Theories of Ethics & Kautilyan Philosophy & Education System in India

THEORIES OF ETHICS – NATURAL LAW, UTILITARIANISM, KANTIAN VIRTUE

Ethics also called moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that seeks to determine the correct application of moral notions such as good and bad and right and wrong or a theory of the application or nature of such notions. Both 'ethics' and 'morality' have their roots in a word for 'customs', the former being a derivative of the Greek term from which we get 'ethos', and the latter from the Latin root that gives us 'mores', a word still used sometimes to describe the customs of a people. Although ethics has always been viewed as a branch of philosophy, its all-embracing practical nature links it with many other areas of study, including anthropology, biology, economics, history, politics, sociology, and theology. Yet, ethics remains distinct from such disciplines because it is not a matter of factual knowledge in the way that the sciences and other branches of inquiry are. Rather, it has to do with determining the nature of normative theories and applying these sets of principles to practical moral problems.

Ethics is traditionally subdivided into normative ethics, metaethics, and applied ethics.

1. Normative ethics seeks to establish norms or standards of conduct; a crucial question in this field is whether actions are to be judged right or wrong based on their consequences or based on their conformity to some moral rule, such as “Do not tell a lie.” Theories that adopt the former basis of judgment are called consequentialist (see consequentialism); those that adopt the latter are known as deontological (see deontological ethics).

2. Metaethics is concerned with the nature of ethical judgments and theories. Since the beginning of the 20th century, much work in metaethics has focused on the logical and semantic aspects of moral language. Some major metaethical theories are naturalism (see naturalistic fallacy), intuitionism, emotivism, and prescriptivism.

3. Applied ethics, as the name implies, consists of the application of normative ethical theories to practical moral problems (e.g., abortion). Among the major fields of applied ethics are bioethics, business ethics, legal ethics, and medical ethics.

THE ORIGINS OF ETHICS When did ethics begin and how did it originate? Virtually every human society has some form of myth to explain the origin of morality. In the Louvre in Paris there is a black Babylonian column with a relief showing the sun god Shamash presenting the code of laws to Hammurabi (died c. 1750 bc), known as the Code of Hammurabi. The Old Testament account of God’s giving the Ten Commandments to Moses (flourished 14th–13th century bc) on Mount Sinai might be considered another example.

The Renaissance and the Reformation The revival of Classical learning and culture that began in 15th-century Italy and then slowly spread throughout Europe did not give immediate birth to any major new ethical theories.

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Its significance for ethics lies, rather, in a change of focus. For the first time since the conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity, man, not God, became the chief object of philosophical interest, and the main theme of philosophical thinking was not religion but humanity—the powers, freedom, and accomplishments of human beings. Although the Renaissance did not produce any outstanding moral philosophers, there is one writer whose work is of some importance in the history of ethics: Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527). His book The Prince (1513) offered advice to rulers as to what they must do to achieve their aims and secure their power. Its significance for ethics lies precisely in the fact that Machiavelli’s advice ignores the usual ethical rules: “It is necessary for a prince, who wishes to maintain himself, to learn how not to be good, and to use this knowledge and not use it, according to the necessities of the case.” There had not been so frank a rejection of morality since the Greek Sophists. So startling is the cynicism of Machiavelli’s advice that it has been suggested that The Prince was an attempt to satirize the conduct of the princely rulers of Renaissance Italy. It may be more accurate, however, to view Machiavelli as an early political scientist, concerned only with setting out what human beings are like and how power is maintained, with no intention of passing moral judgment on the state of affairs described. In any case, The Prince gained instant notoriety, and Machiavelli’s name became synonymous with political cynicism and deviousness.

Reacting against the worldly immorality apparent in the Renaissance church, Martin Luther (1483–1546), John Calvin (1509–64), and other leaders of the new Protestantism sought to return to the pure early Christianity of the Scriptures, especially as reflected in the teachings of Paul and of the Church Fathers, Augustine foremost among them. They were contemptuous of Aristotle and of non-Christian philosophers in general. Luther’s standard of right and wrong was whatever God commands. Luther insisted that one does not earn salvation by good works; one is justified by faith in Christ and receives salvation through divine grace. It is apparent that if these premises are accepted, there is little scope for human reason in ethics. As a result, no moral philosophy has ever had the kind of close association with any Protestant church that, for example, the philosophy of Aquinas has had with Roman Catholicism. Yet, because Protestants emphasized the capacity of the individual to read and understand the Gospels without first receiving the authoritative interpretation of the church, the ultimate outcome of the Reformation was a greater freedom to read and write independently of the church hierarchy. This development made possible a new era of ethical thought. From this time, too, distinctively national traditions of moral philosophy began to emerge; the British tradition, in particular, developed largely independently of ethics on the Continent. Accordingly, the present discussion will follow this tradition through the 19th century before returning to consider the different line of development in continental Europe.


NATURAL LAWKey philosophers are:St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). His main work is: Summa Theologica (1273)Aristotle (384-322BCE). His main work is: Nichomachean EthicsCicero (106-43BCE). His main work is: On The Republic

Ethics is the struggle to determine what is right or wrong, or ‘good’ and ‘bad’. Some ethical theories are hedonistic – they say that pleasure (and the absence of pain) are the only ultimately ‘good’ ends towards which to aim. Some Christian ethicists argue that following God’s will – as revealed through prayer, scriptures and prophecy – is the ultimate good. The roots of natural law can be found in the ancient Greek and Roman world. In the play Antigone, written in the fifth century BCE by Sophocles, Creon, the ruler of Thebes, forbids the burial of Antigone’s brother as punishment for his treason against Thebes. Antigone breaks Creon’s law and buries her brother. She argues that the State cannot overrule the immortal laws of the Gods, which in this case require the dead to be buried. In Nichomachean Ethics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote that natural justice was not always the same as that which was just by law. He observed that while laws may vary from place to place, natural justice is independent and applies to everyone no matter where they live. The ancient Stoics emphasised the importance of Logos, or rationality that governs the world and sees human nature as part of one natural order. They considered natural law, a law of right reason.

Reason and human purposeNatural Law says that everything has a purpose, and that mankind was made by God with a specific design or objective in mind (although it doesn’t require belief in God). It says that this purpose can be known through reason. As a result, fulfilling the purpose of our design is the only ‘good’ for humans. The theory of Natural Law was put forward by Aristotle but championed by Aquinas (1225-74). It is a deductive theory – it starts with basic principles, and from these the right course of action in a particular situation can be deduced. It is deontological, looking at the intent behind an action and the nature of the act itself, not its outcomes. In more detail, Aquinas talked of Primary Precepts. While Natural Law may be thought of as a deontological position (deon- duty; deontological ethical positions have absolute rules that it is our duty to follow), this part is teleological (Telos- purpose), meaning ‘What is our purpose - what are we designed for?’. The main purpose being Worship God, to live in an Ordered society, Reproduction, Learning and to Defend the innocent

Real and apparent goodsAquinas argued that the self should be maintained. As a result, Natural Law supports certain virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance) that allow the self to fulfil its purpose. Similarly there are many vices (the seven deadly sins) that must be avoided as they prevent the individual from being what God intended them to be.


Following a ‘real’ good will result in the preservation or improvement of self, getting nearer to the ‘ideal human nature’ that God had planned. There are many apparent goods that may be pleasurable (e.g. drugs) but ultimately lead us to fall short of our potential. Reason is used to determine the ‘real’ goods. To correctly distinguish between apparent and real goods is to use reason rightly and to choose the right thing to do. Reason identified the ‘natural’ or ‘cardinal’ virtues: prudence, temperance, fortitude and justice. Scriptures reveal theological virtues as faith, hope and charity. To adhere to natural law, an individual should seek to develop the cardinal virtues. This development requires practice. It is also possible for the very opposite to become habitual if people are not careful.

Exterior and interior actsFor Aquinas, both the intention and the act are important. To act in a good way for the wrong reason is to perform a good exterior act but a bad interior act. Example: to help an old lady cross the road (good exterior act) to impress someone (bad interior act) is wrong. It should be done out of charity rather than for sake of admiration by others. On the other hand, good intentions don’t always lead to good actions. The only end that Aquinas values is God. Aquinas believes that acts are intrinsically good or bad (good or bad in themselves) because when human beings act in accordance with their ultimate purpose, God is glorified.

