IBEX – Initiative Bildungsexport

Berlin, April 2016

Ayanga Victoria Edubio and Sonja Andjelkovic

sequa IBEX (TVET Export Initiative)

April, 2016

The Potential of the German Skilled Crafts Sector for International

Cooperation in Vocational

Education Training (VET)

Table of Contents

1 Preface .............................................................................................................................. 1

2 The Importance of Education and Vocational Training .............................................. 2

3 The Specificities of the German System ...................................................................... 3

3.1 Political and Legal Environment of Education in Germany ................................ 4

3.2 The Process of Dual Training .................................................................................. 5

3.3 The Institutional Framework Regulating VET in Germany ................................. 7

3.3.1 The Role of the Public Sector (Government) ................................................ 8

3.3.2 The Role of the Trade Unions .......................................................................... 8

3.3.3 The Role of the Skilled Crafts Chambers ...................................................... 9

3.4 The role of the Business Community /The Private Sector ............................... 11

3.5 The Trainers in Vocational Schools ...................................................................... 11

4 The Skilled Crafts Sector: Germany's Economic Backbone ................................... 14

5 The Role of the Skilled Crafts Sector in International Cooperation ....................... 17

5.1 International Activities of Skilled Crafts Institutions ........................................... 18

5.2 Confederation of German Builders Abroad ......................................................... 19

5.3 Regional Craftsmen Association in Steinfurt-Warendorf (Kreishandwerkerschaft Steinfurt-Warendorf, KH) ....................................................... 21

6 Challenges to the international activities of German Skilled Crafts Institutions .. 22

7 Potential for Developing Countries ............................................................................. 24

8 Limits and Constraints of Developing and Transitional Countries for VET reforms 26

9. References ......................................................................................................................... 25

Abbreviations

ACP – African Caribbean Pacific Group of States

AEVO – Ordinance on Trainer Aptitude

BizClim – ACP Business Climate Facility

BBiG – Vocational Education and Training Act (Berufsbildungsgestz)

BerBiFG –Vocational Training Promotion Act

BIBB – Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training

BMBF – Federal Ministry for Education and Research

BMZ – Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development

BMWi – Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy

BPD – Federal Agency for Civic Education

DANIDA – Danish International Development Agency

DESTATIS – Federal Statistical Office Germany

DEQA-VET – German Reference Point for Quality Assurance in VET

DHKT – German Confederation of Skilled Crafts and Trades

EURORAI – European Organisation of Regional External Public Finance Audit

Institutions

FAWE – Forum for African Women Educationalist

GOVET – German Office for International Cooperation in Vocational Education and

Training

HwO – Regulation on Craft Trades (Gesetz zur Ordnung des Handwerks)

ILO – International Labour Organization

MDG – Millennium Development Goals

OECD – Office for Economic Cooperation and Development

UN – United Nations

UNESOC – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

VET – Vocational Education and Training

ZDH – German Confederation of Skilled Crafts

1

PREFACE Endowing the workforce with the skills required for the jobs of today and those of

tomorrow remains a strategic concern in the national growth and development

visions of developing and transitioning countries. Over the past decades, the

importance of education in the context of poverty reduction in transitioning countries

has risen considerably. Particularly with regards to employability, vocational

education and training has been receiving special attention. Additionally,

entrepreneurship as a potent vehicle to push forward economic development,

acquiring skills and competences that capacitate an individual to become

economically autonomous are among the important benefits that vocational

education and training can produce.

In this respect, the German dual system of vocational education and training (VET) is

considered to be a promising means of solving economic and social problems

because it makes the transition from compulsory schooling into the labor force more

effective and efficient.

In many developing countries, vocational education and training programs can

contribute to socio-economic development through:

improved practical skills and access to the labor market particularly for young

people,

strengthening of the private sector/companies through skilled, flexible and

efficient employees and thus a thriving economy; and

sustainable social development.

While in the past there have been calls for the German VET system to be exported to

developing countries, recently the approach is rather to refer to it and provide tailor-

made systems based on the needs and resources of the respective partner country.

Notwithstanding the fact that the German vocational training system with its

historically rooted, political, institutional and legal conditions is too complex to be

exported in its entirety to countries without corresponding framework conditions, it

has a huge potential to augment existing VET strategies. This paper examines the

potential the skilled crafts sector holds for developing countries, looking specifically at

the extent to which the competences and capabilities acquired in context of

vocational training and education can contribute to a strong workforce in developing

2

countries.

This paper comes to the conclusion that above all, good-quality primary and

secondary education provide the vital foundation for any form of subsequent

development.

THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING The human capital approach towards education identifies substantial investment in

education as a key requisite and driver of economic growth. Technically advanced

countries are able to maintain their productive and technological superiority because

of their investment in the generation and improvement of new knowledge and skills.

The United Nations (UN) committed to prioritizing the universal provision of quality

education in its second Millennium Development Goals (MDG2) to be achieved by

2015.1 The post-2015 agenda also emphasizes the importance of education, among

others vocational education.2

One of the most devastating consequences brought about by the lack of education in

developing countries is that the entry into both formal and informal workforces is

obstructed, which in turn prevents poverty alleviation for those who need it the most.

The correlation between incomplete education and the stagnation of economic

development in developing countries was drawn into focus in the 2012 Education for

All report,3 which pointed to the incomplete education that young adults receive in the

majority of developing and transitioning countries as being the main cause of youth

unemployment.4

VET plays an important role facilitating economic growth; as such it is an issue that is

a central policy concern for many developing countries.

Youth unemployment remains a serious global challenge that is closely linked to the

greater economic situation in any given country. Global youth unemployment grew

significantly between 2007 and 2010 but has now stabilized at just over 13%,

according to a recent report from the International Labour Organization (ILO).5 In

1 “United Nations Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015,” http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/education.shtml.

2 Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for stustainable development, http://www.un.org/pga/wp-

content/uploads/sites/3/2015/08/120815_outcome-document-of-Summit-for-adoption-of-the-post-2015-development-

agenda.pdf, 3 “Youth and Skills: Putting Education to Work,” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESOC) Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2012, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002180/218003e.pdf. 4 Ibid.

5 “World Employment and Social Outlook - Trends 2015,” International Labour Organisation, International Labour Office,

3

Sub-Saharan Africa, the explosive population growth has resulted in a demographic

shift in the opposite direction of the one currently ongoing in Europe, with a large

percentage of the population composed of youth and national economies lacking the

ability to adequately absorb and provide employment opportunities for them all.6

Youth unemployment in developing countries poses a serious security challenge,

because the absence of legal economic opportunities through which the youth can

earn a livelihood makes them more susceptible to participate in illegal activities and

engage in acts of violence. For this reason, efforts to combat marginalization in

working life are best focused on early education and youth employment.

