The Sport Psychologist, 1990, 4, 301312

Preperformance Routines in Sport: Theoretical Support and Practical Applications

Patrick J. Cohn University bf Virginia

The purpose of this review is to discuss the theoretical and empirical support for the use of cognitive behavioral preperformance routines in sport and also to provide suggestions for the practitioner in developing and structuring cogni- tive and behavioral preparatory routines given the nature of the task and personal preferences. The first section discusses the underlying theoretical assumptions supporting the use of preperformance routines. The second section elaborates on empirical research that has been conducted on cognitive behav- ioral interventions and preperformance routines in sport. The final section details the practical implications of routines based upon theories and research in the area and provides recommendations for developing and teaching pre- performance routines to athletes.

Preperformance routines are prevalent in a variety of sports. Physical and mental preparation strategies used prior to motor skill execution have reportedly "

been employed by athletes in closed skill sports as well as open skill sports. Pre- performance routines, involving an intricate combination of cognitive strategies coupled with behavioral responses, are most frequently used to prepare for the execution of self-paced motor skills such as a serve in tennis. The cognitive portion of preperformance routines includes a number of strategies such as relaxation, visualization, cognitive restructuring, self-talk, and decision-making processes. Behavioral components may include responses such as physically practicing the movement, aligning to a target, and bouncing a ball. For example, the preparatory routine for a tennis serve may include cognitive strategies such as imaging the ball flying to the target and clearing the mind of unnecessary thoughts, coupled with behavioral responses such as bouncing a ball and rocking back and forth.

The purpose of this paper is to (a) review the theoretical positions supporting the implementation of preperformance routines; (b) review the applied research on the effects of cognitive behavioral preperformance strategies on sport perfor- mance; and (c) offer practical suggestions for developing and teaching pre- performance routines to athletes of all skill levels.

Patrick J. Cohn is with the Department of Health and Physical Education, Ruffner Hall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903-2495,

Theoretical Support for Preperformance Routines 1 1

11,I I I Schema Theory

The most important theory that underlies the use of preperformance routines is schema theory, which was first developed by Schmidt (1975). Schmidt (1976) describes movement as being primarily controlled by central structures with minimal input from sensory information. Schema theory holds that each motor movement is stored in memory in the form of a generalized motor pattern that may be retrieved and executed. The generalized motor program is a set of preprograrnmed central commands that carry out movement in an open-loop fashion, in the absence of ongoing sensory feedback during movement.

Stored in memory are unique parameters for each movement that define exactly how the program will be executed: (a) initial conditions (body positions, weight of implement, etc.), (b) the specific duration and force parameters, (c) the environmental outcome of movement, and (d) the sensory outcome of the movement (feelings, sounds, visual senses) (Schmidt, 1988). All four sources of information are stored for a short period of time during which the performer defines relationships, or schemas, between them. Two schemas are formed in memory: recall schema and recognition schema. The recall schema defines move- ment production and controls the movement. Recognition schema evaluates the response by comparing the actual sensory feedback to the expected sensory feedback.

Recall schema is important to the underlying efficacy of the preperformance routines. Preperformance strategies allow the performer to set up the initial condi- tions and response parameters needed to run the motor program. At the beginning of the routine, the performer recognizes the desired movement outcome. Next, the initial conditions (body positions, weight of object to be thrown) prior to the movement are noted. Then, based upon past experience (recall schema), the specific force-duration parameters are initiated that will provide the closest match to the desired environmental outcome (Schmidt, 1988). Thus, according to schema theory, the purpose of preperformance routines would be to assist the athlete in selecting a motor program from similar stored responses and to define the specific parameters that will achieve the forthcoming motor response.

Stages of Motor Learning

Another area of research supporting the use of preperformance activities is the concept of stages of motor learning. Described by Fitts (1964) and Fitts and Posner (1967), the stages of motor learning include the cognitive phase, the associative phase, and the autonomous phase. The cognitive phase occurs when the performer is learning a new skill and determining what should be done and how to attempt the movement. The associative phase is the stage in which the performer is perfect- ing the movement pattern by making minute adjustments. The autonomous phase is characterized by an automatic process in which the skill "runs off' with limited cognitive processing.