Primary and secondary preceptsWhether or not acts lead towards God depends upon whether the action fits the purpose that humans were made for. The main purpose of human nature is to preserve the self and the innocent, to reproduce, to acquire knowledge, to live in an ordered society and to worship God. Secondary Precepts are the rules - absolute deontological principles - that are derived from the Primary Precepts. For example, the teleological principle "Protect and preserve the innocent" leads to rules such as "Do not abort," "Do not commit euthanasia" etc. These rules cannot be broken, regardless of the consequences. They are absolute laws.

UTILITARIANISMKey philosophers are: Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). His main works include: Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789); A Fragment on Government (1776)John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). His main work is: Utilitarianism (1863)Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900). His main work is: The Methods of Ethics (1874)

Teleological and Deontological TheoriesEthical theories that concentrate on moral rules that can’t be broken are deontological. For deontological ethics, the important thing isn’t the result or the consequence of the action, but the action itself. If the action is wrong, then it won’t do. For a deontologist, the end never justifies the means.


Another group of philosophers argue that whether something is right or wrong depends on the result or the end of that action. Theories that are interested in ends are called teleological, from the Greek word for ‘end’ – telos. For a teleological ethical thinker, the end justifies the means. You decide the rightness of an action by the end it produces. A choice that results in a good end is morally better than a choice that results in a bad end. Qualities such as love, honesty and kindness are not good in themselves. They are only good in an instrumental way because they cause good results.Example: consider torture. A deontologist may argue that torturing prisoners is always wrong, no matter what the situation. On the other hand, a teleologist will want to look at the consequences of either choosing to torture or not choosing to torture before deciding whether or not it is right. Let us suppose that the prisoner has secrets that, once revealed will save the lives of many innocent people. The prison guards know he has the information. The teleological thinker will maintain that it is right to go ahead and torture to discover the truth, as it will save the lives of many innocents.

Utilitarianism is the most famous teleological theory. The theory of utilitarianism was devised by Jeremy Bentham, an Englishman. Bentham worked on legal reform and wrote The Principles of Morals and Legislations (1789), in which he put forward his ethical theory. This can be divided into three parts:

1. His view on what drove human beings, what goodness and badness was all about.2. The principle of utility (from the Latin utilis, meaning ‘useful’), which is his moral

rule.3. The hedonic calculus, which is his system for measuring how good or bad a

consequence, is.

The motivation of human beingsBentham maintained that human beings were motivated by pleasure and pain, and so he can be called a hedonist (hedone is Greek for ‘pleasure’). He said, ‘Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign master, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do.’ Bentham believed that all human beings pursued pleasure and sought to avoid pain. He saw this as a moral fact, as pleasure and pain identified what we should and shouldn’t do. As a hedonist, Bentham believed that pleasure was the sole good and pain the sole evil: hence, Bentham’s utilitarianism is called hedonic utilitarianism.

The principle of utilityOnce Bentham had established that pleasure and pain were the important qualities for determining what was moral, he developed the utility principle. The rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its ‘utility’ or usefulness. Usefulness refers to the amount of pleasure or happiness caused by the action. The theory is known as the greatest happiness principle, or a theory of usefulness. ‘An action is right if it produces the greatest good for the


greatest number’, where the greatest good is the greatest pleasure or happiness and the least pain or sadness, and the greatest number are the majority of people. Good is the maximisation of pleasure and the minimisation of pain. When faced with a moral dilemma, Bentham argues that one should choose to act in such a way that brings the maximum possible happiness for the most people. However, the possible consequences of different actions must be measured clearly to establish which option generates the most pleasure and the least pain. To measure the results, Bentham proposed the hedonic calculus.

Hedonic CalculusBentham’s hedonistic utilitarianism states that we always ought to perform that act that leads to the greatest pleasure. This raises the question as to how we are to quantify pleasure; if we cannot put a value on the quantity of pleasure that an act produces, then we cannot compare it to other acts in order to decide which of them we ought to perform. To overcome this difficulty, Bentham proposed the hedonic calculus. The hedonic calculus lists seven features of pleasure to which attention must be paid in order to assess how great it is: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent.

Intensity - The intensity of the pleasure caused by an act is reasonably self-explanatory. Mild pleasure is less valuable than intense pleasure, and so acts leading to the latter are to be preferred to acts leading to the former, other things being equal.

Duration - The duration of the pleasure caused by an act must also be taken into account when assessing the goodness of the act. Transient pleasure is less valuable than lasting pleasure, and so acts leading to the latter are to be preferred to acts leading to the former, other things being equal.

Certainty - The certainty criterion refers to the probability of the pleasure resulting from the act; how likely is it that the act will bring about the anticipated pleasure? If we must choose between an act that will definitely cause pleasure and an act that will only possibly bring about pleasure, then we do better to perform the former.

Propinquity - When deciding what to do, Bentham thought, we should bear in mind how distant are the anticipated benefits of each possible course of action. The more distant the benefits, in either space or time, the less weight we should give them in making our decision.

Fecundity - The fecundity of an act is the likelihood that the pleasures or pains that it causes will be followed by similar pleasures or pains. If the happiness that an act causes is likely to be followed by yet more happiness, then that act is better than a similar act that will cause only one isolated instance of happiness. Similarly, if the pain that an act causes is likely to be followed by still more pains, then that act is worse than it would otherwise be.

Purity - It is also important to be attentive to the purity of pleasure and pain caused by an act. An act that causes only pleasure is better than one that causes the same amount of pleasure mixed with a little pain. When pleasure or pain is unmixed with their opposites, their purity is high; when they are so mixed, their purity is diminished.

Extent - The final criterion for quantifying the pleasure caused by an act is its extent: the more people enjoy the pleasure, the better. This criterion, unlike the previous six, was not among the original criteria described by Bentham, but was added by John Stuart Mill.


John Stuart Mill was the son of a follower of Jeremy Bentham. He was perhaps the greatest British philosopher of the nineteenth century. An administrator for the East India Company, he was also a member of Parliament. He wrote On the Subjugation of Women, one of the inspirations behind modern feminism. His works concerning ethics were On Liberty (1859) and Utilitarianism (1861). Mill maintained that the well being of the individual was of greatest importance and that happiness is most effectively gained when individuals are free to pursue their own ends, subject to rules that protect the common good of all.

Act and Rule UtilitarianismUtilitarianism also exists in act form and rule form. Act utilitarianism maintains that, whenever possible, the principle of utility must be directly applied for each individual situation. When faced with a moral choice, I must decide what action will lead to the greatest good in this particular situation. If I am in a situation in which lying will create the greatest pleasure, then I should lie. If, in the next situation, lying brings about a lesser result than telling the truth, then I should tell the truth. According to act utilitarians, when determining whether the act is right, it is the value of the consequences of the particular act that count. I may break any law if, in that situation, greater happiness will result. Act utilitarianism has the benefit of flexibility, being able to take into account individual situations at a given moment, although the actions it justifies can change. This form of utilitarianism is more closely associated with Jeremy Bentham.

There are a number of criticisms of act utilitarianism. First, it has the potential to justify virtually any act if, in that particular case, the result generates the most happiness. The second problem is that it’s impractical to suggest that we should measure each and every moral choice every time, especially as we may not have all the information required by the hedonic calculus. A third difficulty is that act utilitarianism can have some quite extreme results. Example: An act utilitarian goes out to see a film. On the way to the cinema, she sees someone collecting money for charity. She gives her money to the collector instead of buying the ticket, and then goes home. A week passes and she sets out to the cinema again. She meets the collector again and hands over her money and again returns home. In each case giving up her money to help the greatest number generates the greatest happiness. However, taken to extreme, all leisure activity would end – which seems a little hard to stomach. The other form of utilitarianism – rule utilitarianism – addresses this difficulty.

Rule Utilitarianism focuses on general rules that everyone should follow to bring about the greatest good for that community. Rule utilitarianism establishes the best overall rule by determining the course of action which, when pursued by the whole community, leads to the best result. This type of utilitarianism is more closely associated with John Stuart Mill and John Austin (The Province of Jurisprudence, 1832). In a particular situation I must obey


the rule even if it doesn’t lead to the greatest pleasure for me in this particular situation. In rule utilitarianism, rule takes priority over the immediate situation.