With regards to the issue of gender empowerment, women in developing countries

are at additional risk of being ostracized when it comes to participating in VET

programs.

Despite the educational performance of women being generally better than that of

men, in many countries the existence of cultural norms and social constraints limit

the duration of primary education young girls are able to obtain (e.g. early marriage,

reproductive responsibilities, image of some professions etc.).

In this regard, an important transition that has to occur in developing countries is a

change in the mindsets of people towards gender equality, when it comes to

education and subsequent technical and vocational education and training. Above all,

there needs to be an increased societal acceptance of women training to work in

traditionally male dominated occupations. However, this is a long-term process that

will require a multi-dimensional approach.

Examples of existing, gender-sensitive VET programs are the Forum for African

Women Educationalist (FAWE) and the activities of the Danish International

Development Agency (DANIDA) in Sierra Leone, those two set themselves apart

from other VET programs by prioritizing both the formal and informal sectors.

THE SPECIFICITIES OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM

In order to understand how and why Germany has been able to position itself as a

pioneer in offering dual training and receives international attention for it, the

http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_337069.pdf. 6 “World Population Data Sheet 2013,” Population Reference Bureau, 2013,

http://www.prb.org/publications/datasheets/2013/2013-world-population-data-sheet/data-sheet.aspx.

4

following section provides a synopsis of the unique legal and political environment in

the country that brought about the emergence of the German VET system.

1.1 Political and Legal Environment of Education in Germany The dual training system in Germany with its two-track approach has generated a

new education system situated between the State and the market. Together with the

trade unions these three actors form the so-called “social partnership”

(Sozialpartnerschaft) and exercise joint control which is the basis of the German VET

system. Among other things, the Federal Government is responsible for regulating

the legal environment for providing education, while the vocational schools the

students are partly trained in are under the control of federal states.7

The role of education in Germany should be considered in context of lifelong

learning, a concept which envisions attaining education through formal and informal

channels as well as academic and practical training institutions. School attendance in

Germany is legally regulated by the 1717 royal declaration on compulsory education

(Schulpflicht).8 Due to the sovereign nature of the Länder, (federal states) with

regards to education, the duration of the compulsory education varies in each federal

state, however it is usually between 9 and 10 years.

Vocational education and training (VET) in Germany is legally regulated by two

national laws, the Vocational Education and Training Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz,

BBiG) and the Regulation on Craft Trades (Gesetz zur Ordnung des Handwerks,

HwO). The latter provision officially regulated the performance of the skilled crafts

sector by laying down that Chambers of Crafts (Handwerkskammern) would be

established to represent the interests of the skilled crafts workforce within their

respective districts. As of 2016 there are 53 skilled crafts chambers in Germany,

confederated at national level in the German Confederation of Skilled Crafts

(Deutsche Handwerkskammertag, DHKT)9 and organized under the patronage of the

German Confederation of Skilled Crafts and Trades (Zentralverband des deutschen

7 Germany is comprised of 16 federal states, the Länder, which share responsibilities with the Federal Government.

8 “Germany – The Education System,” European Organisation of Regional External Public Finance Audit Institutions

(EURORAI), http://www.eurorai.org/PDF/pdf%20seminar%20Karlsruhe/Karlsruhe-Situation%20in%20DEUTSCHLAND-

definitiv_EN.pdf. 9ZDH Guide: “The Skilled Crafts Sector in Germany (Das Handwerk in Deutschland),” 2015.

5

Handwerks, ZDH). The Vocational Training Act (BBiG) was expanded to become the

Vocational Training Promotion Act (BerBiFG) in 1981, the same year the Federal

Institute for Vocational Training (BIBB) was founded.10

The dual training system has become synonymous with German efficiency partly due

to the long and successful tradition of skilled craftsmanship in Germany, and the

important role they played in social life before industrialisation and the spread of

modern technology as well as due to the high quality products that are made in

Germany.

As of 2015, ZDH states that there are 1 million skilled craft enterprises in the

economy,11 employing approximately 5 million Germans in the skilled crafts sector,

with over to 140.000 new apprenticeship contracts signed that year.12 The dual

training system is still a popular alternative for young adults in Germany, with

approximately 43% of students leaving school opting for this track in 2014.13

Their decision is largely influenced by the large array of VET programs vocational

schools offer. According to the OECD, as of 2016, there are 349 officially certified

occupations being taught under VET which relate to all sectors of the economy,

including skilled crafts, the industry and administration.14

The German dual training system sets itself apart from the formal academic system

by not having minimum (academic) entry or age requirements. The absence of formal

barriers to entry and the possibility of earning an allowance while undergoing training

are some of the benefits that motivate aspiring apprentices to opt for this system.

1.2 The Process of Dual Training

The German dual training system is based on a cooperative model. The duration of

vocational education and training programs in the dual system is between 2 and 3.5

years, during which the trainees spend approximately 1-2 days a week, or 30% of the

time, in a vocational school and the remainder of the time on an apprenticeship in

10

Helmut Pütz, “Vocational Education and Training – An Overview (2003)” Federal Institute for Vocational Training

(BIBB), https://www.bibb.de/dokumente/pdf/folienband_puetz-englisch.pdf. 11

“Number of Companies in the Economy (Betriebszahlen),” Zentralverband des Deutschen Handwerks (ZDH), 2015,

http://www.zdh-statistik.de/application/index.php?mID=3&cID=47. 12

“Vocational Education Report (Berufsbildungsbericht), Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), 2015,

https://www.bmbf.de/pub/Berufsbildungsbericht_2015.pdf. 13

Ibid. 14

Kathrin Hoeckel, Robert Schwartz, “Learning for Work – OECD-Studies on Vocational Training in Germany ((Lernen für

die Arbeitswelt – OECD-Studien zur Berufsbildung – Deutschland),” OECD, September 2010,

http://www.oecd.org/berlin/45924455.pdf.

6

workplaces (companies and training centres). With regards to skill development in

Germany, “learning by doing” has proved to be the most effective training approach

to impart technical and vocational competences that include social, methodical and

specialized skills.15

One unique characteristic about German VET is that it is labour market oriented.

According to the ZDH, the dual training system results in lower rates of

unemployment and underemployment in Germany, because the ratio of demand to

supply with regards to applications for apprenticeships and the capacity of the market

to absorb them after training are remarkably balanced. This is due to the close

relationship and extensive coordination between the federal government, the

employers (chambers/ the business community) and the employees (trade unions).

