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Theories of Practice:Theories of Practice:The Human Resources FrameThe Human Resources Frame
MPA 8002
Organization Theory
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.
A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
ManagerialAnd
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Family Tribe Clan
Relationships Self-Interest Needs Feelings Skills
Empowerment Liberation Fulfillment Self-
Actualization
Attuneorganizationaland humanneeds
the human resources frame
If the principles of scientific management were considered “revolutionary,” the assertions of the early human resources theorists were “radical”...
…as their hypotheses challenged the antecedents and theories of practice governing how managers viewed workers for the new Industrial era.
One of the earliest precursors of One of the earliest precursors of human resources theory...human resources theory...
David Owen
18th century mercantilistowned spinning mills throughout
Scotlandbelieved that worker productivity
could be improved by being attentive to their basic human needs
provided workers a high standard of living, including:
life-long educational opportunities
decent, clean housing
• preschool
• day care
• progressive elementary and secondary schooling
• continuing adult education
in contrast to prevailing practice, Owen trained his managers in humanehumane disciplinary practices...
...endeavored to make workers “originsorigins” rather than “pawnspawns” of the organization (de Charms, 1968)
Contrasting “pawns” and “origins”...Contrasting “pawns” and “origins”...
passive “workers” basically incompetent
and lazy
need close supervision
require training
active “resources” competent and basically
self-motivated
are self-regulating
bring skills, attitudes, energy, enthusiasm, and commitment
how managers and leaders view “pawnspawns”:
how managers and leaders view “originsorigins”:
“replaceable cogs” in a machine
alienating, dehumanizing, and frustrating
victims of incompetent bosses, bureaucratic inertia, and organizational doublespeak
invigorating opportunities to make a personal contribution
a place for personal and professional growth and challenge by asserting oneself and advocating one’s needs
a place to experience a sense of belonging, to build self-esteem, and to become self-actualized
how “pawnspawns” experience work:
how “originsorigins” experience work:
The issue raised by the human resources theories of practice is that of better aligning people andand organizations not people oror organizations...
because...
people need organizations…for the extrinsic rewards work provides
organizations need people
…for the intrinsic satisfaction work can provide
…for a reliable and stable labor pool
…for the energy, effort, and talent people bring
The assumptions of human The assumptions of human resources theories...resources theories...
1. organizations exist to serve human needs
3. the fit of people and organization is critical
2. organizations and people need each other
ideas
energy
talent
salaries
opportunitiescareers
an inappropriate fit can lead to exploitation or victimization by people and/or the organization
The rise of industrial/organizational psychology in the 20th century, especially human needs theories, provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization...
Abraham Maslow (1954)...Abraham Maslow (1954)...
defined the hierarchy of pre-potent needs
5. self-actualization
4. self-esteem
3. belongingness
2. safety, security
1. physiological1
2
3
4
5
asserted that the worker-structure conflict is built into the traditional principles of organizational design and management
task specialization defines jobs as narrowly as possible to improve efficiency…
Chris Argyris (1977)...Chris Argyris (1977)...
...but the outcome is that work is depersonalized and becomes monotonous
1. personal withdrawal—evident in absenteeism and quitting2. psychological withdrawal—evident in indifference passivity, and apathy3. resistance—evident in soldiering, deception, feather bedding, and sabotage4. power grabs—climbing the bureaucracy5. forming coalitions (e.g., unions) to redress power imbalances
evidence of worker-structure conflict:
6. socializing children with negative view of work (i.e., unrewarding, little hope for advancement)
formulated a two factor theory of the motivation to work:
Frederick Herzberg et al. Frederick Herzberg et al. (1959)...(1959)...
M 2F A E
motivation is a psychological complex of two factorsfactors manifesting themselves in attitudesattitudes evident in their effectseffects
2 FACTORS2F
these factors are the objective elements and subjective feelings (i.e., needs or drives activated by the events themselves) antecedent to an attitude
hygiene factors
motivators
do not motivate but the absence of hygiene increases worker dissatisfaction
hygiene factors
when hygiene is not met, workers strike or give up motivation and become addicted to hygiene
extrinsic
hygiene factors
Good organizational hygiene provides the foundation for higher motivation in the workplace...
experiences enabling personal growth and self-actualization in the work itself
motivators intrinsic
achievement
responsibility
the work itself
advancement
doing complete jobs, experiencing successengaging in work design and accountabilitydoing the jobengaging in new learnings, developing expertise
hygiene factors
motivators
...motivators build on hygiene factors...
