Theories of Development (management)

8/10/2019 Theories of Development (management)

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THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Theories of Personality Development

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Austrian neurologist & founder of psychoanalysis.

Offered the first real theory of personality development.

Describe adult behavior as being the result of instinctual drives that have primarily sexual nature (libido) from within the person & the

conflicts between these instincts.

individual (the id)

reality (the ego)

society (the superego)

Concerned more on looking at illness

Freuds Psychoanalytic Theory (Psychosexual Development)

Age Psychosexual Stage Characteristics

Infant

(Birth-1 yr)

Oral stage Child explores the world by using themouthespecially the tongue.

Toddler

(1-3 yr)

Anal Stage Child learns to control urination & defecation.

Preschooler(3-5 yr)

Phallic Stage Child learns sexual identity through awareness of genital area.

School-age child

(6-12 yr)

Latent Stage Childs personality development appears to be non-active or dormant.

Adolescent

(13-20 yr)

Genital Stage Adolescent develops sexual maturityand learns to establish satisfactory relationships

with the opposite sex.


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Erik Erikson (1902-1996)

Was trained in psychoanalytic theory but later developed his own theory of psychosocial development that stressed the importance of

culture & society in the development of the personality.

Concerned more on looking at wellness

Each task in his theory need not be resolved for the first time it arises.

Eriksons Theoryof Psychosocial Development

Development Period Development Task Characteristics

Infancy

(Birth-1 1/2 yrs.)

Trust vs. mistrust Child learns to live & be loved.

If not cared, fear & suspicion arises.

Toddlerhood

(1 -3 yrs)

Autonomy vs. shame & doubt Child learns to be independent and make decisions for self.

If restrained too much/punished harshly likely develops lack of

confidence.

Early childhood

(Pre-school years)

(3-5 yrs)

Initiative vs. guilt Child engages in self-initiated activities & assumes more responsibility.

If made to feel bad/guilty later becomes dependent on others.

Middle & Late childhood

(elementary school yrs)

(6 yrs-puberty)

Industry vs. inferiority Child learns mastery of doing things well.

If unrewarded, may feel incompetent & unproductive.

Adolescence

(10-12 yrs)

Identity vs. role confusion Adolescents learn who they are & what kind of person they will be.

If not role confusion arises & often seeks negative identity.

Early adulthood

(20s, 30s)

Intimacy vs. isolation Individuals form intimate relationships with others.

If not, will have difficulty dealing with others & become isolated.

Middle adulthood

(40s, 50s)

Generativity vs. stagnation Individuals extend socially & able to juggle over various roles well.

If not, theyll have narrow perspective & are unable to cope with

change.

Late adulthood

(60s - )

Integrity vs. despair Individuals look back & evaluate what theyve done positive (integrity)

If negative (despair)


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THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Swiss psychologist, introduced concepts of cognitive development that are similar yet separate to Freud & Erikson.

Piaget defined four stages of cognitive development; within each stage are finer units or schema

Each period is an advantage over the previous one; to progress from one period to next, the child reorganizes his or her thinking processes to bring

them close to reality.

Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development

SensorimotorNeonatal reflex

Primary circular

reaction

Secondary circular

reaction

Coordination of

secondary reactions

Tertiary circular

reactions

Invention of new

means through

mental combinations

1 mo.

1-4

mos.

4-8

mos.

8-12

mos.

12-18

mos.

18-24

mos.

Stimuli are assimilated into beginning mental images. Reflexive behavior.

Hand-mouth & ear-eye coordination develop. Intent of behavior present.

activity: rattle, tape of mothers voice

Infant learns to initiate, recognize (as memory is present) & repeat pleasurable exp. toy: mirror; game: peek-a-boo

Have sense of separateness (separation anxiety), permanence. Recognizes familiar objects.

toy: colored boxes

Child has space & time perception, permanence; trial & error learning

game: throw & retrieve

Transition phaseUses memory & imitation to act, solve basic problems. Can foresee.

toys:(with several uses) blocks & colored plastic rings

Preoperational

Thought

2-7yr. Comprehends the world with words, images & drawings. Comprehends simple abstractions but thinking is basically concrete & literal. No

awareness of reversibility, egocentric, concept of timenow; centering, role fantasyassimilation. No concept of conservation. Intuitive.toys: (require imaginations) modeling clay

Concrete

Operational

Thought

7-12

yr.

Displays concrete inductive reasoning, memory & classification skills, aware of reversibility, sees constancy despite transformation

activity: collecting & classifying natural objects

Formal

Operational

Thought

12yr. hypothetical - deductive reasoning, understands causality and time periods. Adult & mature thought (idealistic/logical/abstract)

activity: talk time

It is important that infants have stimulating objects around for exploring so that experimenting and learning can proceed this way.


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THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg

a psychologist

studied the reasoning ability of boys and based on Piagets developmental stages, developed a theory on moral reasoning or th e way children gain

knowledge of right and wrong

children pass through stages of moral development as well as cognitive and psychosocial development.

Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development

AGE (YEAR) STAGE DESCRIPTION CHARACTERISTICS

Preconventional (Level I)

2-3

4-7

1

2

Punishment/obedience orientation

Individualism, purpose &

exchange

Child does right because a parent tells him or her to & to avoid punishment

Do good out of self-interest. Imitative, cannot apply principles, egocentric.

Conventional (Level II)

7-10

10-12

3

4

Orientation to interpersonalrelations of mutuality

Maintenance of social order, fixed

rules & authority

Engage in actions that are nice or fair rather than right to be goodperson in own eyes and eyes of others.

Child finds following rules satisfying. Obey rules usually when imposed.

Postconventional (Level III)

Older than 12 5

6

Social contract, utilitarian law-

making perspectives

Universal ethical principle

orientation

Adolescent follows standards of society because they are important & right &

good for all people.

Adults follow internalized standards of conduct.

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Theories of Development (management)