Theories of First and Second Theories of First and Second Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition

Education 453:10Education 453:10

Four General Profiles of StudentsFour General Profiles of Students

Balanced bilingualBalanced bilingual

Monolingual/literate in native languageMonolingual/literate in native languageMonolingual/preliterate in native languageMonolingual/preliterate in native language

Limited bilingual Limited bilingual

Balanced BilingualBalanced Bilingual Maria is a tenth grader who was Maria is a tenth grader who was

born in Guatemala. She moved born in Guatemala. She moved to Toronto in second grade. to Toronto in second grade. Before coming to Canada, she Before coming to Canada, she was a good student and learned was a good student and learned to read and write in Spanish. to read and write in Spanish. When she began school in When she began school in Canada, she was placed in a Canada, she was placed in a bilingual classroom where she bilingual classroom where she received some native-language received some native-language support before transitioning into support before transitioning into English instruction….English instruction….

Balanced BilingualBalanced Bilingual Duplicating this experience is the goal of English Duplicating this experience is the goal of English

second language teachingsecond language teaching Individuals who are balanced bilingual are Individuals who are balanced bilingual are

influenced by their environments and personal influenced by their environments and personal motivationmotivation

Their language competencies are constantly Their language competencies are constantly evolving and interactingevolving and interacting

Their working vocabulary is twice as large as Their working vocabulary is twice as large as monolingual individuals even when they begin monolingual individuals even when they begin school. 1000 x 2school. 1000 x 2

Monolingual Literate in Native Monolingual Literate in Native LanguageLanguage

Rahul is a recent immigrant in grade seven. He Rahul is a recent immigrant in grade seven. He has grade-level academic ability in his native has grade-level academic ability in his native language but speaks very little English. Because language but speaks very little English. Because he has lived outside Canada for thirteen years, he has lived outside Canada for thirteen years, certain cultural knowledge presents difficulties certain cultural knowledge presents difficulties for him. Rahul is quite shy and does not seek for him. Rahul is quite shy and does not seek help readily. He has excellent social and help readily. He has excellent social and academic language skills in his native language academic language skills in his native language and has studied English for a few years, but his and has studied English for a few years, but his proficiency is limited.proficiency is limited.

Monolingual Preliterate in Native Monolingual Preliterate in Native LanguageLanguage

Mai’s family came from Vietnam. They do not Mai’s family came from Vietnam. They do not have a strong support system in Nova Scotia. have a strong support system in Nova Scotia. Mai is a third-grader who mainly speaks Mai is a third-grader who mainly speaks Vietnamese. Mai is one of two ESL students in a Vietnamese. Mai is one of two ESL students in a rural school in Sheet Harbour. She is a rural school in Sheet Harbour. She is a nonreader in English and struggles with the nonreader in English and struggles with the simplest words. Her spoken English is quite simplest words. Her spoken English is quite limited when she interacts with students and limited when she interacts with students and teachers in class. The members of her family teachers in class. The members of her family have not been able to provide literacy have not been able to provide literacy experiences for her at home in either experiences for her at home in either language…language…

Limited BilingualLimited Bilingual BjörgBjörg from Iceland (Hafnarfjörður) Icelandic is from Iceland (Hafnarfjörður) Icelandic is

his first language and Icelandic and English are his first language and Icelandic and English are the languages he wants to improve upon and the languages he wants to improve upon and learn.learn.

“ “Halló My name is Björg .I´m turning 18 this Halló My name is Björg .I´m turning 18 this october. I realy wood like to talk to some one october. I realy wood like to talk to some one that is learnig icelandic or English so pleas that is learnig icelandic or English so pleas contact me…. contact me….

http://www.mylanguageexchange.com/Learn/http://www.mylanguageexchange.com/Learn/Icelandic.aspIcelandic.asp

Limited BilingualLimited Bilingual Luisa is a friendly 15-year old who sits quietly in Luisa is a friendly 15-year old who sits quietly in

class as if she understands everything. When class as if she understands everything. When written assignments are given, she writes down written assignments are given, she writes down the assignment and begins work. Her writing, the assignment and begins work. Her writing, however, is illegible, and her spelling is however, is illegible, and her spelling is extremely poor. Spanish is her first language, extremely poor. Spanish is her first language, although her family speaks a mix of English and although her family speaks a mix of English and Spanish at home. Luisa can converse quite well Spanish at home. Luisa can converse quite well in both languages, but for some reason has not in both languages, but for some reason has not made academic progress in either language.made academic progress in either language.