The concept of stages of skill acquisition suggests that the beginner requires more cognitive tasks such as thinking about the sequencing of movement during mental preparation. Likewise, it suggests that the intermediate performer in the associative stage would incorporate strategies in the routine to facilitate small adjustments needed to learn the task. The advanced performer in the autonomous

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stage would require less cognitive processing, freeing him or her to become involved in other strategy related aspects such as thinking about a series of shots in tennis (Schmidt, 1988).

Two notions have been developed for the learning of automaticity of motor skill execution. The first is the belief that special information-processing structures develop with practice and handle the overall task requirements (Schneider & Fisk, 1983; Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). Schneider and Shiffrin (1977) emphasize the distinction between controlled and automatic processing. Controlled processing is slow, attention requiring, serial in nature, and volitional. Automatic processing is fast, does not require attention, relies on parallel processing with many operations occurring simultaneously, and is not volitional. Therefore when a stimulus is presented, the processing structures are activated without conscious awareness. As the learner progresses, information is processed more rapidly through specialized structures with a decrease in the amount of interference from other concurrent tasks.

Another view proposed by Schmidt is that "[in] some kinds of tasks that are predictable and stereotyped, a major process of learning appears to be a shift from higher-level conscious control to lower level programming control" (1988; p. 474). Information from the environment that is predictable and regular can be learned and anticipated during motor execution. Information does not have to be processed directly; instead, individuals "preprogram" a series of move- ments predicted from knowledge of the environment. Without amsciously process- ing information in the environment, awareness is freed to become involved in other secondary tasks and the primary task appears to be automatic. The theory of automaticity suggests that preperformance routines should assist the advanced performer in allowing the motor response to run off automatically without conscious control.

The Set Hypothesis The set hypothesis is another possible explanation for the use of routines. It states that a warm-up decrement results from the upset of an internal state, or set, that is required for optimal execution of a task. Warm-up decrement occurs when periods of rest are introduced between the performance of a motor task until the individual is able to warm up to previous levels of performance (Adams, 1961). Warm-up decrement has particular implications in sports that have long periods of rest such as golf, bowling, and gymnastics. During the initial stage of motor execution, the performer's internal state is disrupted until he or she adjusts his or her set. As practice continues, the performer regains the necessary internal set and hidher performance returns to the previous level.

The set hypothesis proposes that performance is facilitated by changing the set or internal state. Adjustments in sets such as level of arousal and attentional focus are modified for the particular demands of the task (Nacson & Schmidt, 1971). A preparatory routine operates as a warm-up following a period of rest and aids the return of the appropriate set which facilitates performance of the skill.

For the golfer, periods of rest occur between shots and there may be a number of different sets for each facet of the game (driving, chipping, putting). A particular set required for a specific skill must be reinstated (through mental or physical practice) during preperfomiance preparation before attempting the shot, or the concept of warm-up decrement would predict that performance will

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be impaired. Another sport-specific example includes alteringinternal states in gymnastics wherein different sets are required for the various tasks. Thus, accord- ing to the set hypothesis, the function of preperformance routines is to aid the athlete in reducing the effect of warm-up decrement and to develop the appro- priate internal set that matches the requirements of the task.

Mental Rehearsal

Practicing a skill mentally has been shown to facilitate transfer to the actual skill. Mental rehearsal is the process of imagining performing a skill with no related overt actions. Many researchers have attempted to understand the phenomenon of mental practice and its relationship to motor skills (Corbin, 1972; Epstein, 1980; Feltz & Landers, 1983; Mahoney & Avener, 1977; Shelton & Mahoney, 1978). Schmidt believes that mental practice is related to learning the cognitive elements of the task rather than to the actual overt learning of the components of the task. He states,

Given the requirements of rehearsing mentally, the learner can think about what kinds of things might be tried, the consequences of each action can be predicted to some extent on previous experiences with similar skills, and the learner can perhaps rule out inappropriate courses of action. (1988; p. 417)

Another proposed view of the efficacy of mental rehearsal is that the performer runs off the actual motor program for the movement when practicing mentally. The intensity of the motor program is "turned down" to the extent that the muscular contractions involved in the execution of the movement are not visible (Schmidt, 1988). Performance of motor skills is facilitated through the process of readying the motor program for the actual execution of the skill. Thus, the notion of mental rehearsal would argue that preperformance routines facilitate the execution of the selected motor program by running off the program through covert processes and "priming" the neural pathways of the motor program. In conclusion, schema theory, the set hypothesis, the concept of stages of motor learning, and mental practice all can be viewed as areas that help explain the efficacy of preparatory routines.