Evaluating UtilitarianismFirst it seems reasonable to link morality with pursuit of happiness and the avoidance of pain and misery.Second, it also seems natural to consider the consequences of our actions before deciding what to do.Third, utilitarianism offers a balanced, democratic morality that promotes the general happiness. It doesn’t support individual pursuits that are at the expense of the majority. It is a commonsense system that’s practically applicable to real life situations. It has no need for a special wisdom. However, there are a number of difficulties with utilitarianism. The first concerns all theories that rely on consequences for deciding which actions are good. One needs to be sure that what he thinks will come about as a result of a particular action will actually come about. Utilitarianism depends upon accurate predictions of the futures, but human beings don’t always display accurate foresight. The consequences of actions may not become apparent until years into the future. A second difficulty is found in measuring pleasure. The balancing process brought about using the seven criteria of the hedonic calculus appears straightforward. However, can the different pleasures and different pains be so easily quantifiable? Can the pain of an inoculation be compared with the pain of getting injured? Some pain is good for us, it is there for a reason. The hedonic calculus formula isn’t as straightforward as it at first appears. It is questionable whether an action can be declared good by an empirical test as suggested by hedonic calculus.Third and a more profound difficulty concerns the issue of justice. While utilitarianism ensures a maximum pleasure result, it does not set out how that pleasure is distributed. It ensures that most people receive pleasure but it guarantees nothing for minorities. Five bullies get pleasure from torturing a single boy. His pleasure is sacrificed for the greater benefit of theirs! That men are happy with their lot never entails that their lot is what it ought to be. For the question can always be raised of how great the price is that is being paid for the happiness. The fourth difficulty is utilitarianism’s failure to consider different views on what happiness is. It asserts that there’s common agreement about what brings pleasure and what brings pain. This can be challenged at many levels. Not only do people have different tastes with regard to music, art and literature, but there are even extreme exceptions with regard to physical sensations – there are people who find pleasure in experiencing pain. Despite these weaknesses, utilitarianism has proved popular and useful. In The Methods of Ethics (1874), Henry Sidgwick produced a more complex account of utilitarianism. He rejected Bentham’s view that people pursued their own pleasure and replaced it with ethical hedonism – the view that individuals should seek general happiness.


KANTIAN PHILOSOPHYKey Philosopher: Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). His main works include: Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785); Critique of Practical Reason (1788); The Metaphysics of Morals (1797)

Kant was concerned with Deontological ethics. Deontological theories are concerned with actions rather than the consequences. The theory states that if an act is wrong, it is wrong in all circumstances, irrespective of the consequences. This view of ethics stands in opposition to the teleological views such as utilitarianism, which tend to hold consequences as the determining factor for the moral worth of an act. Kant’s theory is deontological as its base is duty.

To act morally is to do one’s duty and to do one’s duty is to obey the moral law. Kant stresses that one should not attempt to do something that he cannot conversely meaning that if one ought to do something, it implies that it is possible to do it. Moral statements are prescriptive in nature meaning they prescribe an action. ‘Ought’ implies ‘can’ and therefore if I say ‘I ought to do x’, it means that ‘I can do x’. According to Kant, human beings seek an ultimate end called supreme good, the summum bonum – a state in which the human virtue and happiness are united. Since he believed that it was impossible to reach this state in one life, he deduced that men needed immortal souls to succeed to this end. On one hand Kant rejected theological arguments in favour of existence of God and on the other his ethical theory assumes immortality and the existence of God. In a way, Kant’s morality leads to God. Kant asserted that there existed an objective moral law and man knew this law through reason and without any reference to consequences. He believed that moral rules existed and were binding.

Kant’s statements on morality are based on knowledge of an act. Drawing from this it can be seen that statements of knowledge can be a priori (knowable without reference or prior to experience) or a posteriori (knowable through experience). Another division which can be made is that knowledge may be analytic (meaning the predicates or parts of the sentence may say something that is necessarily true about the subject) or knowledge may be synthetic (meaning requiring empirical tests such as observations, measurements or experiments). While an analytic is necessarily true by its own authority, a synthetic statement may or may not be true. Therefore, statements could be a priori analytic (such as 1+1=2) or a priori synthetic (); alternatively these could be a posteriori analytic () or a posteriori synthetic (Jack is a butler).

Moral statements are called ‘a priori synthetic’ due to the fact that moral knowledge is gained by pure reason, not by experience (a priori) and also that moral statements may be right or wrong.


Thus:Non-ethical statements are either:

A priori analytic – necessarily true and knowable without experience A posteriori synthetic – possibly true and to be validated through experiment.

Ethical statements are: A priori synthetic – knowable through reason, not sensation or experience and may

or may not be true.

Goodwill and Duty

Kant believed that the highest form of good was goodwill, which he also argues in his book, Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. According to him, to have a good will is to do one’s duty. To do one’s duty is to perform actions that are morally required and to avoid actions that are morally forbidden. To perform a moral action out of a desire for the good consequence it brings is to act in self-interest and is not a morally good action. We don’t do our duty because of the consequences of doing it – we do it for duty itself. Kant’s theory directly opposes utilitarianism. If a murderer asked us whether our friend, who he was pursuing, was hiding in our house, Kant would insist we were honest. The utilitarian would se greater happiness being caused by a lie, but Kant does not consider consequences, only action, and to lie would be wrong.

Act as if you live in a kingdom of ends

Kant required moral statements to be such that you act as if you, and everyone else, were treating each other as ends. You can’t act on a rule that assumes that others don’t treat people as ends. It combines the others in that (i) it requires that we conform our actions to the maxims of a legislator of laws (ii) that this lawgiver lays down universal laws, binding all rational wills including our own, and (iii) that those laws are of ‘a merely possible kingdom’ each of whose members equally possesses this status as legislator of universal laws, and hence must be treated always as an end in itself. The intuitive idea behind this formulation is that our fundamental moral obligation is to act only on principles which could earn acceptance by a community of fully rational agents each of whom have an equal share in legislating these principles for their community.

Freedom

Kant believed that humans were free to make rational choices. If people were not free, the possibility of making moral choices would be denied. This ability to freely rationalise or reason, is what distinguishes humans from animals who lack this ability. We have to be free to do our duty. If our choices are not free, our actions are controlled by factors beyond our control, and then we cannot be moral agents. Kant thought that ‘ought’ implied ‘can’ – in


other words, something that’s impossible can’t be a moral option, and therefore every moral option must be possible.

Ethics and MoralsThe difference between ethics and morals can seem somewhat arbitrary to many, but there is a basic, albeit subtle, difference. Morals define personal character, while ethics stress a social system in which those morals are applied. In other words, ethics point to standards or codes of behavior expected by the group to which the individual belongs. This could be national ethics, social ethics, company ethics, professional ethics, or even family ethics. So while a person’s moral code is usually unchanging, the ethics he or she practices can be other-dependent. Thus, ethics is dictated by what others think and their standards, while morals are dictated by personal and individual beliefs.

When considering the difference between ethics and morals, it may be helpful to consider a criminal defence lawyer. Though the lawyer’s personal moral code likely finds murder immoral and reprehensible, ethics demand the accused client be defended as vigorously as possible, even when the lawyer knows the party is guilty and that a freed defendant would potentially lead to more crime. Legal ethics must override personal morals for the greater good of upholding a justice system in which the accused are given a fair trial and the prosecution must prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.


4.3 KAUTILYAN MODEL OF MANAGEMENT.

KAUTILYAKautilya was probably born around 360 B.C.E., was very influential during Chandragupta's rule (321-297 B.C.E.), and might have lived beyond the latter date. This implies that he was a junior contemporary of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.). However, there is no evidence that Kautilya was aware of Aristotle's ideas. Kautilya wrote The Arthashastra, the science of wealth and welfare, during the latter half of the 4th century B.C.E.. The Arthashastra contains 150 chapters, which are classified by topic in 15 books. It consists of three reasonably well developed parts: (i) national security issues including a foreign policy, (ii) administration of justice including crime and punishment issues, and (iii) policies related to economic development, taxation, labor management and financial management. The latter includes a discussion on the critical role of accounting. The Arthashastra is a theoretical treatise designed to instruct kings everywhere and for all time. Kautilya also completed two other works: Chanakya-Sutras (Rules of Science) and Chanakya-Rajanitisastra (Science of Government Policies).

MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION The Mauryan period marked the culmination of historical process into the formation of a state which was characterized by a centralized system with a developed taxation system, a professional army and a cadre of officials. Two factors contributed to the rise of Mauryan Empire. Firstly, the development of a money economy which was aided by the use of iron and the subsequent spurt in agriculture and crafts on one hand and the use of punch marked coins on the other causing the kinship ties to decline and the rise of a private spirit. This made possible centralized fiscal collection and integrated authority. The increasing supply of various taxes facilitated the growth of a state apparatus.