How Do We Teach Them?How Do We Teach Them?

Research has shown that students acquire Research has shown that students acquire second language in stages in a similar second language in stages in a similar fashion to how they acquired their first fashion to how they acquired their first languageslanguages(Krashen and Terrell, 1983)(Krashen and Terrell, 1983)

The Natural ApproachThe Natural ApproachStephen Krashen’s theory of five stages Stephen Krashen’s theory of five stages

has influenced the entire field of ESL has influenced the entire field of ESL teachingteaching

Students have more receptive ability than Students have more receptive ability than expressive ability during early stagesexpressive ability during early stages

Stage 1: PreproductionStage 1: PreproductionStudents are not ready to produce Students are not ready to produce

languagelanguageTeachers communicate with gestures and Teachers communicate with gestures and

actions (Total Physical Response – Asher, actions (Total Physical Response – Asher, 1982) while students develop vocabulary1982) while students develop vocabulary

Stage 2: Early ProductionStage 2: Early ProductionStudents speak in one or two words, short Students speak in one or two words, short

phrases, and have a working vocabulary phrases, and have a working vocabulary of 1000 words; they can answer who, of 1000 words; they can answer who, what, where questionswhat, where questions

Teachers encourage students to build Teachers encourage students to build receptive vocabulary and to produce receptive vocabulary and to produce vocabulary they already understandvocabulary they already understand

Stage 3: Speech EmergenceStage 3: Speech EmergenceStudents are ready for increased English Students are ready for increased English

language developmentlanguage development

Teachers teach curriculum content using Teachers teach curriculum content using native language support as necessarynative language support as necessary

Stage 4: Intermediate FluencyStage 4: Intermediate Fluency Students have developed improved Students have developed improved

conversational skills and increased academic conversational skills and increased academic skills depending on their age and level of literacy skills depending on their age and level of literacy in a native languagein a native language

Teachers still provide native language support in Teachers still provide native language support in language arts because students’ ability to language arts because students’ ability to understand and complete academic tasks in understand and complete academic tasks in English may lag behindEnglish may lag behind

Stage 5: Advanced LevelStage 5: Advanced LevelStudents continue to need to have their Students continue to need to have their

English skills refined to further develop English skills refined to further develop their academic skillstheir academic skills

Teachers need to recognize gaps in Teachers need to recognize gaps in academic ability and provide students with academic ability and provide students with specific learning strategiesspecific learning strategies

IversonIverson

Considerations for ESL TeachingConsiderations for ESL Teaching

The importance of academic background The importance of academic background and school experience increases and school experience increases exponentially with the age of the studentexponentially with the age of the student

Most teachers have a “theory” of first Most teachers have a “theory” of first language development that influences language development that influences their teachingtheir teaching

Theory 1: Behaviorist Theory 1: Behaviorist (B.F. Skinner)(B.F. Skinner)

Language is learned through imitation and Language is learned through imitation and habit formation; learning language is a habit formation; learning language is a process that involves input, imitation, and process that involves input, imitation, and habit formation through repetitionhabit formation through repetition

Children imitate the language they hear in Children imitate the language they hear in the language environment and receive the language environment and receive positive reinforcementpositive reinforcement

Implications for ESL learningImplications for ESL learningSecond language learners learn to Second language learners learn to

pronounce the sounds and words in pronounce the sounds and words in English in the same way as they learned English in the same way as they learned to utter the sounds of their first language – to utter the sounds of their first language – through imitationthrough imitation

They may have difficulty recognizing and They may have difficulty recognizing and producing some of the sounds in English producing some of the sounds in English and have an accent (th, v, w, l, r)and have an accent (th, v, w, l, r)

PROBLEM: embarrassed to speak PROBLEM: embarrassed to speak

Theory 2: InnatistTheory 2: Innatist(Noam Chomsky)(Noam Chomsky)

Children learn language because it is in Children learn language because it is in their nature to do sotheir nature to do so

An innate predisposition for language An innate predisposition for language learning enables children to discover the learning enables children to discover the patterns or conventions of language based patterns or conventions of language based on the basis of the language in their on the basis of the language in their environmentenvironment

Implications for ESL learningImplications for ESL learningESL learners listen to the English spoken ESL learners listen to the English spoken

around them and subconsciously seek around them and subconsciously seek patterns, test validity of the patterns by patterns, test validity of the patterns by reproducing them in their own speech, and reproducing them in their own speech, and over an extended period, modify their over an extended period, modify their patterns in response to feedbackpatterns in response to feedback

