 2002. Director of Energy Information of OLADE. (Salazar, J. 2001.Petroindustrial, Unidad de Producción-Area de Programación de la Producción.. Certificados de Calidad del Producto. Oct.). Personal communication

Table H-2 ESMERALDAS REFINERY Propiedad Unidad Crudo

Carga GLP Gasolina

Extra Gasolina

Super NAO* Diesel 1 Diesel 2 Jet

Fuel

Fuel Oil No.4

Fuel Oil No. 6

Asfalto RC250

Punto de anilina °CContenido de Aromáticos %vol 17.3 20.6 24-28 17.4Densidad API °API 23.6 58.3 56.5 43.1 34.7 43.7 13.5 12.4 16.1Gravedad Específica, 15.6/15.6 0.562 0.744 0.752 0.7583 0.851 0.807 0.975 0.983 0.958Punto de Destilación, 10% vol. °C 60.3 55.3 52-56 218 176 Punto de Destilación, 50% vol. °C 105.7 103.7 100-105 282 198 Punto de Destilación, 90% vol. °C 165.9 178.7 160-178 230.1 360 316 Contenido de Cenizas % Peso 0 0.04 0.049 Contenido de Azufre % Peso 0.104 0.145 0.03 0.157 0.124 1.97 2.15Contenido de Agua % Peso 0.71 0 Retención de Azufre en las cenizas % Peso Vanadio ppm 240Pentanos+pesados % V Cantidd de Producto producido m3 Cantidad de Producto importado m3

NAO* = Nafta de Alto Octano Source: Hernández, G. 2002. Director of Energy Information of OLADE. (Salazar, J. 2001.Petroindustrial, Unidad de Producción-Area de Programación de la Producción.. Certificados de Calidad del Producto. Oct.). Personal communication

Table H-3 AMAZON REFINERY

Propiedad Unidad CrudoCarga

GLP GasolinaExtra

Destilado 1 Destilado 2

Kerex Diesel1

Diesel 2

JP-1 Jet Fuel

Aceite Agrícola

Spray Oil

Fuel Oil

Crudo Reducido

Punto de anilina °C Contenido de Aromáticos %vol 11-18.44Densidad API °API 63.2-67 42.1 36.7 40.3 43.2 34.87 16.5-19.5 30.1 30.8 14.8Gravedad Específica, 15.6/15.6 0.864 0.535 0.730 0.841 0.841 0.824 0.810 0.851 43.3 0.876 0.872 0.981Punto de Destilación, 10% vol. °C 125 53.1-55 201 0.810 267-302 296 125 Punto de Destilación, 50% vol. °C 325 93.9-96 224 186-191 303-332 324 325 Punto de Destilación, 90% vol. °C 156-161 230 349 245 224 357.0 201-232 379-398 376 Contenido de Cenizas % Peso 0 0 0.0 0.0 224.2 0.051 Contenido de Azufre % Peso 0.712 0.056 0.4 0.4 0.62 0.46 1.53Contenido de Agua % Peso 0.2 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.08 0.0Retención de Azufre en las cenizas % Peso Vanadio ppm Pentanos+pesados % V 0.36-

0.66

Cantidd de Producto producido m3 Cantidad de Producto importado m3

Source: Hernández, G. 2002. Director of Energy Information of OLADE. (Salazar, J. 2001.Petroindustrial, Unidad de Producción-Area de Programación de la Producción.. Certificados de Calidad del Producto. Oct.). Personal communication

APPENDIX I ACCUMULATED NATIONAL PRODUCTION OF LUBRICATING OIL OF 2000

Table I-1 NATIONAL PRODUCTION OF LUBRICATING OIL 2000

OIL COMPANIES JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AGUST SEPTEMBER OCTUBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER

SHELL 195319 444387 666460 921075 1219855 1459410 1683312 2011949 2279769 2546093 2793080 3016541CASTROL 156714 256296 437356 642434 806654 1025701 1208590 1402416 1549537 1679328 1859113 1972734VEEDOL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0LUBRILACA 0 5608 7797 7797 7797 7797 7797 19887 30334 47788 53185 70971