Secondly, in the social sphere, the forces of urbanism and a strong agriculture base intensified the process social differentiation as the varna system filled the void created by the decline of kinship ties. This social differentiated and the strengthening of varna system facilitated state formation; the elected chief became hereditary as that genealogical right became entrenched in India because of the varna system. It further strengthened the position of the chief. His right to rule derived the secular and religious sanction; former through contract theory of state which speaks of taxation in lieu of protection and latter by religious validation. Thus the main reason for the exaltation of royal power lay in the growing importance of warrior class from the Mauryan times. The coexistent policy of aggrandizement followed by Magadha steeled the warriors and brought them to the fore.

Two strands are evident on the question of the origin of monarchy in ancient Indian thought – the mystical and the contractual. The mystical was woven around the divine


appointment of king strengthened around ceremonies like rajsuya, vajpeya and asvamedha. The contractual theory spoke of taxation in lieu for protection. The Mauryan state essentially rested on the latter thought. Arthashastra doesn’t deny the propaganda value of the former.

The king was the supreme authority of the state and the nucleus of the administrative system. In the Kautilyan scheme, royal order supersedes all other sources of authority including Dharma. The all embracing power of king is furnished by Ashokan edicts which talk of paternal despotism and seek to regulate even social and religious lives of the people. Legislation was largely a matter of confirming social usage and king had a fairly free hand but was expected to consult with his ministers. However the final decision laid with the monarch. Though the king was an autocrat, not limited by constitutional controls, there were many checks on his sovereignty which included dharma, council of ministers and most significantly, the public opinion. The king’s duties included appointment and removal of the ministers, defence of treasury and the people, work for progress and welfare of the people, punish evil and influence the praja through his morality.

The large empire necessitated the presence of a strong and elaborate bureaucracy which was essentially supported by the economy. This bureaucracy supported not only the administration of political and civil affairs but also the economic affairs where the state was directly engaged in commercial activities. The council of ministers was an advisory body with no fixed number of ministers. Arthashastra stresses that councilors should speak freely and openly and work should be carried out according to majority verdict though the king could turn down their decision. It also lays down qualifications for the appointment of ministers, like the person should not be lured by wealth, not succumb to pressure etc. i.e. he should be ‘sarvopadashudha’ (purest of all).

The state tried to control all the spheres of life through its vast bureaucracy. Kautilya mentions 18 Tirthas who were probably called mahamatras or high functionaries. He also provides for 27 superintendents concerned mostly with economic functions. Some of them also performed military duties. He also refers to duties of Gopa, sthenika, dharmastha, nagaraka etc. These were employed in urban, rural and border administration. Also a new class of mahamatras worked as dharmamahamatras, enforcing the social and political order ushered in by Ashoka.

Various lists indicate a tendency to increase the no. of officials. The bureaucracy was paid mainly in cash and was highly hierarchical. It is suggested by the pay scales for different categories of employees, the highest like mantrin, purohita, senapati and yuvaraj receiving 48,000 panas and lowest being paid only 60 pannas.

Bureaucracy formed the arm of the royal power, but the crucial factor that contributed to it was the development of the coercive power of the state on an


unprecedented scale. According to Justin, Chandragupta Maurya possessed 600,000 troops which was thrice the no. of infantry possessed by Nandas. The usual limbs, the infantry, the cavalry, the chariots, the elephants were strengthened by the addition of 2 wings- the navy and transport and commissariat – a development suggested by both Megasthenes and Kautilya. The power of Sword was strengthened by the royal monopoly of arms and the control over the artisans who produced arms.

The Mauryan Kingdom was divided into four provinces which were further divided into districts and villages. The provincial governor was directly appointed by the king and was usually a member of the royal family. District governors were usually appointed by the provincial governors. The provincial governors were powerful and could act as a check on the viceroy and on occasions acted as effective rulers. Ashoka sent inspectors for tours every five years for an additional audit and check on provincial administration. The district was divided into a group of villages and the final unit of administration was the village. The group of villages was staffed with an accountant who maintained registered land and the tax collector who was concerned with various kinds of revenues. Each village had its own official such as the headman who was responsible to the accountant and the tax collector. The Mauryan rural administration as can be inferred from above was mainly designed to meet the needs of revenue administration though enforcement of law and order also remained an important task.

The growing economic activities of the state and the needs of urban settlements led to the creation of a machinery for town administration. The municipal administration of Patliputra described by Megasthenes does show the concern of the government for certain basic urban problems, such as sanitation, care of foreigners, registration of births and deaths etc. Kautilya does not give any indication of the association of local elements with town administration which is imposed from above. He lays down in detail the duties of the Nagaraka which included maintenance of law and order, supervision of sanitation arrangement and to take measures against outbreaks of fire. The Nagaraka has under him subordinate officials called sthanika and gopa who were placed in charge of the wards into which the town was divided.

Border administration was also an important element of administration. Ashoka introduced an element of moderation in his border administration and his dealings with the tribal people. The dharmamahamataras were asked to persuade the border people to confirm to dharma, rules to peaceful social conduct such as obeying the king and desisting from violence. But if they did not obey these rules, they were threatened with punishments.

The governance of the vast territory with the help of an expanding bureaucracy and a huge standing army involved expenditure. This seems to have been the


guiding principle of the Mauryan state in undertaking and regulating numerous economic activities which brought it profit. It founded new settlements and sought to rehabilitate the decaying ones. The shudras for the first time were aided by the state to settle as farmers in these settlements. Kautilya deliberately fostered the rusticity of villages to augment agricultural output so as to achieve the maximum levels of surplus. The other source of taxation included the water tax (on land using the irrigation facilities of the state), tax on trade of cattle, livestock and dairy produce etc. Vishti (forced labour) was practiced. All this required strong and efficient machinery for assessment, collection and storage. However Kautilya considers assessment more important than storage and depositing.

The list of taxes is impressive and must have proved oppressive. But even all these were not considered adequate to meet the needs of exchequer, which had to finance the vast military and bureaucratic establishments. These, therefore had to be supplemented by the reclamation of virgin lands, exploitation of mines and the running of goldsmiths’ shops, liquor shops and weaving concerns, all done under the aegis of the state.

The first efficient system of police and criminal administration buttressed by an elaborate system of espionage was developed during the Mauryan period. The kantakasodhana was organised to deal with a large number of eco crimes. The organisation of criminal administration was evidently an indigenous phenomenon. Similar is the case with various categories of spies who were employed to keep an eye and report on the criminal and anti-government activities of the people. The Dharmasthiyas were courts which decided personal disputes.

The nearest approach to a modern police-cum-magisterial officer was the Pradista, but he had some revenue functions also. On the other hand the samaharta, the sthanika and the gopa who had mainly judicial functions were also assigned some police and magisterial duties. Fines served as punishments in most cases. But certain crimes were considered too serious to be punished by fines alone and capital punishment was inflicted even by Ashoka, although he was a supporter of non-violence. Penalties, however, were based on varna hierarchies i.e. for the same kind of offence, brahmanas were punished far less severely than a shudra.

The Mauryan maintained friendly relations with several contemporary powers. Chandragupta received the Greek ambassador Megasthenes, Bindusara had cordial relations with Antiochus and Ashoka’s edicts mention Antiochus Theos of Syria, Ptolemy III Philadelphus of Egypt, Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia and Alexander etc. Ashoka also exchanged missions with Ceylon and gave his daughter in marriage to a Nepalese nobleman. Friendly political relationship with foreign rulers promoted commerce and communications with the outside world as well as exchange of ideas.


The Mauryan state took a keen interest in public works. These included:

1. Interest in irrigation as it could be a major source of revenue e.g. Sudarshan lake2. Provision of medical treatment and medicines to both men and animals.3. State also helped citizens during natural calamities4. The Arthashastra mentions that king should look after orphans, old, unattended

women etc.5. Laying down and repairing of roads etc.

Thus, though essentially a police state, the Mauryan Empire also worked for the welfare of the people.

FACTS ABOUT MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION Sources – Arthashastra, Indica, Inscriptions of Ashoka Remarkable features – Centralizing tendency and enormous powers of the ruler.

According to Kautilya, King’s order overrides religious injunctions, historical traditions and prevalent customs.Four branches of knowledge (Kautilya):

Trayi - Religious and moral aspectVarta - Agriculture, animal husbandry & commerce, i.e. commercial aspectAnvekshiki - Logical aspect (derived by common sense)Dandaniti - State power

According to Kautilya, first three are possible through fourth. According to him, the Saptangas of State are: Raja, Amatya, Janapad, Durga, Mitra,

Danda (sena) and Kosa (Kosha). Enemy – eighth added by Kautilya later. Hellenistic influence – centralizing tendency. But even then, according to Kautilya the

aim of all such power is welfare of the people. Rock Edict VI – “There is no greater deed than service to others”. – Ashoka. Controls on the power of the king are Niti and Dharm, education and training of the

king, consulting institutions like cabinet of ministers, and people and their opinion. There were 18 high officials namely, Mantri, Sannidhata, Purohit, Pradeshtha, Senapati,

Vyavaharika, Yuvaraj, Nayak, Mantriparishadadhyaksha, Danapala, Dauvarik, Antarveshik, Prashastri, Samaharta, Karmantika, Durgapala, Antapala and Paur. Purohit, Senapati and Yuvaraj were the most important. They received 48000 panas per anum. Dauvarika, Antarveshika, Samaharta, and Sannidhata next. They received 24,000 panas per anum.