PROBLEM: PROBLEM: overgeneralization, overgeneralization, interlanguage patterns, fossilizationinterlanguage patterns, fossilization

Theory 3: InteractionistTheory 3: Interactionist(Lev Vygotsky, Krashen)(Lev Vygotsky, Krashen)

Children’s language development results Children’s language development results from the interaction between the learner from the interaction between the learner and language environment, assisted by and language environment, assisted by innate cognitive processesinnate cognitive processes

Adults tend to address young children Adults tend to address young children using using modified inputmodified input; strong contextual ; strong contextual support with communication as the support with communication as the purpose, purpose, scaffoldingscaffolding, , zone of proximal zone of proximal development (Vygotsky)development (Vygotsky)

Implications for ESL teachingImplications for ESL teaching ESL learners need interaction with proficient ESL learners need interaction with proficient

speakers of English; they need modified or speakers of English; they need modified or comprehensible inputcomprehensible input to make sense of the to make sense of the language (Krashen)language (Krashen)

Learners need background knowledge in the Learners need background knowledge in the subject area to relate to the context and the subject area to relate to the context and the language level of the lesson must not be too far language level of the lesson must not be too far above the learner’s current levelabove the learner’s current level

Learners then need to be given opportunities to Learners then need to be given opportunities to produce produce meaningful output meaningful output and receive and receive feedback.feedback.

Theories of Second Language Theories of Second Language AcquisitionAcquisition

Stephen Krashen’s 5 main hypothesesStephen Krashen’s 5 main hypotheses

Jim Cummin’s contribution: an expert in Jim Cummin’s contribution: an expert in second language acquisition among second language acquisition among school-aged studentsschool-aged students

Krashen 1: The Acquisition Krashen 1: The Acquisition Learning HypothesisLearning Hypothesis

There is a distinction between second There is a distinction between second language acquired through natural language acquired through natural communication and second language communication and second language learned formallylearned formally

Implicit idea: students learn best through Implicit idea: students learn best through modeling and practice, not overt correction modeling and practice, not overt correction by the teacherby the teacher

Krashen 2: Natural Order Krashen 2: Natural Order HypothesisHypothesis

Individuals learn a second language in a Individuals learn a second language in a predictable orderpredictable order

Krashen 3: Monitor HypothesisKrashen 3: Monitor Hypothesis Individual learners internalize the rules of Individual learners internalize the rules of

the second language and use these to the second language and use these to monitor their own errors before and after monitor their own errors before and after language production.language production.

Krashen 5: Input HypothesisKrashen 5: Input HypothesisLanguage learners progress from one Language learners progress from one

developmental stage to the next, so developmental stage to the next, so teachers need to know/assess the level of teachers need to know/assess the level of students’ functioning and respond students’ functioning and respond accordingly with a greater or lesser degree accordingly with a greater or lesser degree of curriculum supportof curriculum support

Krashen 5: Affective FilterKrashen 5: Affective FilterA positive affective (stress free) learning A positive affective (stress free) learning

environment will enhance language environment will enhance language learninglearning

Jim Cummins Contribution Jim Cummins Contribution (1986)(1986)

The linguistic interdependence model: The linguistic interdependence model: cognitive-academic skills learned in the cognitive-academic skills learned in the native language will transfer to the new native language will transfer to the new language (English) and that such skills are language (English) and that such skills are interdependent across languagesinterdependent across languages

Communicative DemandsCommunicative DemandsCommunicative tasks: English listening, Communicative tasks: English listening,

speaking, reading and writing may be speaking, reading and writing may be easier or more difficult for ESL learners easier or more difficult for ESL learners depending on the task itselfdepending on the task itself

Cummin’s ConclusionsCummin’s Conclusions Students with limited English skills often achieve Students with limited English skills often achieve

communicative competence more rapidly than communicative competence more rapidly than academic competenceacademic competence

Basic Interpersonal Communication SkillsBasic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)(BICS) are achieved within two years of are achieved within two years of immersion in an English language environmentimmersion in an English language environment

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) (CALP) at age appropriate levels requires at at age appropriate levels requires at least five yearsleast five years

Bilingual EducationBilingual EducationBilingual education can accelerate Bilingual education can accelerate

language acquisition and enhance language acquisition and enhance academic achievement because it is:academic achievement because it is:The foundation for second language learningThe foundation for second language learningAn important tool for learningAn important tool for learningAn important component of personal and An important component of personal and

cultural identitycultural identity