PDVSA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

SHELL PRODUCTION 352033 742445 1111613 1571306 2034306 2492908 2899699 3434252 3859640 4273209 4705378 5060246

TEXACO 326564 807211 1089519 1432197 1927328 2474227 2983308 3490964 3887234 4298036 4679102 5139396

LYTECA PRODUCTION 326564 807211 1089519 1432197 1927328 2474227 2983308 3490964 3887234 4298036 4679102 5139396

VALVOLINE 158490 187925 495478 683837 841542 1057151 1204369 1324992 1466850 1622706 1746471 1854181ESSO 8085 51607 36630 49789 64727 102402 132542 142956 179366 186406 221771 269511GULF 14963 50124 56348 84737 110307 141483 170399 203812 222898 255876 277837 317976GOLDEN BEAR 2063 29494 27071 42532 63337 109646 124420 145621 145621 146691 146691 146713ZUCCOIL 8374 36763 47616 55105 61808 61808 65533 66362 66362 68312 69742 70408MOBIL 173714 794406 683361 829550 1025881 1388576 1686930 2005602 2251133 2459128 2658793 2827393

VANDERBILT

VALVOLINE PRODUCTION 365689 1150319 1346504 1745550 2167602 2861066 3384193 3889345 4332230 4739119 5121305 5486182

TOTAL PRODUCTION 1044286 2699975 3547636 4749053 6129236 7828201 9267200 10814561 12079104 13310364 14505785 15685824

Source: Shell Ecuador, December 2001.

Table I-2 NATIONAL PRODUCTION OF LUBRICATING OIL 2001

OIL COMPANIES JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AGUST SEPTEMBER OCTUBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER

SHELL 295647 508412 814166 1067024 1376739 1632896 1914914 2143925 2390568 2758556 3018867 3279178CASTROL 187351 373750 623998 721059 786583 939031 1041263 1187839 1316279 1543144 1701526 1859908VEEDOL 0 0 11277 13302 16162 16162 16162 16162 16162 16162 16162 16162LUBRILACA 19531 33780 47313 64359 87448 107366 125886 144767 171396 208136 232877 257618

PDVSA 72100 112850 153600

SHELL PRODUCTION 502529 915942 1496754 1865744 2266932 2695455 3098225 3492693 3894405 4598098 5082282 5566466

TEXACO 414288 764988 1228122 1635900 2033640 2458050 2929164 3408888 3839220 4336374 4809042 5332167

LYTECA PRODUCTION 414288 764988 1228122 1635900 2033640 2458050 2929164 3408888 3839220 4336374 4809042 5332167

VALVOLINE 166783 274314 393187 549817 701500 792067 929550 1053974 1152454 1285248 1413898 1567408ESSO 62150 62150 67563 84063 97043 139228 180313 203763 228238 260268 289288 336093GULF 32839 63943 81333 93508 133230 160507 195798 228635 250523 279567 302612 316212GOLDEN BEAR 0 0 7646 13942 16777 16777 16777 19240 19240 19240 19240 19240ZUCCOIL 0 2841 5558 7494 8574 9974 12474 12474 12474 12474 12474 12474MOBIL 196474 407244 651653 813838 994768 1259397 1472999 1705632 1959187 2290540 2474341 2598523

VANDERBILT 0 4185

VALVOLINE PRODUCTION 458246 810492 1206940 1562662 1951892 2377950 2807911 3223718 3622116 4147337 4511853 4854135

TOTAL PRODUCTION 1375063 2491422 3931816 5064306 6252464 7531455 8835300 10125299 11355741 13081809 14403177 15752768

Source: Shell Ecuador, December 2001

APPENDIX J

SURVEY FORM FOR INDUSTRIES

El diseño del presente cuestionario esta orientado en conocer las características básicas

de hornos, calderos e incineradores en las industrias de Guayaquil, con la finalidad de

establecer futuros programas o proyectos basados en los mismos. De antemano,

agradecemos su cooperación.

DATOS GENERALES Nombre de la Industria__________________________________________________ Dirección: ____________________________________________________ Nombre de la Persona Encuestada:_________________________________________ Nombre del Encuestador: ________________________________________________ Tiempo que lleva trabajando en la planta: __________________________________ Cargo que desempeña: ____________________________________ Número de trabajadores en la planta: _____________________________________ 1.- Del siguiente cuadro indique cuales posee y de que tipo son.