Research on Cognitive Behavioral Strategies A wide array of cognitive behavioral techniques for enhancing performance have been studied over the last few years. The use of cognitive behavioral strategies prior to the execution of motor skills has been shown to benefit performance in a variety of sports (Boutcher & Crews, 1987; Cohn, Rotella, & Lloyd, 1990; Crews & Boutcher, 1986a; Gould, Weiss, & Weinberg, 1981; Heishman, 1989; Kirschenbaum & Bale, 1980; Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986; Pelz, 1988; Rotella & Bunker, 198 1; Yancey , 1977). Many different cognitive preperformance strate- gies facilitate the execution of motor skills, including attentional focus (Nideffer, 1976; Ravizza & Rotella, 1982;), self-talk (Bunker & Owens, 1985; Bunker & Rotella, 1982; Rotella, Gansneder, Ojala, & Billing, 1980), relaxation (Bennett, 1978; Harris & Harris, 1984; Smith, 1980), imagery (Epstein, 1980; Mahoney & Avener, 1977; Shelton & Mahoney, 1978), and preparatory arousal (Gould, Weinberg, & Jackson, 1980; Weinberg, Gould, & Jackson, 1979).

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Cognitive (covert) and behavioral (overt) strategies comprise the elements of preparatory routines. For example, cognitive behavioral strategies in golf, called preshot routines, include cognitive functions such as picking a target, visualizing the flight of the ball to the target, kinesthetically feeling the perfect shot, and using a cue or thought such as "smooth tempo" to direct attention. The behavioral component occurs in juxtaposition with mental preparation and incorporates tak- ing a practice swing, setting and aligning the feet to the intended target, wag- gling the club, and looking at the target (Cohn et al., 1990).

Cognitive Behavioral Preperfmance Routines

Although preperformance routines are readily used with closed skills, they are also useful with open-skill sports. Examples of preperformance routines used to facilitate performance in open- and closed-skill sports include golf (Boutcher & Crews, 1987; Cohn et al., 1990; Kirschenbaum & Bale, 1980; Rotella & Bunker, 1981; Yancey, 1977), tennis service (Moore, 1986; Moore & Lloyd, 1986), basketball free-throw (Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986; Wrisberg & Anshel, 1989), soccer (Vealey, 1986), volleyball service (Heishman, 1989; Kolscher, 1984), bowling (Kirschenbaum, Ordman, Tomarken, & Holtzbauer, 1982), gymnastics (Mahoney & Avener, 1977), wrestling (Gould et al., 1981), skiing and skating (Orlick, 1986), and diving (Highlen & Bennett, 1983).

Lobmeyer and Wasserman (1986) investigated the effect of a preperformance training program upon a free-throw shooting task. The subjects showed a 7% increase in free throws during practice when using their prethrow routine versus not using it. Wrisberg and Anshel(1989) found that mental imagery in conjunction with arousal control was an effective preshot strategy to enhance the free-throw shooting performance of young athletes. Moore (1986) evaluated the effects of an overt-covert routine training program on adherence to and performance of a preservice routine in tennis. The study showed that tennis players' adherence to a preservice routine increased following the intervention program, but there were only slight increases in serving accuracy. The players reported in follow-up interviews that the intervention had a positive effect on second-serve aggressive- ness and target selection.

A similar study investigated the effects of self-recording on adherence to a tennis service routine (Moore & Lloyd, 1986). The results indicated that self- monitoring had improved adherence to service routines, with only slight but consistent improvements in serving accuracy. Moore and Lloyd mentioned that small increases in performance with advanced athletes is meaningful because of a "ceiling effect" that leaves only a small margin for improvement. A study us- ing bowlers showed that a positive self-monitoring technique enhanced perfor- mance for low-skilled bowlers (Kirschenbaum et al., 1982).

An observational analysis of golfers' routines revealed that professional golfers employ well-defined, consistent preshot behaviors for both putts and full swings (Crews & Boutcher, 1986b). Golfers in a beginning class significantly improved their performance after a preshot routine training program (Crews & Boutcher, 1986a). Boutcher and Crews' study showed that performance improved for the group receiving the preshot routine training, but only for the male, more advanced beginning golfers. Boutcher and Crews (1987) conducted a similar study using collegiate golfers. After a 6-week preshot routine training period, both males

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and females improved the consistency of preshot routine behaviors, but only the females improved in task performance.