Notwithstanding the previous statement, ever since 1999, some skilled crafts sectors

have in fact been in dire need of new apprentices – this phenomenon is closely

linked to the changing image of the skilled crafts sector that will be elaborated upon

towards the end of this chapter and the ongoing demographic shift in Germany that is

a result of persistently low birth rates.16

With regards to the specificities of the German dual training system, the decisive

factor that differentiates the German system from others is the commitment of all the

stakeholders involved to uphold the concept of dual training as an education system

in Germany. National qualification standards guarantee the relevance of the training

outputs.

The Process:

The process of dual training in the skilled crafts in Germany happens in the following

steps:

1) School-leavers decide that they want to earn money and learn a profession

2) After deciding what occupation they want to have in future, they begin

applying to companies

3) The company and the apprentice sign a work/training contract at the beginning

4) The apprentice undergoes dual training

15

“Dual Training at a Glance,” Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), 2007,

http://www.helsinki.diplo.de/contentblob/1775196/Daten/131100/pdf_dualebildung.pdf. 16

Demographic Change in Germany and Europe,” Federal Agency for Civic Education (Bundeszentrale für Politische

Bildung BPD), 2014, http://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/migration/kurzdossiers/177962/germany-and-europe.

7

5) About once a year, all apprentices of a specific occupation in Germany attend

an intensive VET program at a different, specialized inter-company training

centres for some weeks.

The training that takes place in these specialized centres is another important

aspect of maintaining the high standard of the skilled craft certificates the

apprentices receive at graduation because companies can – correctly –

assume that their employees have had the opportunity to become familiarized

with the most modern technologies. These specialized inter-company training

centres are necessary because not every company is able to provide trainees

with real life scenarios, or with the most modern technologies in that specific

occupation, or with the complete content of the 3-years-training-profile given

that most of the companies in the skilled crafts sector are rather small or very

specialized enterprises.17

6) The trainees are tested halfway through their VET program. This ensures that

if they do not pass at the first time, they do not have to repeat the entire

program, but have the chance to retake the lessons they previously did not

pass. During the entire VET program, trainees are expected to keep a journal

detailing the lessons they have completed which serves as an auxiliary

checklist for the exam.

7) The final examination takes place in the chamber of skilled crafts for that

specific region. This means that regardless of the company the trainee is in,

they are all tested in the same facility and by the same examination board.

These boards comprise representatives of employers, trade unions and VET

school teachers. Specific parts of the examination take place in workplace

settings to test the practical execution of an assignment.

1.3 The Institutional Framework Regulating VET in Germany

The government, the trade unions and the private sector represented by the

employers' associations form the social partnership that characterizes the institutional

framework that regulates the German VET system.

17 An example provided by the ZDH is the possibility chimney sweeps have to test their practical skills under daily settings –

such as a bird falling into a chimney, a scenario that can hardly be replicated in office settings.

8

1.3.1 The Role of the Public Sector (Government) At the government level, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF)

has the overall strategic authority over vocational training. It is responsible for

invoking the Vocational Education and Training Act which was last amended in 2005

and also for supervising the practical training segment in VET programs that takes

place in the companies in collaboration with the skilled crafts chambers.

The Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) coordinates with the

Ministry of Education and Research to conceptualize the individual training

regulations of the different VET programmes. At federal level, the individual states

have exclusive jurisdiction with regards to vocational schools and judicial control of

trade associations.

The federal states are actively involved in setting up VET curricula, and are

responsible for hiring the teaching staff.18 Due to the sovereign nature of German

federal states, there are significant differences between them with regards to the

organisation and content of the academic part of the training that takes place in

vocational schools.19

1.3.2 The Role of the Trade Unions The trade unions represent the interests of the employees, the trainees and

apprentices. They work closely with the chambers, and in that constellation are

referred to as the “social partners.” Trade unions are the third actor involved in

upholding the dual training system in Germany. Their task is assisting in designing

the VET programs, the trade unions are also consulted when it comes to developing

training regulations and keeping them up to date.

The VET curricula are overhauled approximately every ten years (the decision of

renewing is up to the social partners), and have two components. Two-thirds of the

subjects taught in the vocational schools teach specific theoretical knowledge

required in that particular field of occupation, while 1/3 of the time is spend on

teaching subjects to expand general knowledge.20

18 “The Structure of Vocational Training in Germany (Struktur der Berufsbildung in Deutschland),” German Reference Point for Quality Assurance in VET (DEQA-VET), 2010, https://www.deqa-vet.de/de/struktur-der-berufsbildung-

in-deutschland-2356.php. 19 Ibid. 20“Dual Training in Germany,” German Office for International Cooperation in Vocational Education and Training

9

Finally, they represent the interests of the trainees/apprentices and future employees

by negotiating the allowances the apprentices receive during their training.

1.3.3 The Role of the Skilled Crafts Chambers The skilled crafts organisation is divided into two pillars: there are skilled crafts

chambers and national confederations of skilled crafts. Skilled crafts chambers are

non-profit corporations under German public law with compulsory membership for

each skilled crafts company registered in Germany.

The chambers are a very important pillar in the framework of VET in Germany and

play an important role in upholding the infrastructure of the dual training system.21

Every chamber is a self-governing organisation that represents the interests of all

skilled crafts in a given chamber district (Kammerbezirk).

The chambers are such an important pillar in the VET system because of their role as

the actor who lobbies on behalf of trainees/apprentices on the one hand and

represents the interests of the member companies on the other hand. The chambers

are the first point of contact for member-companies, they provide a wide spectrum of

services which range from advice on technical, financial and legal matters to an

extensive range of training and further education courses in their own vocational

training centres. The chambers advice companies on the costs and benefits of

apprenticeship and are as such the most visible and valuable ambassadors of young

adults seeking to enter the labour market through skilled crafts.

The chambers are also the first point of contact for small skilled crafts companies

who do not have the resources to actively search for replacements or new

apprentices to train, due to a lack of personnel and/or time. In case a company is

willing and able to offer an apprenticeship placement it contacts its chamber and

relays the properties and characteristics it would like its apprentice to have, and the

chambers begin searching for the ideal candidate. This personalized match-making

between apprentices and companies, are only one of the many advantages that

membership in the skilled crafts chamber brings.

Skilled crafts chambers are also responsible for promoting the interests of the skilled

crafts sector by regularly publishing reports on the status of that sector in the

(GOVET), 2014, https://www.bibb.de/dokumente/pdf/govet_praesentation_duales_system.pdf. 21 ZDH Guide: “The Skilled Crafts Sector in Germany (Das Handwerk in Deutschland),” 2015.

10

economy. The chambers are also a very important actor in the dual training system

because they are the only body that can officially register training contracts and

ascertain the degree of suitability of the different companies offering to train

apprentices. The chambers regularly supervise in-company training standards by

staying in close contact with the trainee and his supervisor to appropriately evaluate

the pace and progress of the training programme in enterprises.