Cantidad Tipo

Incinerador _______ ________________

Caldera _______ ________________

Horno Industrial _______ ________________

2.- Indique las características del equipo. (Ver hojas adjuntas)

3.- Indicar que tipo de equipos poseen para el control de la contaminación de aire y sus

respectivas características.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________ 4.- Marque con una x e indique cuál de los siguientes parámetros usan: Eficiencia de Combustión (CE) ______ Eficiencia de remoción y destrucción (DRE) ______ Eficiencia de Destrucción (DE) ______ % Monóxido de Carbono (% CO) ______ % de exceso de aire u oxígeno ______ Dioxinas y Furanos (D/F) ______

SOx (ppm) ______ Emisiones orgánicas totales (TOE) ______ HCl (ppm) ______ Cl2 (ppm) ______ Equivalente tóxico (TEQ) ______ Eficiencia del sistema de remoción para metales (SRE) ______ Otros (Indicar): ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5.- Tienen limitantes para la utilización de combustibles alternativos, tales como:

Biodiesel _______ Crudo _______ Aceite Oleohidráulico _______ Aceite de Automotores _______

Caldera Tipo de combustible Consumo de combustible (Kg/día) Consumo de combustible (Kg/año) Eficiencia Tipo de quemadores ( Pulverización mecánica, Pulverizan con fluido auxilar, de Copa rotativa )

Temperatura máxima de trabajo Temperatura de salida de la cámara de combustión (hogar)

Volumen de la cámara de combustión (hogar) Area transversal de la cámara de combustión (hogar)

Flujo volumétrico de aire en la cámara de combustión (m3/h) (hogar)

Longitud de la cámara de combustión (hogar) Exceso de aire que inyectan a la cámara de combustión (hogar)

Temperatura de salida del vapor Presión de salida del vapor Calidad de vapor Temperatura de entrada del agua de alimentación. Presión de entrada del agua de alimentación. Flujo másico de agua en la caldera (Kg/h) Flujo másico de aire en la cámara de combustión (hogar). (Kg/h).

Temperatura del aire del precalentador

Horno Industrial Tipo de combustible Consumo de combustible (Kg/día) Consumo de combustible (Kg/año) Eficiencia Tipo de quemadores ( Pulverización mecánica, Pulverizan con fluido auxilar, de Copa rotativa )

Temperatura máxima de trabajo Temperatura de salida de la cámara de combustión. Volumen de la cámara de combustión Area transversal de la cámara de combustión Flujo volumétrico de aire en la cámara de combustión (m3 /h)

Longitud de la cámara de combustión Exceso de aire que inyectan a la cámara de combustión

Incinerador Tipo de combustible Número de cámara de combustión Consumo de combustible (Kg/día) Consumo de combustible (Kg/año) Eficiencia Tipo de quemadores ( Pulverización mecánica, Pulverizan con fluido auxilar, de Copa rotativa )

Temperatura máxima de trabajo de cada cámara Temperatura de salida de cada cámara de combustión.

Volumen de cada cámara de combustión Area transversal de cada cámara de combustión Flujo volumétrico de aire en cada cámara de combustión (m3/h)

Longitud de cada cámara de combustión Exceso de aire que inyectan en cada cámara de combustión

APPENDIX K

TECHNICAL INFORMATION OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

THERMOELECTRIC ANÍBAL SANTOS

Boiler Fuel Type Fuel Oil – Bunker C Fuel Consumption (Kg/day) 227,000 Fuel Consumption (Kg/year) 70,000,000 Efficiency 90 Burner Type Mechanical Atomizer – Pulverization with

Auxiliary Fluid Maximum Temperature of Hearth 2400°F Exhaust Temperature of Hearth 710°F Volume of Hearth 12.313 ft3

Cross Section of Hearth 541 ft2

Gas Volumetric Rate at Hearth (m3/h) 59,313 Length of Hearth 22.77 ft % Air at Hearth 8 Temperature of the Vapor Exhaust 903°F Exhaust Pressure of Vapor 60 Kg/cm2

Vapor Quality Overheated Temperature of Water Supply 350°F Pressure of Water Supply 100 Kg/cm2

Mass Rate of Water (Kg/h) 132,300 Mass Rate of Hearth Gases (Kg/h) 90,000 Temperature of the Air Pre-heater 464°F