Officers mentioned in Adhyaksha Prachara Chapter of Arthashastra:


Shulkadhyaksha - Chief Controller of Customs and OctroiPautavadhyaksha - Chief Controller of Weights and MeasuresManadhyaksha - Chief Surveyor and TimekeeperSutradhyaksha - Chief Textile CommissionerSitadhyaksha - Chief Superintendent of Crown LandsSuradhyaksha - Chief Controller of alcoholic beveragesSunadhyaksha - Chief Superintendent of Slaughter-housesGanikadhyaksha - Chief Controller of EntertainersMudradhyaksha - Chief Passport OfficerVivitadhyksha - Chief Controller of Pasture LandsNavadhyaksha - Chief Controller of ShippingKupyodhyaksha - Chief Superintendent of Forest ProducePanyadhyaksha - Chief Controller of State TradingLakshanadhyaksha - Chief Master of the MintSauvarnik - Chief Master of the MintNivigrahaka - Lower level treasurer

The State was divided into following parts:Uttarapath - Takshila Dakshinapath - Suvarnagiri Kalinga - Toshali (Samapa)Avanti - UjjainPrachya - Pataliputra

There were 6 Committees of 5 each for town administration – Taxation (revenue), Commerce, arts and crafts, registration of births and deaths, and industries and foreigners as mentioned in Indica. Kautilya mentions only Nagaraka for this purpose or Nagaradhyakshas.

Other political units were like–Janapad - a district-like entity under SamahartaSthaniya - 800 towns/ villagesDronamukha - 400 towns/ villagesKharvatika - 200 towns/ villagesSangrahan - 100 towns/ villagesGram

A group of about 20 villages had their chief – Gopa Army according to Megathenes had 6 wings – Horse, Elephant, Chariot, Cavalry, Navy

and Military transport. According to Kautilya, there were only 4 wings (the first four), therefore called ‘chatturangini sena’. According to him, Brahmans should not be admitted into army.


According to Kautilya, there were two Courts namely, Kantakashodhana (Criminal) and Dharmasthiya (Civil). There were two types of spies (Gudhapurushas): Sanstha and Sanchara.

Sources of income:Durg - Income from cities and townships through various taxes, customs etcRashtra - Income from various Janpadas e.g. Bhag (land tax), Sita

(income from Crown land), and Bali (from pilgrimage places and other religious places)

Nadipalastar - Toll for the transport on bridges on riversVartani - Road taxVivitap - Tax from pasture landsKhani - Income from minesSatu - Income from fruits, vegetables etc.Vraj - Income from animalsVana - Forest produce

Seven “Castes” as mentioned by Megasthenes were Philosophers or brahmanas/ darshanik, Cultivators or farmers, Soldiers, Herdsmen, Artisans, Magistrates and Councilors.

Officers appointed by AshokaRajuka: Officers in control of land and justice who were authorized to award honours and penalties. Their duty was to promote the welfare of people. Strabo calls them Officers of bandobast.Yuktas: Subordinate officers entrusted with secretarial work and accountingPradeshika: Administration of law and order, revenue. Administration of large land

tracts, etcPrativedak: Special reporters of king and they had direct access to himDhammamahamatra: The most important official entrusted with establishing and promoting Dhamma. Authorized to tour and alleviate the woes of people.

AGRICULTURE AND LAND REVENUEGeneral Features of Agrarian EconomySettlement of permanent villages was recognised in the Arthsastra as a method for the expansion of agrarian economy. These settlements ensured a sound and stable resource base for the State to extract taxes and the land tax formed the bulk of it. This process of settlement was called janapadanivesa, but the extent of how this was done is not clearly known. Growth of agriculture meant that the cultivator began to assume an increasingly important role. Megasthenes in his account of the Indian society and its division into seven


classes mentions the farmers as the second class, next only to the philosophers who are mentioned as the first class and followed by the soldiers who are mentioned as the third class. Some lands were sita or crown lands. In these areas the King's and the State's rights of possession, cultivation, mortgage and sale were naturally superior. In fact, in the Arthasastra a sitadhyaksa or superintendent of agriculture is mentioned who probably supervised the cultivation works here. These areas were in all probability fertile and suited to high productivity. These were also areas where slaves were deployed working under direct State supervision. The advanced knowledge of agricultural techniques, described in depth in the Arthasastra, also probably refer to these lands.

Agriculture in other areas of the Mauryan State, known as janapada territories, was in all probability, carried on privately. In the Jataka stories there are frequent references to gahapatis and grambhojakas. These groups are said to have employed hired labourers on land indicating their capacity to do so as a land-owning gentry. In contrast, the labourers are described to be in a pitiable condition and sometimes, slaves are also mentioned. The King could own land in his personal capacity in both sita and janapada areas though direct references to this for this period are lacking. The Arthasastra has references to different types of agricultural operations supervised by officials. The most important reason for the success of agriculture in the state owned lands was the facility of irrigation provided by the State. There were rules for the regulation of - water supply for the benefit of agriculturists. A number of officers were employed who measured the land and inspected sluices by which water was distributed into the branch channels. That irrigation facilities existed in other areas as well is indicated by the mention of an irrigation cess amounting to a fifth, a fourth or a third of the produce in the Arthasastra. This cess was levied only on irrigated soil in areas where rainfall was scarce. In these areas a regular supply of water could ensure a normal yield of crops. Pushyagupta, one of the governors of Chandragupta Maurya, is said to have built a dam for creating a reservoir of water near Girnar in Saurashtra. This was known as Sudarshana tadaga (water tank). This reservoir became so famous that its history can be traced to the middle of the fifth century A.D. for a period of about eight hundred years.

Land Revenue OrganisationSome villages were exempted from taxation. They were probably rare exceptions and in fact, it has been suggested that this was so because these villages may have provided soldiers to the State. It is also suggested by scholars that in order to bring virgin soil under cultivation in some villages remission of taxes was allowed for a period of time. The essential resources needed for the Mauryan State could only be got from land revenue. Therefore, the land revenue collection had to be efficiently organised so as to expropriate the maximum possible surplus from the people. It is generally stated that the Mauryan rule oonstitutes a landmark in the history of the improvement of tier system of taxation in ancient India. The Mauryas in fact attached great importance to the assessment of land


revenue and the highest officer in charge of this was the samsharta. The sannidhata was the chief custodian of the State treasury. Since the revenue was also collected in kind, providing storage facilities was also the duty of the latter.

1/4th of the produce was paid in tax by the peasants. Also a tribute was paid by them. Land tax (bhaga) was the main item of revenue. According to the texts, it was levied at the rate of 1/6th of the produce. But it is possible that in the Maurya period it was quite high and levied at the rate of 1/4th of the produce. The Lumbini Edict of Asoka says that when he visited Lumbini, the birthplace of the Buddha, he exempted the village from the payment of bali and reduced the payment of bhaga to 1/8th parts. Even Asoka's great respect for the Buddha did not prompt the emperor to exempt the village totally from the payment of taxes. Sharecropping was another way by which the State collected agricultural resources. The sharecroppers were in the first place provided with seeds, oxen, etc., and received arable land for cultivation. In this kind of situation the peasants probably gave half of the produce to the State.

The above taxes were further supplemented by a large number of customary dues that the peasants had to pay. The Mauryas also introduced some new taxes and made already existing ones more effective. The peasants paid a tax called pindakara paid by husbandsmen, which was assessed on groups of villages. This was also customary in nature. Often the villages had to supply provisions to the royal army passing through their respective territories and this naturally increased their burden. The exact nature of hiranya is also not known, but it was probably a tax paid in cash because hiranya literally means gold. Bali, the traditionally known levy from the Vedic times, continued under the Mauryas, and all the above taxes which are described by Kautilya in the Arthasastra must have burdened the peasantry considerably. Nonetheless, he continues to recommend that in case the State still falls short of its needs, several other fiscal measures for periods of emergency could be made use of. For example one such measure was the levy of pranaya which literally meant a gift of affection. This is a tax first mentioned by Panini but elaborated uponfor the first time in the Arthasastra. It amounted to It3 or '14 of the produce according to the nature of the soil. It is usually interpreted as a voluntary gift but once put into practice, in reality it must have become obligatory. Further, in times of emergency the cultivators could be forced to raise two crops. The importance of these measures was constantly emphasized as the country did face famines, and during these bleak periods the level of revenue collection must have naturally fallen.