The skilled crafts chambers in Germany are vital for quality assurance in the dual

training system. It is the skilled crafts chambers that are responsible for Monitoring

and Evaluation (M&E), which is a crucial requirement for maintaining high standards

in vocational education and training. They carry out M&E by evaluating the

competences of the trainers in the training centres, comprise the examination board

and organise and carry out the final examinations the apprentices have to pass to

become certified craftspeople.

The chambers also maintain the uniformity of skilled crafts certificates because

employers can expect every dually trained apprentice to be able to carry out a given

assignment that was included in the curriculum. If the standards are thus set too low

or too high for the examination, there is an almost instantaneous pushback from the

side of the employers and this serves to ensure that there are not too large

fluctuations in competences and working standards in the skilled crafts sector –

nationwide.

An additional, important determinant of the dual training system's success in

Germany is the amount of financial capital it takes to upkeep the system annually.

The German Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB)

published the following diagram in 2015 depicting the annual cost of dual vocational

training in Germany, as well as the distribution among stakeholders.

Figure 1. Annual Costs of the Dual Training System – BIBB

11

According to the German Reference Point for Quality Assurance in VET (DEQA-

VET), the federal states are responsible for financing vocational schools and

teaching staff, while the municipalities provide the infrastructure and equipment in the

schools.

1.4 The role of the Business Community /The Private Sector The largest segment of training takes place in the companies, and as such the

private sector/ companies bears the brunt of the costs of maintaining the dual training

system.

This distribution of responsibilities is briefly illustrated in the preceding diagram. In

2015, according to BIBB, the private sector spent approximately €24 billion on the

dual training system, while the government expenditure was €3 billion. The private

sector has a great social commitment to VET, nevertheless there have been calls for

a reform to the system, that would see the public sector take on a larger role in

financing the dual training system.

As an actor, the private sector is in the position to inform the government and skilled

crafts chambers about what competences and skills are in high demand on the

labour market. More importantly, businesses are the actors that draft proposals for

the creation of amended training regulations for new and existing occupations, as this

ensures that vocational education and training programmes endow the trainees with

the exact skills and competences the labour market requires, and that each training

cycle produces as many trainees as can be absorbed by the labour market.

Historically speaking, the private sector in Germany is regarded by society as being

responsible for providing VET training and workplace learning opportunities.

Businesses themselves consider the provision of VET training as being a cross-social

duty of the market economy.

1.5 The Trainers in Vocational Schools The trainers in the vocational schools also play a very important role in the dual

training system. In this context, it is important to differentiate between the two types

of teachers the apprentices learn from. On the one hand there are vocational

teachers who impart the apprentices with theoretical knowledge and expand on the

12

general knowledge of academic subjects (such as mathematics, history, geography).

On the other hand, there are technical trainers who impart the apprentices with

technical knowledge specifically related to the respective occupation the apprentices

are training to learn.

These technical trainers are invaluable to the apprentices in terms of learning from

full-fledged craftsmen, because while technical trainers do not require a university

degree, they are usually top-tier experts in their particular skilled craft, and have

either reached the level of Master craftsman (Meister) or a certified craftsman.

The Ordinance on Trainer Aptitude (Ausbilder-Eignungsverordnung; AEVO) laid

down in the Vocational Education and Training Act regulates the requirements the

trainers have to fulfil.

The business community benefits immensely from participating in the provision of

vocational education and training programmes. As depicted in the BIBB illustration,

the private sector has to commit to a substantial annual investment to maintain the

dual training system.

Notwithstanding this initial investment, at the end of the day businesses are able to

recoup any losses they made at the beginning. Trainees receive a certification upon

completing dual VET programmes and progressive allowances from the company

employing them for the duration of their training. The following illustration was

compiled by the German Office for International Cooperation in Vocational Education

and Training (GOVET) to illustrate the benefits of the dual training system:

13

Source: GOVET: Dual VET - Vocational Education and Training in Germany

In addition to specialized technical knowledge, they obtain methodical and social

skills that give them a competitive advantage in the labour market. The government is

able to leverage its participation to efficiently steer the VET system promote an

increased formalisation of the economy be regulating in-company training at the

federal level.

Overall, this results in a higher economic performance and greater degree of labour

market matching between employees and employers, while also integrating young

people in the market early on, keeping the transition between school and work as

effective as possible.

14

THE SKILLED CRAFTS SECTOR: GERMANY'S ECONOMIC BACKBONE

The German skilled crafts sector has its origins in the culture of guilds that was

prevalent in the Middle Ages before they became formally institutionalized in the late

19th century. The skilled crafts sector constitutes a large and very influential economic

and social group in Germany and has an annual turnover of approximately 500 billion

Euros.22 Using data provided by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany (Destatis),

the following chart was compiled to depict the distribution of the small skilled crafts

enterprises in the SME sector of the national economy.

Over 80% of the workforce in Germany is employed in small and medium-sized

enterprises – of those SMEs, the vast majority are occupations in the skilled crafts

sector.23 As such, the skilled crafts sector essentially forms the backbone of the

German economy – its importance can hardly be overstated. The skilled crafts

sector in Germany has been comprised of occupations that fulfil two criteria:

a. the jobs are carried out with the hands (which is where the German term for

the skilled crafts sector, “Handwerk”, originates from, loosely translated to

mean “work carried out with hands”). However, jobs in the skilled crafts sector

22 “Vocational Education and Training (VET) in German Skilled Crafts,” ZDH, 2015,

http://www.ccila-

portugal.com/fileadmin/ahk_portugal/site_upload/RF/Conferencia__Qualificacao_Profissional_/Sperle_DE_ZDH.pdf. 23 “Representation of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises in the Skilled Crafts Sector,” Federal Statistics Office

(DESTATIS), 2012,

https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesamtwirtschaftUmwelt/UnternehmenHandwerk/Handwerk/Tabellen/KleineMittl

ereUnternehmenHandwerk.html;jsessionid=0F9C69205AB9C96F54D105F021479B65.cae2.

15

are not anymore limited to manual labour. Most of them are actually based on

latest technology and require technical skills.

b. the possibility to become a “technopreneur” and thus an employer or supplier

for in-company training opportunities.

VET in the skilled crafts sector provides training for more than 130 occupations in 7

main areas: construction, electronics, mechatronics, wood, food crafts and textiles, to

name a few. In 2015, the ZDH published the following figure illustrating the different

areas of occupation covered by the skilled crafts sector.