THERMOELECTRIC GONZALO CEVALLLOS

Boiler Fuel Type Fuel Oil – Bunker C Fuel Consumption (Kg/day) 445,800 (Max Load) Fuel Consumption (Kg/year) 147,114,000 Efficiency 82 Burner Type Mechanical Atomizer – Pulverization with

Auxiliary Fluid Maximum Temperature of Hearth 1200°C Exhaust Temperature of Hearth 410°C (Max Load) Volume of Hearth 795 m3

Cross Section of Hearth 104 m2

Gas Volumetric Rate at Hearth 5100 m3/min Length of Hearth 9.48 m % Air at Hearth 5% with 100% Load /10% with 50% of Load Temperature of the Vapor Exhaust 510°C Exhaust Pressure of Vapor 88 Kg/cm2

Vapor Quality 1000% Temperature of Water Supply 213°C (Max Load) Pressure of Water Supply 102 Kg/cm2

Mass Rate of Water (Kg/h) 313,920 Mass Rate of Hearth Gases (Kg/h). 264,800 Temperature of the Air Pre-heater 350°C

THERMOELECTRIC TRINITARIA

Boiler Fuel Type Light Fuel Oil No 4 Fuel Consumption (Kg/day) 725,200 (Max. Load) Fuel Consumption (Kg/year) 141,028,170 Efficiency 89.07 Burner Type Mechanical Atomizer – Pulverization with

Auxiliary Fluid Maximum Temperature of Hearth 1200°C Exhaust Temperature of Hearth 360°C (Max. Load) Volume of Hearth 920 m3

Cross Section of Hearth 576 m2

Gas Volumetric Rate (m3/h) at Hearth ---------- Length of Hearth 10 m % Air at Hearth 10% Temperature of the Vapor Exhaust 542°C Exhaust Pressure of Vapor 141 Kg/cm2

Vapor Quality Overheated Temperature of Water Supply 243°C (Max. Load) Pressure of Water Supply 150 Kg/cm2

Mass Rate of Water (Kg/h) 399,600 Mass Rate of Hearth Gases Kg/h) 431,590 Temperature of the Air Pre-heater 320°C

ANDEC – FUNASA

Industrial Furnace Fuel Type Bunker Fuel Consumption (Kg/day) 5000 – 6000 gal/day Fuel Consumption (Kg/year) 1, 371, 800 gal Efficiency ____ Burner Type Mechanical Pulverization Maximum Temperature in the Combustion Chamber

1250°C

Exhaust Temperature of the Combustion Chamber

220°C at the stack

Volume of the Combustion Chamber 27x4.5x1.6m Cross Section of the Combustion Chamber 4.5x1.6m Gas Volumetric Rate in the Combustion Chamber (m3/h)

3,600

Length of the Combustion Chamber 27 m % Air in the Combustion Chamber 62 %

CERRO BLANCO PLANT

Industrial Furnace

Fuel Type Bunker Fuel Consumption (Kg/day) Total Consumption per day in the two kilns is 450

TM bunker. 1) 3,000 TM Cli/day 2)2,000 TM Cli/day

Fuel Consumption (Kg/year) 1) 90% 2) 65%

Efficiency 1) 3,100 KJl/Kg Cli 2) 3,400 KJ/Kg Cli

Burner Type Pillard Maximum Temperature in the Combustion Chamber

1300°C (Of Clinker)


900°C (Of Clinker)

Volume of the Combustion Chamber 957.93 m3

Cross Section of the Combustion Chamber 15.2 m2

Gas Volumetric Rate in the Combustion Chamber (m3/h)

____________

Length of the Combustion Chamber 63 m % Air in the Combustion Chamber 4 % of O2 at flue gases.