To inculcate higher motivation in workers, managers and leaders should focus on:
attending to the workers’ attitudes notnot the work process
using the organizing and planning functions to encourage high morale
While attending to worker morale and attitudes, managers and leaders recognize:
that motivation to work is a psychological process not a matter of a worker’s interest in the job
that workplace hygiene is primary providing the foundation for motivation
that salary is a hygiene factor not a motivator
According to Herzberg et al.’s two-factor theory of motivation, the worst of all motivators is…
…an across-the-board salary increase
posited a theory of management, Theory X and Theory Y
…asserting that a manager’s assumptions about people become self-fulfilling prophecies evident in organizational behavior
Douglas McGregor (1960)...Douglas McGregor (1960)...
Theory X...people are inherently:
lazypassive
possess little ambitionprefer to be ledresist change
Theory X...workers are characterized by:
…an external locus-of-control
…“other-centered” directedness
Theory X...management through:
coercion
tight controls
threats
punishments
Theory X...self-fulfilling prophecies:
coercion
tight controls
threats
punishments
low productivity
antagonism
militant unions
subtle sabotage
Theory Y...people are inherently:
motivatedactive and interested
ambitiousprefer to lead
interested in change
Theory Y...workers are characterized by:
…an internal locus-of-control
…self-direction
Theory Y...management through:
open systems
communication
self-managing teams
peer-controlled pay systems
Theory Y...management through:
open systems
communication
self-managing teams
peer-controlled pay systems
needs and tasks aligned
accurate feedback
worker investment
fairness and equity
the essential task of managers and leaders is to arrange organizational conditions…
…so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts toward organizational rewards
While industrial/organizational psychology provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization...
…the goal of making the workplace and productivity a forum for people to express their freedom and dignity, as noble as this goal may be, has never been empirically proven.
juxtaposed two theories of practice, Model IModel I and Model IIModel II
Model IModel I…what managers and leaders say conflicts with what they do
Argyris & Schön (1974, 1996)...Argyris & Schön (1974, 1996)...
Model IIModel II…through organizational learning, there is congruence between what managers and leaders say and do
Model I assumptions...Model I assumptions...
organizations are competitive, dangerous places
watch out for yourself or someone else will do you in
Model I theory-in-use...Model I theory-in-use...
core values
action strategy
outcomes: behavior
outcomes: learning
identify and achieve goals
design and manage the environment unilaterally
defensive, inconsistent, fearful, and
selfish appearance
no learning: self-sealing, protection
from negative feedback
core values
action strategy
outcomes: behavior
outcomes: learning
maximize winning, minimize
losing
own and control what is relevant to
one’s interests
engenders defensive,
inconsistent, fearful, and
selfish behaviors in
others
“single-loop” learning:
core values and
assumptions remain
unquestioned
core values
action strategy
outcomes: behavioral
outcomes: learning
minimize the
expression of negative
feelings
insulate oneself from
criticism, discomfort,
and vulnerability
reinforces defensive
norms: mistrust, risk avoidance, conformity, and rivalry
core values and
assumptions are tested privately
core values
action strategy
outcomes: behavior
outcomes: learning
be rational insulate others from being hurt
critical organizational issues are not
discussed
collusion that impedes
organizational learning
The Model I problem-solving The Model I problem-solving process...process...
1. assume that others are causing the problem
2. develop a private, unilateral diagnosis and solution to the problem
…calmly using facts, logic, and rational persuasion to assert the merits of your point of view
…using indirect coercive influences …formulating and issuing direct
critiques
3. get other(s) to change by...
4. defensiveness confirms the original diagnosis
5. intensify pressures by offering to protect or to reject the other person(s)
6. if unsuccessful, bear no responsibility because the outcome is the other person(s) fault
Model I outcomes...Model I outcomes...
feelings of vulnerability
Managers and leaders using a Model I theory of practice increase in workers...
self-protecting behaviors
games of camouflage
deception
organizationalcatastrophe
…and increase the probability of...