ZDH Presentation (2015): Training Occupations in Skilled Crafts

The image of the skilled craftsman has changed significantly in the past decades,

which has resulted in a continuous reduction of school-leavers choosing the dual

training system. Albeit not based on empirical evidence, a widespread assumption in

German society is that the elderly usually hold skilled crafts jobs in a higher regard

than the young. Nevertheless, Master craftsmen are still held in high regard in

German society because they serve not only as role models for the trainees, but they

are economically shrewd and particularly knowledgeable in their field of work. Above

all, they serve as trainers for the next generation, passing on valuable knowledge

they gathered over the duration of their career. The fall in applicants in the skilled

crafts sector is tied to a handful of developments which have changed the image of

the skilled crafts sector among the population.

The labour market first began recording discrepancies between the number of

school-leavers entering the dual system and the amount of training positions

16

available in the 1990s, while simultaneously there was an increase in the amount of

young adults who opted to continue their higher education at a university.

Changing perceptions in society regarding the potential of creating a comfortable

livelihood working in the skilled crafts sector led to more young people – and their

parents – doubting the viability of “handiwork”. When contemplating long-term life

plans, young school-leavers are increasingly considering the consequences of

protracted manual labour, not only for their health, but above all for their finances. As

an expert in the field of VET in Germany stated, “young people look around and they

see people in suits sitting in air-conditioned rooms earning a lot of money, and those

kinds of images leave a mark.”24

On the international level the rise of technology, a spread of information and

globalization has instead pushed the importance of trade to the forefront at the

expense of the skilled crafts sector. For that reason, more school-leavers in Germany

are beginning to think that a degree from a university will give them a competitive

edge on the labour market, enable them to travel the world and have implicitly begun

to shun the skilled crafts sector.

This motivated the skilled crafts chambers in 2010 to initiate a campaign called

“Skilled Crafts – The Economic Superpower Next Door,” in an effort to spread more

information about the potential of further education in the skilled crafts sector and

how that can potentially result in similar, if not better results than obtaining a

university degree. In addition to this campaign, incentives were triggered to entice

academics to consider skilled crafts, such as the possibility of carrying out the very

ambitious “dual study” program, where trainees acquire specific technical knowledge

at the university and have opportunity to test their practical skills in the skilled crafts

company.25

An example of such a programme is the dual study program at the University of

Applied Sciences in Munich, which transfers the VET principle of practice-oriented

learning to university studies, consisting of several practical blocs at a company and

study phases at the university.

24

Dr. Stefan Wolf at the Technical University of Berlin, an expert in VET in Germany and developing countries. 25

Prof. Dr. Jürgen Bock, “The Importance of the Skilled Crafts Sector for the National Economy, (Die Bedeutung des

Handwerks für die Volkswirtschaft)” University of Bochum (2011).

17

Moreover, in an effort to bring those two institutions even closer, there is the

possibility for Master craftspeople to instantly deduct ¾ of the duration of a Bachelor

degree, a sign of how highly regarded the Master craftsman certificate still is in

Germany. The recently developed continuous learning program conceptualized at the

HWK Frankfurt and piloted together with IBEX called the International Meister

permits Master craftspeople who have acquired that international certificate to work

on projects abroad, certifying their aptitude to cope with different cultures and

working traditions.

THE ROLE OF THE SKILLED CRAFTS SECTOR IN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Dating back to the medieval times, an important part of the training to become a

craftsman entailed a voluntary period of travelling to different countries for several

years and working there. This not only increased intercultural competences and

language proficiencies of the craftsmen, but also provided them with first-hand insight

on how their occupation might be carried out differently in other regions, under

different economic and social circumstances.

The tradition of the so-called “journeyman years” (Wanderjahre or Walz) is one that is

no longer widely practised in Germany, which – considering the potential of craftsmen

to permeate knowledge across borders – is an unfortunate development, a

consequence of the decreasing number of apprentices (and subsequently

craftsmen). This development is particularly unfortunate in light of the constraints that

exist, when it comes to facilitating the spread of the best practices in the German

dual training system to other countries. An issue that will be elaborated upon in the

following chapter is the challenges German skilled crafts institutions face in going

abroad, due to a lack of personnel, inadequate language skills and a lack of funds.

Promoting increased participation in the journeyman years has the potential to

increase the international impact that skilled craftsmen could have abroad.

The lack of funds remains one of the most important and recurring factors that

discourages craftsmen from participating in the journeyman years. In order to

counteract this development, a recommendation would be the strategic coordination

of all partners at a national level, to dedicate money specifically to the purpose of

supporting journeymen that decide to go abroad. An increase in international

18

activities will require a greater degree of coordination and capacity building of skilled

crafts experts for international activities.

1.6 International Activities of Skilled Crafts Institutions

On the national level, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and

Development (BMZ) initiated so-called “chamber and confederation partnerships”

(Kammern – und Verbandspartnerschaften) in 1991 which were carried out under the

supervision of its partner organization sequa gGmbH. To date sequa gGmbH has

carried out more than 200 partnership projects in over 80 developing and

transitioning countries, bringing together approximately 50 German businesses from

all industries of the economy to support 400 chambers and associations in

developing countries. The goal of the ongoing partnership policy is to promote

sustainable economic development in the partner countries of the BMZ by using the

German private sector to support their counterparts abroad.26

While the overarching objective of this German funded partnership is to strengthen

the private sector in developing countries, one of the instruments the policy uses is

intercultural knowledge transfer on the basis of the subsidiarity principle, encouraging

direct communication on equal footing between both parties for the duration of their

joint venture.

There are also other schemes and programs funded by the BMZ through GIZ and

other channels that aim at developing capacities of the skilled crafts sector in partner

countries and many examples for the German engagement. This following section

elaborates upon the potential of the skilled crafts sector to be an engine of

development in BMZ partner countries and the limits to cooperation on both sides as

well as the capacities required to mitigate these shortcomings27 The basis of

information for the following chapter is the IBEX database of German skilled crafts

expertise as well as interviews with four skilled crafts institutions that are actively

engaged in developing countries, not only in VET but also in other fields of

26 “Consulting Colleagues in Developing Countries” Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ),

2016,

https://www.bmz.de/de/themen/privatwirtschaft/kammern_verbaende/kammer_und_verbandspartnerschaften/index.html. 27 This section contains information that was acquired during (telephone) interviews with the following individuals: Heinz G.

Rittmann, Managing Director of the Confederation of German Builders Abroad and Karin Muenstermann, Head of

VET/International Projects at the Regional Craftsmen Association in Steinfurt-Warendorf, Hendrik Voss, ZDH. These

interviews are not a comprehensive representation of the international activities of German skilled crafts companies but

should serve as a snapshot of the status quo.

19

international cooperation.