POLIQUIM Incinerator

Fuel Type Diesel No. 2 Number of Combustion Chamber 2 Fuel Consumption (Kg/day) 330 Kg /day Fuel Consumption (Kg/year) No more 15 days per yaer Efficiency 86.4 – 92 % Burner Type Mechanical Pulverization Maximum Temperature in the Combustion Chamber

1,400-2000°F (Max. 2,700°F)


800-1,000°F

Volume of the Combustion Chamber 1) 1.38 m3

2) 2 m3 Cross Section of the Combustion Chamber 0.94 m2


____________

Length of the Combustion Chamber 1.47-2.0 m % Air in the Combustion Chamber N/D (4.63%)

ALFADOMUS

Industrial Furnace

Fuel Type Bunker Fuel Consumption (Kg/day) 15,200 Fuel Consumption (Kg/year) 4,560,000 Efficiency ------------- Burner Type Mechanical Pulverization Maximum Temperature in the Combustion Chamber

1,150°C


200°C

Volume of the Combustion Chamber 104 m3

Cross Section of the Combustion Chamber 5.2 m2


------------

Length of the Combustion Chamber 20 m % Air in the Combustion Chamber --------------

APPENDIX L

SURVEY FORM FOR LUBRICATION STATIONS

El diseño de la presente encuesta está en base de tratar de conocer la comercialización y

la disposición final del aceite usado, con la finalidad de establecer sus actuales usos y

sus posibles impactos tanto a la sociedad como al medio que nos rodea. De antemano,

agradecemos su cooperación.

DATOS GENERALES Nombre del Negocio ___________________________________________________ Dirección: ____________________________________________________ Nombre de la Persona Encuestada:_________________________________________ Nombre del Encuestador: ________________________________________________ Tiempo que lleva trabajando en el negocio:__________________________________ Cargo que desempeña: ____________________________________ Edad: __________________________________ Número de trabajadores en el negocio: _____________________________________ Número de vehículos atendidos por semana, mes, año: ________________________ 1.- ¿ Qué tipo de servicio brindan en su establecimiento? Marque con una X Cambio de Aceite/Filtro del Motor ______ Cambio de Empaques______ Cambio de Aceite/Grasas para Caja y Corona______ Alineación ______ ABC ______ Engrasado ______ Cambio de Bujías ______ Balanceo ______ Otros ______ 2.-¿En una escala del 1 al 8 califique el tipo de servicio que solicitan en su establecimiento? Donde 1 es el servicio mas solicitado y 8 es el menos solicitado

Cambio de Aceite/Filtro del Motor _____ Cambio de Empaques _____ Cambio de Aceite/Grasas para Caja y Corona _____ Alineación _____ ABC _____ Engrasado _____ Cambio de Bujías _____ Otros _____

3.- ¿ Dependiendo de las actividades y servicios que realiza su negocio, cómo usted clasificaría a su establecimiento ? Marque con una X

Grande ____ Mediano ____ Pequeño ____

4.- ¿ Además de los servicios mencionados anteriormente, en qué otras actividades utilizan aceites nuevos o usados en su negocio indicando una cantidad estimada ?

_____________________________________________________________________ 5.- ¿ Cómo lo comercializan? Marque con una X

Al granel _____ En envase sellado _____

6.- ¿ Con qué marca de aceite usted trabaja? Marque con una X

Exxon ______ Havoline (de Texaco) _____ Maraven _______ Shell ______ Castrol _____ SPI _______ Golden Bear______ Mobil _____ Caterpillar______ Valvoline ______ Veedol _____ Torco ______ Quaker State______ Penzoil _____ Chevron _______ YPF ______ Otros Cual _____

7.- ¿ De las marcas de aceite con que usted trabaja, por favor indique el porcentaje (%) de su uso ? Exxon ______ Havoline (de Texaco) _____ Maraven _______ Shell ______ Castrol _____ SPI _______ Golden Bear______ Mobil _____ Caterpillar______ Valvoline ______ Veedol _____ Torco ______ Quaker State______ Penzoil _____ Chevron _______ YPF ______ Otros Cual _____

8.- ¿ Por qué razón usted prefiere trabajar con esta marca (la marca de mayor porcentaje) ? _____________________________________________________________________ 9.- ¿ Usted compra el aceite para cambiar en los vehículos o los dueños le traen el aceite ? Si ___ No___ Cuánto aceite compran (gals): ________ Cuánto aceite le traen los dueños de los vehículos (gals): ________ 10.- ¿ En qué tipo de envase compran el aceite con mas frecuencia ? Marque con una X

A Granel _______ Envases de 1 Litro _______ Envases de 1 Galón _______ Otro _______

11.- ¿ Cada qué tiempo compra aceite para su negocio ? Marque con una X

Cada quince días ______ Cada mes _______ Otro ______

12.- ¿ Usted recolecta el aceite usado ? Marque con una X Si ____ (Pase a P 13) No_____ (Pase a P 14)

13.- ¿ Cómo recolecta el aceite usado ? _____________________________________________________________________ 14.- ¿ Qué hace con el aceite usado ? _____________________________________________________________________ 15.- ¿ Qué cantidad de aceite usado genera su negocio_______ Gals o Tanques (55 gals) al mes ?