As land revenue was the backbone of the Mauryan economy, the Arthasastra is careful in designing the revenue system of the State. It is particular in defining the different types of villages to be taxed as the fertility of soil varied from place to place. There is also attention paid to special categories of revenue collectors and assessors. Undoubtedly then, the Mauryan State, atleast in its major areas, must have ensured a substantial land revenue


collection without which the government machinery and the army would have been difficult to maintain.

TRADE AND TOWNSThe non-agrarian economy of the Magadhan empire revolved around two interrelated developments:i) expansion of trade and commerce, andii) establishment of new towns and markets.The development of the agrarian economy had given a solid economic basis to the Mauryan empire particularly in the Ganges Valley: However, it was the expansion of commercial economy that enabled it to extend its resource base to other parts of the country.

Organisation of TradeTrade did not suddenly develop during this period. It was part of the larger process of economic change which had begun much before the Mauryan times. The Jataka stories have frequent references to caravan traders carrying large quantities of goods to different parts of the country. The security provided by Mauryan rule enabled internal trade to blossom. Major trade routes to West Asia and Central Asia passed through north-west India. The main trade routes in northern Indian were along the river Ganges and the Himalayan foothills. Major centres like Rajagriha in Magadha and Kausambi, near present-day Allahabad, were connected in this way. Pataliputra, the capital of the Mauryas, had a particularly strategic location and was connected by river and road in all four directions. The northern route going to such sites as Sravasti and Kapilavastu was connected through the city of Vaisali. From Kapilavastu this route linked up Kalsi, Hazara.and eventually led up to Peshawar.

Megasthenes also talks of a land route connecting the north-west with Pataliputra. In the south it was connected to Central India and in the South-east t o Kalinga. This eastern route turned southwards to finally reach Andhra and Karnataka. The other part of the eastern route continued down to the Ganges delta to Tamralipti which acted as an exit point for the south and south-east. From Kausambi moving westwards another route led to Ujjain. This continued either further west to the coast of Gujarat or west south across the Narmada and was regarded as dakshinapatha (southern route). The overland route to countries of the West went via Taxila near Islamabad. The opening up of communications in various parts of the Indian sub-continent was the direct result oi the expansion of settlements, as it facilitated movement from one place to another. This naturally fostered trade. Internal trade was considerably benefited because river transport had been improved once the forests around the Valleys had been cleared under State initiative. The State's policy particularly under Bindusara and Asoka to have peaceful and friendly relations with the Greeks gave fillip to foreign trade as well.


Trade was carried on in different ways. It was intrinsically linked to the methods of production and its organisation. Primarily in north India craft production was organised on guild (sreni) lines. This was so in the pre-Mauryan period as well. Under the Mauryas when the number of artisan groups had increased we find guilds organised in different towns, inhabiting particular sections of them. These guilds generally worked and lived together in a closely .knit relationship. Craft was necessarily hereditary and in most cases specialization was handed down from father to son. These guilds became very powerful in the post-Mauryan period as is evident from a number of inscriptions. Megasthenes also mentions the artisans as one of the seven castes/classes he noticed during his stay in India. The well-known guilds of the period were those of metallurgists of various kinds, carpenters, potters, leatherworkers; painters, textile workers, etc. Northern Black Polished Ware is a good example of craft activities. It became a specialized kind of pottery-making craft and its availability outside the Ganges Valley is limited. This indicates that it was a technique developed in this-part of the country and was perhaps dependent on a particular type of clay available here.

Like the artisans, the merchants were also organised along guild lines. Certain kinds of merchants were connected to particular artisan groups which made distribution of goods easier. They too inhabited identifiable parts of the cities which came to be associated with their professions. State administration under the Mauryas also took up the organisation of trade. This administrative control on production and distribution made it more efficient. This did not mean that it directly interfered with and changed the guild organisations. On the other hand, it increased its control on the distribution of their goods and itself became a producer. At another level, it gradually converted some crafts into some sort of small-sca!e industries. The State did this by directly employing some of the artisans like, armourers, shipbuilders, builders in stone, etc. They were exempt from payment of tax because they rendered compulsory labour service to the State. Other artisans like spinners, weavers, miners etc., who worked for the State were liable to tax.

The above mentioned steps to organise trade and commodity production were part and parcel of State policy. This policy was aimed at augmenting its efficiency in economic spheres of activity and its revenues. Megasthenes mentions a superintendent of commerce whose duty was to fix prices of goods and also to interfere if there was a glut in any commodity. He is also mentioned in the Arthasastra as panyadhyaksa. This text lists the various officials that were in charge of the different economic activities. The office of the samsthadhyaksa that looked after the markets was in fact to check the wrong practices of the traders. The pautavadbyaksa or superintendent of weights and measures exerted a strict control on maintaining standard weights and measures. State boats that facilitated transport were put under the charge of a navadhyaksa. He helped in-regulating river transport and collecting ferry charges. All traders had to pay taxes and custom's dues


ranging from '15th to '125th of the value of goods. These were supposed to be collected by a superintendent of tolls called the sulkadhyaksa.

Where the State produced goods, different categories of officials looked after particular departments. These goods were called rajapanya. The State was careful to choose those areas of commodity production and trade that were essential for its functioning and yielded good revenues. Sometimes State goods could also be sold by private traders as their network of distribution was more well-organised and widespread. However, a majority of artisans either continued to work individually or within the complex structure of the guilds. The guilds continued to serve the very important purpose of cohesively organising petty producers and most importantly, controlling them, Even the artisans found it advantageous to join them since this eliminated the expenses of working alone or competing with others of the same profession. From the State's point of view the guilds facilitated the collection of taxes. Finally since they concentrated locally and also specialized in particular crafts there was a strengthening of that particular trade.

Growth of Urban EconomyThe process of urbanism which had begun in the pre-Mauryan period witnessed further growth in the Mauryan period. Two major sections of population inhabited the towns, namely, artisans and merchants and the officials of the government. The urban economy characterised by the activities of the manufacturers of goods and of merchants as also by a system of exchange began to spread from the Ganges Valley to other areas of Western and &.Central India, the Deccan and South India. Proliferation of rural settlements and the prosperity of the gahapatis enabled the social base of urban centres to expand further. In many cases it were the rich rural families that developed contacts with towns and provided financial support needed particularly by merchant groups. Kautilya's Arthasastra talks about a process of durganivesa or durgavidhana i.e. the State founding walled towns. These towns were said to be peopled by priests, nobles, soldiers and also merchants, artisans and others.

There are also detailed descriptions in this text on the protection of towns and their lay-out so that economic regulations could be carried out properly. Arthasastra viewed towns (durga), or the janapadas, as an important source of revenue. The taxes received from towns paid rich dividends to the State and therefore, development and administration of towns was given much importance by the Mauryans. In fact, when mention is made of taxing guilds located in the capital or durga, the impression is that those in the countryside enjoyed exemption. This may have been because town population was easier to regulate and organise.Pataliputra was administered by thirty officials who were divided into six Committees of five members each. Of these six Committees four were related to economic activity. These were Committees dealing with industrial arts, trade and commerce, the supervision of the public sale of manufactured goods and the collection of tax on articles sold. The other two


committees were concerned with the welfare of foreigners and the registration of births and deaths. The general administration of law and order in the cities was thus important to ensure the proper functioning of its economic activities.

Population mobility and interaction between social groups was necessary for the urban economy to remain healthy and prosperous. This could be ensured by a certain degree of political stability in the metropolitan and core areas of the empire. Another significant aspect of the urban economy is that it created the situation for the development of transactions in cash and the circulation of coined money. Though the use of currency began in an earlier period, it became fairly common during the Mauryan period because of the development of commerce. Its use in trade is self-evident but the importance of cash in the economy can be gauged from the fact that it was probably used to pay salaries of the officials. The Arthasastra lists the range of salaries expected to be paid and this varied from 48,000 panas to 60 panas annually. For such a powerful cash economy to function the minting of coins and the supply of metals like silver and copper required to do so were of prime importance. That these were harnessed by the Mauryas is evident from the innumerable punch-marked, mostly silver, coins which are assignable to this period. Of these the majority are stated to be from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar which constituted the core area of the empire.