1.7 Example 1: Confederation of German Builders Abroad

The Confederation of German Builders Abroad (Deutscher Auslandsbau Verband)

serves as a network for its members, who are German SMEs in the skilled crafts

sector, specifically in the building industry. The confederation provides its members

with information about suitable building projects in developing countries, support for

international tenders and contact to local businesses in the skilled crafts sector

abroad.

Currently there are members in the confederation who are actively involved in

building projects in Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda.

Among the factors that motivated the expansion of German skilled craft companies

abroad was the possibility of expanding their market at a time when the domestic

construction economy was in a downfall initially led the members to consider joint

ventures outside the immediate European region. The confederation presented their

proposition for a joint venture to the local building community in those three countries

and were contacted by a building company in Sierra Leone to collaborate on a

multimillion Euro building project in Freetown that began in 2015.

Above all, these joint ventures serve the goal of consolidating the presence of

German companies abroad with a long-term vision; in deepening ties to local

businesses, which is a two way process, both parties are able to engage in

intercultural exchange which facilitates a better understanding of their counterparts

and the business environment overseas.

The potential of the German skilled crafts sector to venture to developing countries

however is constrained on the German side by limits such as a lack of capacity in

many skilled crafts companies (meaning not enough employees, or lack of interest

among the employees and a lack of competences such as local language

proficiency) and a lack of funds (as was mentioned in preceding sections the majority

of skilled crafts companies are SMEs, they cannot venture overseas if they do not

expect to make a considerable profit).

The joint ventures the confederation executes are financed using funds from

sponsored projects, some of them under the umbrella of Proinvest and the ACP

20

Business Climate Facility (BizClim), an institution that provides assistance to private

sector in ACP Countries, regional organisations, and private sector organisations, to

finance the transportation and staff costs of executing the joint venture projects,

however the potential of individual craftsmen to sustainably execute joint ventures on

their own without the backing of a confederation or an association is restricted.

The presence of German skilled crafts institutions abroad should result in the

generation of new, and the spread of prevailing knowledge. In this regard, one of the

confederation's members is about to embark on its second project in Sierra Leone

has to date been particularly successful; besides one German builder the joint

venture has only employed local workers. Being business-minded, German skilled

crafts companies can only participate in these international projects to the extent that

their budget permits. In the aforementioned Sierra Leonean case therefore,

employing more than one German craftsman to work on the construction grounds in

Africa was too expensive.28

The success of these joint ventures however above all depends on the compatibility

of both parties in the partnership, the association's representative admitted.

Considering that the scale in which the German skilled crafts sector is represented in

Africa is still limited, there have been no holistic realizations or instructions to

facilitating a successful business relationship. For that reason, an understanding and

respect for each-others culture determines whether long term cooperation will be

possible.

The capacities the craftsmen in these partnerships needed are the following:

On the German side, more intercultural competence is required, particularly with

regard to international cooperation management. Prior to their first journey to Africa,

the confederation had to painstakingly deduce what they had to teach their members.

With regards to the work practices of German craftsmen, a recurring admission was

that, while it is almost impossible to replicate the German VET system abroad, the

best work practices of German skilled craftsmen and institutions abroad should not

be copied in entirety, but rather should be taken apart and individually adapted to

meet the specific local requirements.

On the African side, the capacities required from African partners are an ability to

understand the German work ethic. E. g. honesty is a criterion that the Confederation

28

Interview with Mr. Rittmann, German Builders Abroad

21

of German Builders Abroad values particularly highly because of the geographical

distance between the two partners and the fact that the African partner often makes

autonomous decision on behalf of the joint venture.

Having a trustworthy partner on the ground was the determinant of success identified

by another German institution involved in Africa, namely the Regional Craftsmen

Association in Steinfurt-Warendorf (Kreishandwerkerschaft Steinfurt-Warendorf, KH).

1.8 Example 2: Regional Craftsmen Association in Steinfurt-Warendorf (Kreishandwerkerschaft Steinfurt-Warendorf, KH)

The KH operates 4 education centres in Germany and engages in VET support,

training trainers and exporting its competences and expertise to developing

countries, either through vocational training partnerships or by inviting trainers from

developing and transitioning to come to Germany and acquire the skills and

capacities they require here among other activities.29 The KH provides training for

over a dozen different occupations in its 4 education centres, however its VET

partnerships in South Africa focuses on three sectors of skilled crafts: carpentry,

masonry, and sanitary work.

The KH initiated the 3 year VET partnership funded by the BMZ in collaboration with

Umfolozi College in Richards Bay, South Africa in 2015. Despite the college being

efficiently run, many students are unable to find employment upon graduation

because their competences are not adequate for the occupation they want to

exercise. If they do find employment, they often have to be completely re-trained in

the companies, which is expensive and dissuades companies from reaching out to

Umfolozi graduates.

The goal of the KH's presence in South Africa is to build up a network between

Umfolozi College, local business chambers and skilled crafts businesses to

conceptualize new teaching and training content, so that the trainees are taught skills

and develop capabilities they will apply later on during their job. This entails

increasing the practical fraction of the entire training program, which in Africa is

currently still focused on theoretical teaching. Another objective of the partnership is

to increase the participation of the private sector, so they develop a stronger

commitment to supporting the younger generation of potential workers. This

29

https://www.kh-st-waf.de/en/innungen/

22

approach also ensures that businesses can develop an idea of the initial education

level of the trainees, so they can customize the training modules to represent exactly

what the businesses need.30

Once again, the point was made that while the partnership seeks to export vocational

educational and training, it does not attempt to replicate the German system entirely.

The KH seeks to contribute to increasing the interaction between the German skilled

crafts sector and educational institutions in developing countries, however this

requires permanent presence overseas.

Financing a full time position for an individual to work as an ombudsman for the

German and African partners requires substantial funds, nevertheless, according to

the KH the partnership gained momentum and began showing more results once the

full time position was created. However, having a local partner or a local presence in

Africa is a big obstacle to small German skilled crafts institutions, and as such their

opportunities to contributing to facilitating sustainable development through the

skilled crafts sector in developing countries is limited.

CHALLENGES TO THE INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES OF GERMAN SKILLED CRAFTS

INSTITUTIONS

The following issues pose the greatest challenges to international activities of

German skilled crafts institutions in Africa.

a. Uncertainty: Many German companies are simply uncertain about going

overseas. To counteract this, a concerted effort is required by the ZDH to

inform its members about the benefits and opportunities they can gain from

venturing overseas. Chambers, federal ministries and social partners should

aim at including intercultural competences in vocational education.

b. Inadequate qualification: Muenstermann stated that the capacities of

German trainers to teach abroad in a different language are limited, many of

them do not feel they are adequately qualified for such an assignment.