16.- ¿ Qué hace con el aceite recolectado? Vende ________ Descarga al sistema de alcantarillado ________ Lo Regala ________ Otros ________

17.- En caso de vender/regalar el aceite, conoce usted el uso final del mismo.

Si ______ No______ ¿ Cuáles ? ________

__________________________ 18.- ¿ A quién le vende/regala el aceite ? _____________________________________________________________________ 19.- ¿ En caso de vender el aceite usado, a qué precio por galón o por tanque (55 gals) lo venden ? _____________________________________________________________________ 20.- ¿ Qué otros desechos genera su negocio ? _____________________________________________________________________ 21.- ¿ Cuál es la disposición final de estos residuos ? _____________________________________________________________________

APPENDIX M

LIST OF LUBRICATION STATIONS

APPENDIX N

MULTIVARIABLE TABLES OF LUBRICATION STATIONS

APPENDIX O

COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE SHORTEST ROUTE

#include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <math.h> #define MAXVERTICES 500 void dijkstra(int vertices,int origen,int destino,int *costos)

/*This function has been modified and adapted from: Coded function by Cintra, G.1998. University of Sao Pablo

Structure of data carried out by: Endamorro, P. 1998. University of Sao Pablo*/ { int i,v, antecesor[MAXVERTICES], z[MAXVERTICES]; double min, dist[MAXVERTICES]; for (i=0;i<vertices;i++) { if (costos[(origen-1)*vertices+i]!=-1) { antecesor[i]=origen-1; dist[i]=costos[(origen-1)*vertices+i]; } else { antecesor[i]=-1; dist[i]=HUGE_VAL; } z[i]=0; } z[origen-1]=1; dist[origen-1]=0; do { min=HUGE_VAL; for (i=0;i<vertices;i++) if (!z[i]) if (dist[i]>=0 && dist[i]<min) {min=dist[i];v=i;} if (min!=HUGE_VAL && v!=destino-1) { z[v]=1; for (i=0;i<vertices;i++) if (!z[i]) { { dist[i]=dist[v]+costos[v*vertices+i];antecesor[i]=v;} } } } while (v!=destino-1 && min!=HUGE_VAL); if (min==HUGE_VAL)

printf("\nEn el grafo dado no existe camino entre los vertices %d y %d !!\n",origen,destino); else { printf("\nEl camino de costo minimo entre los vertices %d y %d es (en orden reverso):\n", origen,destino); i=destino; printf("%d",i); i=antecesor[i-1]; while (i!=-1) { printf("<-%d",i+1); i=antecesor[i]; } printf("\nEl costo del camino es: %d\n",(int) dist[destino-1]); } } /* dijsktra */ main(int argc, char **argv) { char opcion,lixo[50]; int i, vertices=0, origen, destino, *costos=NULL, costo; int j,k; int ver[120][120]; for (j=0;j<119;j++) for (k=0;k<119;k++) { ver[k][j]=-1;

ver[11][10]=80; ver[48][49]=80; ver[80][79]=80; ver[10][9]=110; ver[49][48]=80; ver[80][81]=80; ver[9][8]=90; ver[49][50]=80; ver[81][80]=80; ver[8][7]=80; ver[50][49]=80; ver[81][82]=80; ver[7][6]=80; ver[50][51]=80; ver[82][81]=80; ver[6][7]=80; ver[51][50]=80; ver[82][83]=80; ver[5][4]=80; ver[51][52]=80; ver[83][82]=80; ver[4][3]=80; ver[52][51]=80; ver[83][84]=80; ver[3][2]=80; ver[52][53]=90; ver[84][83]=80; ver[2][1]=80; ver[53][52]=90; ver[84][85]=80; ver[1][12]=80; ver[53][54]=100; ver[85][84]=80; ver[12][13]=80; ver[54][53]=100; ver[85][86]=90; ver[13][14]=80; ver[54][55]=80; ver[86][85]=90; ver[14][15]=80; ver[55][54]=80; ver[86][87]=110; ver[15][16]=80; ver[45][56]=80; ver[87][86]=110; ver[16][17]=80; ver[56][57]=80; ver[87][88]=80; ver[17][18]=80; ver[57][56]=80; ver[88][87]=80;