Model II problem-solving Model II problem-solving process...process...
1. emphasize common goals and mutual influence
Mutually Assured Destruction produces no winners
M
A
D
LEADERS AND MANAGERS DO NOT FORGET:
2. communicate openly and publicly, testing one’s assumptions and beliefs
Does what I espouse... …what I do?
3. combine inquiryinquiry with advocacyadvocacy
what othersothers think, know, want, and feel
inquiry
advocacywhat II think, know, want, and feel
a fundamental competence in relating with diverse individuals effectively
Human resources theory requires that Human resources theory requires that managers and leaders possess...managers and leaders possess...
sufficiently good interpersonal skills:
the refined ability to inquire in a non-threatening way: What is going on here? Why are people behaving as they are? What can I do about it?
is not afraid of conflict
sufficiently good intrapersonal skills:
in arguments, is able to distance oneself from the passion of the moment and to construct how other individuals are making sense of things
is able to confront conflict
“complicates” (rather than simplifies) one’s understanding of how the organization really works
negotiates the fit between the individual and the organization
sufficiently good group skills:
is comfortable with plurality, diversity, and ambiguity
directs conflict towards productive ends while solving problems, resolves organizational
issues
while groups can promote... …groups can also generate
increased knowledge
a diversity of perspectives
time and energy
improved communication
increased acceptance of decisions
caving into social pressure
inefficiency
personal agendas which dominate the decision
making process
unproductive constraints
to increase group productivity managers and leaders must be able to address:
other’s personal interests the requirements of various task roles the requirements of various personal roles informal group norms interpersonal conflict
Basic human resources Basic human resources strategies...strategies...
1. develop a long-term organizational commitment to the philosophy of human resources
• build human resources in to the corporate and incentive structures
• develop quantitative and qualitative measures of human resources management
2. invest in people
• hire the right people and reward them well
• provide job security
• promote from within
• train and educate
• share the wealth of success
3. deal directly with people• engage in active listening
• provide accurate feedback
• search for common interests
• experiment with ideas and proposals
• doubt one’s infallibility
• treat differences as a group responsibility
4. empower people through work redesign
• provide greater autonomy and participative management
• focus on job enrichment
• emphasize teamwork
• ensure egalitarianism• provide opportunities for
upward hierarchical influence
Because change causes people to feel incompetent, needy, and powerless, providing for the development of new skills, creating opportunities for involvement, and providing psychological support are essential managerial/leadership tasks.
effective managers and leaders are…catalysts
Using human resources theory...Using human resources theory...
whose primary concerns are…support
…empowerment
…servants
Human resources tasks for Human resources tasks for managers and leaders...managers and leaders...
1. help individuals and group develop a shared sense of direction and purpose
2. balance task and process goals
3. endeavor to make group work both satisfying and efficient
4. keep on top of a large, complex set of activities
5. get support from bosses
6. get support from corporate staff and other constituents
7. motivate, coordinate, and control large, diverse group of subordinates
ineffective managers and leaders are…wimps
Abusing human resources Abusing human resources theory...theory...
whose primary concerns are
…making people happy
…managing by abdication
…pushovers
…personal
Strengths of the human resources Strengths of the human resources theory of practice...theory of practice...
…practical
…addresses fundamental human needs and interests
…naïve
Limitations of the human Limitations of the human resources theory of practice...resources theory of practice...
…optimistic
…not realistic in a fast-changing environment
Integrating reflective practice, conceptual Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis...pluralism, and organizational analysis...
Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism needed to diagnose the issues underlying the problems manifesting themselves in organizations.
the structural frame
the human resources frame
the political frame
the symbolic frame
This module has focused on...This module has focused on...
the human resources theorieshuman resources theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes
the human resources frame
as these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making, the
offers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of human resources theory
People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.
A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
ManagerialAnd
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Family Tribe Clan
Relationships Self-Interest Needs Feelings Skills
Empowerment Liberation Fulfillment Self-
Actualization
Attuneorganizationaland humanneeds
the human resources frame
ReferencesReferences
Argyris, C. (1977, Sept-Oct). Skilled incompetence. Harvard Business Review, 55(5), 115-25.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1991). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959/1993). The motivation to work. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.
McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of organization. New York: McGraw Hill.