Cohn et al. (1990) showed that a cognitive behavioral intervention improved adherence to preshot routines in golf. Also, follow-up measures revealed that performance improved in actual competitions. In follow-up interviews, golfers reported that the intervention helped to improve concentration as well as decid- ing which club to select and the type of shot to be hit, and that it improved confidence and decreased controlling tendencies.

Heishman (1989) tested the set hypothesis versus the schema theory as alter- nate explanations for when to introduce a service routine in volleyball. The study sought to determine whether learning the serve in conjunction with a routine (as schema theory suggests) (Schmidt, 1988) was more beneficial than acquiring the serve first and the routine later in learning (as the set hypothesis suggests) (Nascon & Schmidt, 1971). The results showed that both groups made significant gains in service accuracy scores compared to controls, but the stage in which the routine was taught did not influence the accuracy or form scores. A retention test showed that the set group did not decline in accuracy whereas the schema group did. Heishman (1989) concluded that preservice routines were effective for improv- ing serving accuracy and form. Also, as Crews and Boutcher agree (1986a), the routine should be taught after the basic skill has been learned (supporting the set hypothesis), if the main objective is to enhance retention of the task.

Kolscher (1984) investigated the influence of a covert-overt routine on the consistency and variance of the serving ability of volleyball players. All subjects were taught to prepare a routine that reduced distractions and anxiety related thoughts while enhancing concentration. The results revealed that although no behavior change patterns were evident across subjects, the subjects reported a higher rate of success and improved consistency in serving after learning the routine. Kolscher (1984) noted that the novice performer was more likely to have greater success after the intervention, due to a greater potential for gains in perfor- mance, as compared to the expert server who was already serving at a greater percentage.

In conclusion, a variety of cognitive and behavioral strategies may be imple- mented into preperformance routines. Research on such strategies shows that athletes can learn to develop consistent, highly systematic preparatory routines and also that routines benefit performance, but the findings of the effects of routines on performance have been erratic. A major problem arises because many studies investigated the effects of routines on performance over a period of time, making it difficult to discern whether improved performance was due to implementation of the routines, physical practice, or a combination of both. Also, some of the research on routines has been conducted with high level athletes, which presents the problem of having a ceiling effect on performance minimize the impact of the effects of the treatment on performance.

Implications for Preperformance Routines The theoretical and empirical support that underlies the use of routines in sport has been discussed. A number of important implications for teaching and structur- ing routines emerge from the theories supporting the routines. According to schema theory, the purpose of preperformance routines is to facilitate the selection of a motor program from similar stored responses and to define the specific parameters

Preperformance Routines 307

of the required motor response. The concept of stages of motor learning proposes that learning motor skills can be assisted by structuring preperformance routines to account for the performer's present stage of learning. According to the set hypothesis, the function of preperformance routines is to aid the beginning or advanced performer in reducing the effect of warm-up decrement and to develop the appropriate internal set that matches the requirements of the task. Finally, the notion of mental rehearsal states that the intention of preshot routines is to facilitate the execution of the selected motor program by running off the program through cognitive processes and priming the neural pathways that produce the movement.

Guidelines for Structuring Preperformance Routines

What type of sports and what type of tasks lend themselves to the use of pre- performance routines? It is obvious that routines can easily be implemented into self-paced tasks. Self-paced tasks are movements that are initiated and paced by the performer as opposed to having the skill paced by an opponent or external object. Examples of sports involving self-paced tasks include making a shot and putt in golf, pitching in baseball, bowling, serving in tennis and volleyball, making a free throw in basketball, weight lifting, and gymnastics. Some open-skill sports also may benefit from preperformance routines. Examples of sports requiring open skills that can benefit from routines include preparing for a play in football or hockey, batting in baseball, kicking in football, and preparing for self-paced track and field events such as shot put, discus throw, high jump, and pole vault. Thus, preperformance routines are easily implemented into self-paced as well as other-paced sports.

The content of sport-specific routines is influenced by a number of factors that should be considered when teaching routines to athletes: (a) the sport and nature of the required task, (b) the skill level of the person, and (c) individual preferences.