ver[78][100]=160; ver[18][19]=80; ver[57][58]=80; ver[89][90]=80; ver[19][20]=90; ver[58][57]=80; ver[90][89]=80; ver[20][21]=110; ver[58][59]=80; ver[90][102]=80; ver[21][22]=80; ver[59][58]=80; ver[102][90]=80; ver[12][23]=70; ver[59][60]=80; ver[91][92]=40; ver[23][24]=80; ver[60][59]=80; ver[92][91]=40; ver[24][23]=80; ver[60][61]=80; ver[92][93]=40; ver[24][25]=80; ver[61][60]=80; ver[93][92]=40; ver[25][24]=80; ver[61][62]=80; ver[94][95]=80; ver[25][26]=80; ver[62][61]=80; ver[95][94]=80; ver[26][25]=80; ver[62][63]=80; ver[95][96]=80; ver[26][27]=80; ver[63][62]=80; ver[96][95]=80; ver[27][26]=80; ver[63][64]=90; ver[96][97]=80; ver[27][28]=80; ver[64][63]=90; ver[97][96]=80; ver[28][27]=80; ver[64][65]=110; ver[97][98]=110; ver[28][29]=80; ver[65][64]=110; ver[98][97]=110; ver[29][28]=80; ver[65][66]=80; ver[98][99]=80; ver[29][30]=80; ver[66][65]=80; ver[99][98]=80; ver[30][29]=80; ver[56][67]=80; ver[101][100]=160; ver[30][31]=90; ver[67][68]=80; ver[103][101]=80; ver[31][30]=90; ver[68][67]=80; ver[104][103]=80; ver[31][32]=110; ver[68][69]=80; ver[105][104]=80; ver[32][31]=110; ver[69][68]=80; ver[106][105]=80; ver[32][33]=80; ver[69][70]=80; ver[107][106]=80; ver[33][32]=80; ver[70][69]=80; ver[108][107]=90; ver[23][34]=80; ver[70][71]=80; ver[109][108]=110; ver[34][35]=80; ver[71][70]=80; ver[110][109]=80; ver[35][36]=80; ver[71][72]=80; ver[110][99]=90; ver[36][37]=80; ver[72][71]=80; ver[99][88]=80; ver[37][38]=80; ver[72][73]=80; ver[88][77]=60; ver[38][39]=80; ver[73][72]=80; ver[77][66]=80; ver[39][40]=80; ver[73][74]=80; ver[66][55]=80; ver[40][41]=80; ver[74][73]=80; ver[55][44]=80; ver[41][42]=90; ver[74][75]=90; ver[44][33]=80; ver[42][43]=110; ver[75][74]=90; ver[33][22]=50; ver[43][44]=80; ver[75][76]=110; ver[22][11]=90; ver[34][45]=80; ver[76][75]=110; ver[79][68]=80; ver[45][46]=80; ver[76][77]=80; ver[68][57]=80; ver[46][45]=80; ver[77][76]=80; ver[57][47]=80; ver[46][47]=80; ver[67][78]=80; ver[46][35]=80; ver[47][46]=80; ver[78][79]=80; ver[35][24]=80; ver[47][48]=80; ver[79][78]=80; ver[24][13]=80; ver[48][47]=80; ver[79][80]=80;