For the kind of urban economy that envisaged substantial State control. The State also had to maintain a monopoly in certain important spheres of activity. Thus, the Arthashastra provides for a superintendent of mines called akaradhyaksa whose chief function was to look for new mines and reopen old ones. Like mining metals another area of State monopoly was mining salt. The importance of different kind of metals was not only for minting coins but for such important commodities as making weapons. Apart from equipping soldiers with arms, the government was probably also concerned about supplying implements for agriculture.

The concern for keeping a monopoly over mining and trading in mineral products thus secured for the Mauryan State the most crucial raw materials. Proper utilization of these in turn secured for them a greater return in both agrarian and non-agrarian sectors. Once economic-control of urban centres was established and their administration well-regulated, control over various janapadas through these towns also increased. Due to an increase in commercial transactions, the centres of exchange and trade had also increased in number.

Socio-Economic Changes in Mauryan IndiaThe requirements of resources for the Mauryan State were very high. The taxes realized from the region of Magadha and adjoining areas were not enough to meet this demand. Therefore, attempts were made to control resources in other parts of the country as well.


For example, Kalinga, the Karnataka plateau and Western India where Asokan inscriptions are found, were such areas. To regulate certain types of economic activities in such far off regions, the Mauryas worked out different strategies. This depended on the nature of resources the particular region offered.

The conquest of Kalinga, for instance, offered control of an agriculturally rich area as well as the control of important trade routes that passed through it to the mineral rich areas of South India. Thus the main motive behind acquiring such regions as Karnataka seems to have been that they were rich in gold and other precious materials.

The Arthasastra and the inscriptions of Asoka tell us about the tribes (atavikas, aranyakas) that inhabited the various parts of the empire. They often separated the more developed areas from the less developed areas. Kautilya's advice to the State was to win them over to a settled agrarian life. He devotes a full chapter to how tribes could be systematically broken up and several methods, fair or unfair, were deployed to do this. This was necessary in order that groups of five to ten families could settle down permanently for bringing more land under cultivation. Asoka's attitude towards the tribes was paternalistic, but he too warns them that in case they failed to conform or disobeyed orders of the Maharmatras, stern action would be taken against them.

Controlling of the forest tribes was important from two points of view:i) First, it was necessary for new agrarian settlements to be secure as disturbances from tribes would interrupt their economic development.ii) Secondly, trade routes often bordered or passed through tribal regions and these had to be made secure.

4.5 EDUCATION SYSTEM IN ANCIENT INDIA AND MODERN MANAGEMENT.

EDUCATION SYSTEM IN ANCIENT INDIA


"He who is possessed of supreme knowledge by concentration of mind, must have his senses under control, like spirited steeds

controlled by a charioteer." says the Katha Upanishad (iii, 6).

A single feature of ancient Indian or Hindu civilization is that it has been moulded and shaped in the course of its history more by religious than by political, or economic, influences. The fundamental principles of social, political, and economic life were welded into a comprehensive theory which is called Religion in Hindu thought. The total configuration of ideals, practices, and conduct is called Dharma (Religion, Virtue or Duty) in this ancient tradition. Learning in India through the ages had been prized and pursued not for its own sake, but for the sake, and as a part, of religion. It was sought as the means of self-realization, as the means to the highest end of life. viz. Mukti or Emancipation.

It may be said with quite a good degree of precision that India was the only country where knowledge was systematized and where provision was made for its imparting at the highest level in remote times. Whatever the discipline of learning, whether it was chemistry, medicine, surgery, the art of painting or sculpture, or dramatics or principles of literary criticism or mechanics or even dancing, everything was reduced to a systematic whole for passing it on to the future generations in a brief and yet detailed manner. University education on almost modern lines existed in India as early as 800 B.C. or even earlier.The ideal of education has been very grand and noble, its aim being training for completeness of life. As the individual is the chief concern and center of this Education, education also is necessarily individual. It is an intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil. The relationship is inaugurated by a religious ceremony called Upanayana. By Upanayana, the teacher, infuses the pupil with his spirit, and delivers him in a new birth." The pupil is then known as Dvija, "born afresh" in a new existence, "twice born" (Satapatha Brahmana). The education that is thus begun is called by the significant term Brahmacharya, indicating that it is a mode of life, a system of practices.

This conception of education moulds its external form. The pupil must find the teacher. He must live with him as in member of his family and is treated by him in every way as his son. The school is the home of the teacher. It is a hermitage, amid sylvan surrounding, beyond the distractions of urban life, functioning in solitude and silence. The constant and intimate association between teacher and taught is vital to education as conceived in this system. The pupil is imbibing the inward method of the teacher, the secrets of his efficiency, the spirit of his life and work, and these things are too subtle to be taught. It seems in the early Vedic or Upanishadic times education was esoteric (esoteric = understood by or meant for only a select few who have special knowledge or interest). The word Upanishad itself suggests that it is learning got by sitting at the feet of the master. The knowledge was to be got, as the Bhagavad Gita says, by obeisance (An attitude of deference and deep respect), by questioning and serving the teacher.


Rigvedic Education The Rig Veda is established as the earliest work not merely of the Hindus, but of all Indo-European languages and humanity. It lays the foundation upon which Hindu Civilization has been building up through the ages. Broadly speaking, it is on a foundation of plain living and high thinking. Some of the prayers of the Rig Veda, like the widely known Gayatri mantram also found in Samaveda and Yajur veda touch the highest point of knowledge and sustain human souls to this day. The Rig veda, is a compilation of 1,017 hymns. The works of the rishis were utilized to constitute six different Mandalas. These Rishis are Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atril, Bharadvaja, and Vasistha. Every Rishi was a teacher who would start by imparting to his son the texts of the knowledge he had personally acquired and such texts would be the special property of his family. Each such family of Rishis was thus functioning like a Vedic school admitting pupils for instruction in the literature or texts in its possession. The relations between teacher and taught was well established in the Rig Veda. The methods of education naturally varied with the capacity of pupils. Self-realization by means of tapas would be for the few.

Education and WomenThe history of the most of the known civilizations show that the further back we go into antiquity, the more unsatisfactory is found to be the general position of women. Hindu civilization is unique in this respect, for here we find a surprising exception to the general rule. The further back we go, the more satisfactory is found to be the position of women in more spheres than one; and the field of education is most noteworthy among them. There is ample and convincing evidence to show that women were regarded as perfectly eligible for the privilege of studying the Vedic literature and performing the sacrifices enjoined in it down to about 200 B.C. This need not surprise us, for some of the hymns of the Rig Veda are the composition of twenty sage-poetesses. Women were then admitted to fulfill religious rites and consequently to complete educational facilities. Women-sages were called Rishikas and Brahmavadinis. The Rig Veda knows of the following Rishikas – Romasa, Lopamudra, Apala, Visvavara, Ghosha, Sraddha-Kamayani, Urvasi, Indrani, etc. The Brahmavadinis were the products of the educational discipline of brahmacharaya for which women also were eligible. Rig Veda refers to young maidens completing their education as brahmacharinis and then gaining husbands. Yajurveda similarly states that a daughter, who has completed her brahmacharya, should be married to one who is learned like her. A passage occurs in YajurVeda (xxvi, 2) which enjoins the imparting of Vedic knowledge to all classes, Brahmins and Rajanyas, Sudras, Anaryas, and charanas (Vaisyas) and women.

No one can recite Vedic prayers or offer Vedic sacrifices without having undergone the Vedic initiation (Upanayana). It is, therefore, but natural that in the early period the Upanayana of girls should have been as common as that of boys. The Arthava Veda (xi. 5.8) expressly refers to maidens undergoing the Brahmacharya discipline and the Sutra works of


the 5th century B.C. supply interesting details in its connection. Even Manu includes Upanayana among the sanskaras (rituals) obligatory for girls (II.66). Music and dancing was also taught to them. Brahmavadins used to marry after their education was over, some of them like Vedavati, a daughter of sage Kusadhvaja, would not marry at all. The Vedic women received a fair share of masculine attention in physical culture and military training. The Rigveda tells us that many women joined the army in those days.

Education in the EpicsTakshashila was a noted center of learning. The Mahabharata tells of numerous hermitages where pupils from distant parts gathered for instruction round some far-famed teachers. A full-fledged Asrama is described as consisting of several Departments which are enumerated as following: 1. Agnisthana, the place for fire-worship and prayers 2. Brahma-sthana, the Department of Veda 3. Vishnusthana, the Department for teaching Raja-Niti4. Mahendrasthana, Military Section 5. Vivasvata-sthana, Department of Astronomy 6. Somasthana, Department of Botany 7. Garuda-sthana, Section dealing with Transport and Conveyances 8. Kartikeya-sthana, Section teaching military organization, how to form patrols, battalions,

and army.