Moreover, the scope of VET programs is restricted due to a lack of or limited

access to teaching material in different languages.

c. Lack of interest: In order to generate interest among skilled craftsmen in

30

Interview with Karin Münstermann, KH Steinfurth-Warendorf

23

Germany e.g. the representative of the KH Steinfurt-Warendorf directly

approaches Master craftsmen at the education centres. The KH offers

additional training to apprentices seeking the Master-certification and -

keeping in mind the potential of knowledge dispersion that the journeyman

years of Master craftsmen of craftsmen carries - their representative use the

moments of direct interaction to inform them about the international activities

of the KH. Notwithstanding the benefits and shortcomings of the KH's

international partnership, the challenge of finding experts to go abroad to

teach remains a big obstacle. However closer collaborations with

organisations such as sequa gGmbH can help interested skilled crafts

institutions to identify the trainers with suitable qualifications and

competences even faster.

24

POTENTIAL FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES The skilled crafts sector has the potential to contribute to poverty alleviation in

developing and transitioning countries, because the jobs in this sector can be

empowering to the individual carrying them out and provide a sense of autonomy, as

the craftsman does not need to be employed by someone else. Particularly in

developing and transitioning countries where the informal economy is an important

pillar of the national economy, the skilled crafts sector also has the potential to

empower marginalized groups.

Skilled crafts professions such as basket weaving, tailoring and carpentry are usually

passed on intergenerationally from the old to the young, as such there is no barrier

preventing individuals who might otherwise be disenfranchised due to where they live

(i.e.: in rural, underdeveloped areas) or how much money their family has (i.e.: to pay

school fees) or constraints imposed on them by their gender (i.e.: limited or denied

access to education) from becoming empowered through that knowledge.

The potential this knowledge holds however cannot fully unfold if the workers do not

possess the full breadth of technical and practical applications related to that specific

occupation. For this reason a foundation is required, which ensures that not only are

the vocational and technical competences strengthened, but that the quality of the

work carried out is of such a high standard as to be competitive on the labour market.

The backbone of the German economy, the skilled crafts sector, is a product of the

VET system, which in turn rests on the aforementioned concept of life-long learning

that views the development of new skills in Germany from a life-cycle perspective of

building, maintaining and improving skills. Policies aimed at skill development in

developing and transitioning countries, particularly in the skilled crafts sector, should

therefore aspire to adhere to the life-cycle approach to learning and need to be

designed accordingly.

The spine of any educational system is the quality and reach of its basic and

secondary sectors, along with the education of its teachers. All further and

subsequent lifelong learning is supported by this. In order to be effective, a skills

development and capacity building strategy relying on education cannot be

developed in isolation, but rather must be embedded in wider economic and social

25

policy environments. Creating such an environment can take the following approach

in the three key stages of personal development:

Childhood. The foundation for life-long learning is laid by providing initial and

compulsory education, this requires the appropriate ministries (for example the

Ministry of Education) and institutions to be equipped with sufficient authority

and human capacity to carry out its assignments.

Adolescence: There needs to be continued investment in youth. The public

sector and business community must commit to bearing the costs of additional

vocational education and training to consolidate the foundation skills and

provide young adults with important workplace skills and experience for a

successful transition from school to work. Social dialogue also plays a key role

in processes to reform technical and vocational education and training

systems and in shaping national skills development strategies. A continued

dialogue between all stakeholders involved is conducive to successful reform,

as a process that brings all actors into alignment with a shared commitment to

working towards a common goal.

Elderly workers: Elderly workers are an invaluable source of knowledge. For

that reason, they should have the opportunity to upgrade their existing skills

and have these improvements certified. Moreover, in applicable cases, elderly

laborers who lack academic certification but have technical expertise should

have the opportunity to work as trainers in vocational schools to impart their

knowledge onto the next generation of skilled craftspersons.

The potential for developing and transitional countries to benefit from the presence of

a strong skilled crafts sector does not require an exact replication of the German VET

system. A country that wishes to reorganize its vocational training system will

consider the relevant aspects that can easily be integrated into the existing structures

– and which adaptations and modifications need to be made. A national vocational

training system is a tool for achieving certain objectives, which may differ from one

country to another. There is no “best” training system, each system can be judged

only by its success in achieving those identified aims. Germany’s current dual system

has been shaped by prevailing legal norms, traditions, pedagogical principles and

institutional structures. It did not come about as the result of a rationally considered

design on a drawing board, but instead developed gradually as the result of a social

26

and cultural history.31

Skill development and the restoration of the skilled crafts sector in a developing or

transitional country has potential benefits that cover the individual, economic and

social dimension.

The potential of skill development for the individual dimension refers to the role of

vocational training in developing the skills individuals need to strengthen

employability or develop entrepreneurial skills.

The social dimension refers to vocational training as a means of promoting the social

integration of the younger generation, both in the workplace and in society at large. A

vocational training system should be designed to prevent social marginalization and

integrate young people smoothly into training and employment. The economic

dimension refers to the role of vocational training in ensuring a high level of

economic, business and individual productivity.

The economic focus is on developing human resources by ensuring that there are

enough workers with adequate skills, and increasing their number and level of

qualification. The subsequent section discusses the limits to the development of

vocational education.

LIMITS AND CONSTRAINTS OF DEVELOPING AND TRANSITIONAL COUNTRIES

FOR VET REFORMS Developing and transitioning countries face different challenges and limits when it

comes to creating the pre-conditions that facilitate the generation of a strong skilled

crafts sector. While some of the constraints have been implied in the preceding

sections, the limited role of the institutionalized private sector representation

system weakens the feedback mechanism between private and public sectors. The

consequence is that an interruption of the information flow between the government

and the private sector when it comes to skills that are currently in demand. Thus the

output of the usually state-driven VET in terms of skilled graduates does not match

the requirements of the private sector.

Another constraint lies in the fact that there has not yet been sufficient

commitment generated among the business community to bear the responsibility

31

https://www.bertelsmann-

stiftung.de/fileadmin/files/BSt/Publikationen/GrauePublikationen/GP_Germanys_dual_vocational_training_system.pdf

27

for educating the next generation of skilled crafts persons. While it is accepted in

Germany and other industrialized countries that this initial financial pledge to

upholding the dual training system will be compensated over the duration of the

apprenticeship training, the skilled crafts sector in developing countries is often

composed of small enterprises that require additional incentives to take on trainees.

This requires a transformation of mind-sets that training the future workforce is

primarily the responsibility of businesses.

One of the determinants of success of the German VET system has been the

delegation of authority over issues of education from the central governments to

regional chambers (basically for quality assurance) as well as national associations

and trade unions (mainly for developing curricula for "their" professions), representing

"the economy", and the willingness of those actors to take on this responsibility.