ver[101][89]=80; ver[85][74]=70; ver[1][119]=8450; ver[13][2]=80; ver[74][63]=80; ver[89][80]=80; ver[63][52]=80; ver[80][69]=70; ver[52][41]=80; ver[69][58]=80; ver[41][30]=80; ver[58][47]=80; ver[30][19]=50; ver[47][36]=80; ver[19][8]=80; ver[36][25]=80; ver[108][97]=90; ver[25][14]=60; ver[97][108]=90; ver[14][3]=80; ver[97][86]=70; ver[4][15]=80; ver[86][97]=70; ver[15][26]=60; ver[86][75]=70; ver[26][37]=80; ver[75][86]=70; ver[37][48]=80; ver[75][64]=80; ver[48][59]=80; ver[64][75]=80; ver[59][70]=80; ver[64][53]=80; ver[70][81]=70; ver[53][64]=80; ver[81][90]=80; ver[53][42]=80; ver[90][103]=80; ver[42][53]=80; ver[104][102]=90; ver[42][31]=80; ver[102][104]=90; ver[31][42]=80; ver[102][91]=40; ver[31][20]=50; ver[91][102]=40; ver[20][31]=50; ver[91][82]=40; ver[20][9]=80; ver[82][91]=40; ver[9][20]=80; ver[82][71]=70; ver[10][21]=80; ver[71][82]=70; ver[21][10]=80; ver[71][60]=80; ver[21][32]=50; ver[60][71]=80; ver[32][21]=50; ver[60][49]=80; ver[32][43]=80; ver[49][60]=80; ver[43][32]=80; ver[49][38]=80; ver[43][54]=80; ver[38][49]=80; ver[54][43]=80; ver[38][27]=80; ver[54][65]=80; ver[27][38]=80; ver[65][54]=80; ver[27][16]=60; ver[65][76]=80; ver[16][27]=60; ver[76][65]=80; ver[16][5]=80; ver[76][87]=70; ver[5][16]=80; ver[87][76]=70; ver[105][94]=90; ver[87][98]=80; ver[94][94]=30; ver[98][87]=80; ver[93][83]=40; ver[98][109]=90; ver[83][72]=70; ver[109][98]=90; ver[72][61]=80; ver[111][11]=6930; ver[61][50]=80; ver[11][111]=6930; ver[50][39]=80; ver[112][11]=6881; ver[39][28]=80; ver[11][112]=6881; ver[28][17]=60; ver[113][103]=9500; ver[17][6]=80; ver[103][113]=9500; ver[7][18]=80; ver[114][103]=17500; ver[18][29]=60; ver[103][114]=17500; ver[29][40]=80; ver[115][11]=7000; ver[40][51]=80; ver[11][115]=7000; ver[51][62]=80; ver[116][11]=6900; ver[62][73]=80; ver[11][116]=6900; ver[73][84]=70; ver[117][11]=4700; ver[84][95]=80; ver[11][117]=4700; ver[95][106]=90; ver[118][1]=7800; ver[107][96]=90; ver[1][118]=7800; ver[96][85]=80; ver[119][1]=8450;

/*Andec 119*/ /*San Eduardo 117*/ /*Gonzalo Zevallos 116*/ /*Anibal Santos 115*/ /*Cridesa 114*/ /*Poliquim 113*/ /*Huayco 112*/ /*Cerro Blanco 111*/

do { /* Menu principal */ for (i=0;i<80;i++) { printf("-");} printf("\nEste software es exclusivamente de uso educativo 2002-abril-23\n"); printf("\n \n"); printf(" 1. Ingrese el grafo\n"); printf(" 2. Resolver una instancia\n"); printf(" 3. Salir del programa\n\n"); printf("Opcion: "); gets(&opcion); /* Digitar nuevo grafo */ if (opcion==49) { vertices=111; if (!costos) free(costos); costos=(int *) malloc(sizeof(int)*vertices*vertices); for (i=0;i<=vertices*vertices;i++) costos[i]=-1; for (j=1;j<112;j++) for (k=1;k<112;k++) { if(ver[j][k]){ origen=j; destino=k; costo=ver[j][k];} costos[(origen-1)*vertices+destino-1]=costo; } printf("La Red esta Lista para la ruta mas corta!\n"); /*gets(lixo);*/ } if (opcion==50 && vertices>0) { printf("\nDigite el vertice origen y destino del camino\n"); do { printf("Vertice origen (entre 1 y %d): ",vertices); scanf("%d",&origen); } while (origen<1 || origen>vertices); do { printf("Vertice destino (entre 1 y %d, menos %d): ",vertices,origen); scanf("%d",&destino); } while (destino<1 || destino>vertices || destino==origen); dijkstra(vertices,origen,destino,costos); gets(lixo); } } while (opcion!=51);

} /* Fin del programa */

196

APPENDIX P

QUOTATIONS

197

APPENDIX M

SECTOR MAP OF GUAYAQUIL

198