The most important of such hermitage was that of the Naimisha, a forest which was like a university. The presiding personality of the place was Saunaka, to whom was applied the designation of Kulapati, sometimes defined as the preceptor of 10,000 disciples. The hermitage of Kanva was another famous center of learning, situated on the banks of the Malini, a tributary of the Sarayu River. It was not a solitary hermitage, but an assemblage of numerous hermitages round the central hermitage of Rishi Kanva. There were specialists in every branch of learning cultivated in that age; specialists in each of the four Vedas; in sacrificial literature and art; Kalpa-Sutras; in the Chhanda (Metrics), Sabda (Vyakarana), and Nirukta. There were also Logicians, knowing the principles of Nyaya, and of Dialectics (the art of establishing propositions, solving doubts, and ascertaining conclusions). There were also specialists in the physical sciences and art, experts in the art of constructing sacrificial altars of various dimensions and shapes (on the basis of a knowledge of Solid Geometry); those who had knowledge of the properties of matter (dravyaguna); of physical processes and their results of causes and their effect; and zoologists having a special knowledge of monkeys and birds.

Then there was the hermitage of Rishi Bharadvaja at Prayaga, or of Atri at Chitrakuta; the hermitage of Vyasa was another seat of learning. There Vyasa taught the Vedas to his disciples Sumantra, Vaisampayana, Jamini and Paila of great ascetic merit. Among the other


hermitages noticed by the Mahabharata may be mentioned those of Vasishtha and Visvamitra and that in the forest of Kamyaka on the banks of the Saraswati.

Period of PaniniWith the passage of time these institutions turned into Universities and were maintained with the munificent gift of the public and the state. In this way many institutions were formed of which Taxila, Ujjain, Nalanda, Benares, Ballavi, Ajanta, Madura and Vikramsila were very famous. Taxila was famous for medicine and Ujjain for Astronomy. Both were pre-Buddhist. Jibaka the well known medical expert and the state physician of the King of Magadha of the 6th century B.C., Panini the famous grammarian of 7th century B.C. and Kautilya, the authority on Arthasastra, of the 4th century B.C. were students of Taxila.

There is evidence that girls have been admitted in Vedic schools or Charanas. Panini refers to this specially. A Kathi is a female student of Katha school. There are hostels for female students and they are known as Chhatrisala. Each Charana or school has an inner circle of teachers known as Parisad. Their decisions on doubts about the reading and the meaning of Vedic culture are binding. Pratisakyas are said to be the product of such Parisad. The academic year has several terms. Each term is inaugurated by a ceremony called Upakarnmana and ends by the Utsarga ceremony. Holidays (Anadhyayas) are regularly observed on two Astamis (eight day of the moon) two Chaturdasis (fourteenth day of the moon), Amavasya, Purnima and on the last day of each of the four seasons, called Chaturmasi. Besides these Nitya (regular) holidays there are Naimittika (occasional) holidays due to accidental circumstances, eg. storms, thunder, rain, fog, fire, eclipses etc.

Buddhist Education Buddhist education can be rightly regarded as a phase of the ancient Hindu system of education. Buddhism, itself, especially in its original and ancient form, is, as has been admitted on all hands, rooted deeply in the pre-existing Hindu systems of thought and life.

Universities of Ancient India 1. Taxila - The Most Ancient University, Takkasila was the most famous seat of learning of ancient India. Takkasila was also the capital of Gandhara. It was founded by Bharata and named after his son Taksha. As a center for learning the fame of the city was unrivalled in the 6th century B.C. The fame of Takkasila as a seat of learning was of course due to that of its teachers. The Jatakas constantly refer to students coming to Takkasila to complete their education in the three Vedas and the eighteen Sippas or Arts. Takshila was famous for military training, wrestling, archery and mountain- climbing. Takshashila, was destroyed by the barbarian White Huns in 455 A.D.

2. Nalanda - Nalanda was the name of the ancient village identified with modern Baragaon, 7 miles north of Rajgir in Bihar. Nalanda was one of the world's first residential universities,


i.e., it had dormitories for students. It is also one of the most famous universities. In its heyday it accommodated over 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers. The university was considered an architectural masterpiece, and was marked by a lofty wall and one gate. Nalanda had eight separate compounds and ten temples, along with many other meditation halls and classrooms. On the grounds were lakes and parks. The library was located in a nine storied building where meticulous copies of texts were produced. The subjects taught at Nalanda University covered every field of learning, and it attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey.

The library of Nalanda, known as Dharma Gunj (Mountain of Truth) or Dharmagañja (Treasury of Truth), was the most renowned repository of Buddhist knowledge in the world at the time. Its collection was said to comprise hundreds of thousands of volumes, so extensive that it burned for months when set aflame by Muslim invaders. The library had three main buildings as high as nine stories tall, Ratnasagara (Sea of Jewels), Ratnodadhi (Ocean of Jewels), and Ratnarañjaka (Delighter of Jewels). In 1193, the Nalanda University was sacked by an Islamic fanatic Bakhtiyar Khilji, a Turk; this event is seen by scholars as a late milestone in the decline of Buddhism in India.

3. Vikramasila - Vikramasila, found by king Dharmapala in the 8th century, was a famous center of international learning for more than four centuries. The teaching was controlled by a Board of eminent teachers and it is stated that this Board of Vikramsila also administered the affairs at Nalanda. The University had six colleges, each with a staff of the standard strength of 108 teachers, and a Central Hall called the House of Science with its six gates opening on to the six Colleges. Grammar, logic, metaphysics, ritualism were the main subjects specialized at the institution. In 1203, the University of Vikramasila was destroyed by the Mahomadens under Bakhtyar Khilji.

Professional and Useful EducationMedical science The Vedic literature refers to the healing feats of Asvins, who though originally human beings, were later deified by a grateful posterity. This science was fairly well developed by the 4th century B.C., for the Greeks, who had accompanied Alexander, were very well impressed by the skill of Indian doctors in curing the cases of serpent bites. The Jatakas refer to the medical students at Taxila treating for cranial abscesses and intestinal displacement. Medical education was usually imparted by private teachers. The student had to be well versed in Sanskrit, for most of the books on medicine were written in that language. Practical training in surgery and pharmacy and constant discussion were some of the important features of the training.

Training in Surgery: The beginners were taught how to hold and use the surgical instruments by practicing upon pumpkins, water melons etc. under the teacher's direction. Puncturing


was demonstrated on the veins of dead animals, the manner of holding the probe on dry Alabu fruits, application of bandages on stuffed human figures and the use of caustics on soft pieces of flesh. Susruta emphasizes on the importance of dissection for perfecting the student's knowledge; and points out that mere book learning cannot give a clear idea of the actual internal constituents of the human body. Corpses used to be decomposed in water and students were then required to dissect them and visualize the nature of skin, muscles, arteries, bones, internal organs, etc. Anatomical knowledge that was imparted was fairly high when compared with the contemporary standards elsewhere. Smallpox inoculation is an ancient Indian tradition and was practiced in India before the West.

The Hindus were the first nation to establish hospitals, and for centuries they were the only people in the world who maintained them. Excavations at Kumrahar near Patna have revealed in 1953 the existence of one university-cum hospital named Arogyavihara. India continued to be famous for its medical skills throughout the ancient period. Her doctors could perform surgical operations for cataract, hydrocele, abscesses, extraction of dead embryos etc. They were in demand in Mesopotamia and Arabia for guiding and training the physicians there.

Military EducationThe average citizen and villager was expected to be able to defend his own hearth and home: The Arthasastra expressly lays down that every village ought to be able to defend itself. That such was actually the case in several parts of India would become quite clear from the accounts of Alexander's invasion, as given by the Greek historians. In several places the Macedonian was opposed not so much by state forces as by the whole population in arms. There can be no doubt that in many of the republican states of the Punjab, the Kathas, the Malavas, the Sibis, etc. every adult used to receive military training. One of the famous center of military training was Taxila, situated in the north-west.

Commercial EducationThere was considerable inter provincial and foreign trade going on in the ancient times. The maritime activity of ancient India were considerable, and the trade with South East Asia, Egypt, Greek and Rome was very profitable to India during the early centuries.


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Theories of Ethics & Kautilyan Philosophy & Education System in India