Developing countries can benefit from the delegation of authority on the basis of the

subsidiarity principle (at a lower level than the central government), which has proved

in Germany to be effective in facilitating swift policy amendments and improvements.

The policy-level therefore plays a crucial law in fostering the reform of current

vocational training systems.

To the extent that developing and transitioning countries are inherently different from

industrialized countries, one important constraint impairing the development of a

skilled crafts sector is the concept of fragility.

Fragility in developing countries entails both a state-dimension and a socio-economic

dimension. As this paper has illustrated, development cooperation between the

skilled crafts sector in industrialized and developing countries has the potential to

reinvigorate the skilled crafts sector with new energy, however such international

cooperation activities are greatly reduced when the government has no monopoly on

the legitimate use of violence and foreign skilled crafts persons and/or trainers run

the risk of being attacked or kidnapped, when they visit.

Conflict and crisis situations reduce access of youth to VET programs in developing

and transitioning countries. Women for example are unlikely to participate in training

programs that take place in enterprises or schools too far away from their homes, as

they run the risk of being attacked on their way back home. Another constraint

brought about by fragile state existences is the lack of legitimacy governments in

such countries often face. When the population believes the government to lack

28

legitimacy, the government is unable to enact reforms which strengthen the

vocational education and training system, as it lacks the required trust and support of

the population.

Socio-economic fragility comprises a breakdown of the judicial environment, which

poses an existential challenge to the business community, i.e.: as this affects the

validity of work contracts and cooperation agreements between skilled crafts

institutions in Germany and in Africa. Despite the fact that business communities take

care of informal education the level of the skills trained is neither examined nor

certified and poses a challenge for development partners to assess the current status

quo and program their interventions sensibly.

The absence of funds provided by the government to support vocational

education and training in developing countries leads to administrative deficiencies

that act as constraints to the creation of a strong skilled crafts sector. Many ministries

related to education are under-financed and have limited implementation capacities,

above all however there is little to no inter-ministry coordination on issues of

education and labour policy. To exacerbate the issue, vocational training has only

recently crept to the forefront of education policy in developing and transitioning

countries. The importance of skill development for facilitating economic development

needs to be acknowledged by all pillars of society, by private citizens and the public

and business sector.

Other social components such as cultural norms have the potential to affect the

marginalization of sub-groups such as women and disabled people. Gender identities

affect the allocation of training positions to women and their access to VET programs

in professions not traditionally carried out by men, which is particularly detrimental for

long-term economic development, specifically in countries that have faced violent

conflicts in the past that led to most households being managed by women.

On the other hand German development partners on the company or chamber level

are still in the process of acquiring the skills and capabilities needed for international

cooperation in vocational education, such as intercultural sensitivity, communication

and negotiation in the international context, strategic planning for international

activities, project management and reporting and language skills. A structured

29

approach to enabling them to act as development partners has yet to be

implemented.

30

9. REFERENCES Bertelsmann Stiftung, Germany’s Dual Vocational Training System, www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/fileadmin/files/BSt/Publikationen/GrauePublikationen/GP_Germanys_dual_vocational_training_system.pdf

BMBF. Dual Training At A Glance. 2007 http://www.helsinki.diplo.de/contentblob/1775196/Daten/131100/pdf_dualebildung.pdf BMBF. Vocational Education Report. 2015. https://www.bmbf.de/pub/Berufsbildungsbericht_2015.pdf. BMZ. Consulting Colleagues in Developing Countries (Beratung von Kollegen in Entwicklungsländern). 2016. https://www.bmz.de/de/themen/privatwirtschaft/kammern_verbaende/kammer_und_verbandspartnerschaften/index.html. Bock, Jürgen. “The Importance of the Skilled Crafts Sector for the National Economy.” University of Bochum. 2011. BMZ, Kammern- und Verbandspartnerschaften, www.bmz.de/de/themen/privatwirtschaft/kammern_verbaende/kammer_und_verbandspartnerschaften/index.html. BPD. Demographic Change in Germany and Europe. 2014. http://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/migration/kurzdossiers/177962/germany-and-europe. DEQA-VET. Structure of Vocational Training in Germany. 2010. https://www.deqa-vet.de/de/struktur-der-berufsbildung-in-deutschland-2356.php. DESTATIS. Representation of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises in the Skilled Crafts Sector. 2012. https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesamtwirtschaftUmwelt/UnternehmenHandwerk/Handwerk/Tabellen/KleineMittlereUnternehmenHandwerk.html;jsessionid=0F9C69205AB9C96F54D105F021479B65.cae2. EURORAI. Germany – Education System. http://www.eurorai.org/PDF/pdf%20seminar%20Karlsruhe/Karlsruhe-Situation%20in%20DEUTSCHLAND-definitiv_EN.pdf. GOVET. Dual Training in Germany. 2014. https://www.bibb.de/dokumente/pdf/govet_praesentation_duales_system.pdf. Hoeckel, Kathrin and Schwartz, Robert. “Lernen für die Arbeitswelt – OECD-Studien zur Berufsbildung (Deutschland).” OECD (2010). http://www.oecd.org/berlin/45924455.pdf.

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International Labour Office. “World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2015.” International Labour Office – Geneva, 2015. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_337069.pdf. Kreishandwerkerschaft Steinfurth-Warendorf, www.kh-st-waf.de/en/innungen/ Population Reference Bureau. World Population Data Sheet. 2013. http://www.prb.org/publications/datasheets/2013/2013-world-population-data-sheet/data-sheet.aspx. Pütz, Helmut. “Vocational Education and Training – An Overview.” Federal Institute for Vocational Training (BIBB). 2003. https://www.bibb.de/dokumente/pdf/folienband_puetz-englisch.pdf. United Nations. “United Nations Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015.” Accessed March 03, 2016. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/education.shtml. United Nations Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015,” http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/education.shtml. United Nations, Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for sustainable development, http://www.un.org/pga/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2015/08/120815_outcome-document-of-Summit-for-adoption-of-the-post-2015-development-agenda.pdf, UNESOC. “Youth and Skills: Putting Education to Work.” Education for All Global Monitoring Report. 2012. Accessed March 4, 2016. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002180/218003e.pdf. ZDH. Betriebszahlen 2015. http://www.zdh-statistik.de/application/index.php?mID=3&cID=47. ZDH. A system to ensure skilled personnel in Germany. 2016. ZDH. Vocational Education and Training (VET) in German Skilled Crafts. 2015. http://www.ccila-portugal.com/fileadmin/ahk_portugal/site_upload/RF/Conferencia__Qualificacao_Profissional_/Sperle_DE_ZDH.pdf.