Nature of the Task. The specific demands of the task will influence the behavioral and cognitive elements of the routine. The behavioral elements of the routine will vary from sport to sport and from task to task within each sport. For example, the behavioral routine in basketball may involve setting the feet square to the hoop and bouncing the ball on the floor, whereas in golf the behav- ioral routines may include taking a practice swing, aligning the feet, and waggling the club. Likewise, the behavioral aspects for putting in golf (practice swings, setup, etc.) will differ from the behavioral responses for shots and chipping (practice swings, setup, waggles, etc.). Thus the behavioral components of the routine are task-dependent.

The underlying theories supporting preparatory strategies suggest that task- specific behaviors can facilitate learning and performance. First, the behavioral routine should help the performer in recalling the task-specific parameters that define the desired movement outcome. For example, this may be achieved by recalling the feel and or the tempo of the movement such as the tempo of a base- ball pitch. Second, the behavioral strategies may also involve task-appropriate activities to help reinstate the appropriate set. For example, a pitcher may shake out his or her arm and shoulder immediately before pitching to assure the proper level of relaxation. Third, the behavioral routine not only includes activities that match the task but also the performer's stage of learning. For the beginner this may involve overtly practicing the movement such as performing practice swings

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in baseball prior to batting, whereas the advanced performer might not practice the desired movement outcome repeatedly.

The cognitive elements of the routine are also dependent upon the demands of the task. For example, the cognitive preparation in weight lifting will differ from the preparation needed for serving in tennis. The set hypothesis would argue that the task of lifting a large amount of weight requires an internal set that would produce increased strength, whereas serving in tennis may require an internal set that involves focused concentration. Therefore the cognitive preparation for lifting will be dominant in activation techniques to become focused and increase arousal whereas the tennis serve may include strategies to become focused and relaxed. Likewise, each event in gymnastics requires different internal sets or cognitive preparation strategies for optimal readiness. The floor event is a task that primarily requires strength and coordination whereas the balance beam is a task that requires grace, fluidity, and balance.

Skill Level of the Individual. The skill level of the individual also deter- mines the activities of preperformance routines. The behavioral aspects of the routine may vary for athletes of different skill levels performing a like task. For example, the behavioral service routine for a beginning and an advanced volley- ball player may be similar, such as aligning to the target, setting the feet, and bouncing the ball, but the novice server may benefit more from the overt rehearsal of the skill. The cognitive components of the routine, given the same task, should correspond with the performer's skill level. According to the stages of motor learning and the schema theory, the novice performer who is in the cognitive phase of learning may require different cognitive elements in the routine to facilitate performance, whereas the expert performer who is in an autonomous phase of performance would benefit from having the skill run off automatically.

For the novice performer who is at the cognitive stage of learning, emphasis of the mental aspects of the routine should be on thoughts about how to perform the task and cue words to initiate the movement. Cue words also help the performer focus on one or two important aspects of performance without becoming paralyzed by an abundance of mechanical thoughts. For example, a novice bowler may think about the elements of a full-arm swing and follow-through and may use cue words such as extend or push-through to direct attention. A segment of the routine may also include external imagery in which the performer sees himself or herself performing the task technically correct or sees the correct outcome.

For the expert performer, in the autonomous stage, the cognitive elements of the routine may include strategies that allow the skill to run off automatically to facilitate an uninhibited execution of the motor program. The routine for the skilled performer may include feeling the correct movement, imagining the desired outcome, focusing on the target, using a general cue word, and trusting the auto- matic process. General cue words such as tempo, smooth, or glide may be more appropriate for initiating automatic execution. Figure 1 offers examples of cogni- tive preparatory routines for the beginning and advanced performer based on the nature of the task.

The set hypothesis would argue that the most important purpose of prepara- tion includes techniques to decrease warm-up decrement and establish the appre priate internal set for execution of the task. Based upon the set hypothesis, the routine for either novice or expert would include strategies that facilitate practice of the task and that regain the appropriate state of arousal and attentional focus.

Preperfonnance Routines 309 I Beginning Advanced

I

Golf Putt 1. Take a deep breath 1. Take a deep breath 2. Calculate break of putt 2. Select line and speed of putt 3. "See" self putting ball 3. "See" ball roll into the hole 4. Feel the pendulum movement of the arm 4. Feel the distance of putt

motion 5. Use a cue word such as back-hit or 5. Focus on linelhole or the distance of putt

accelerate through the ball

Tennis Serve 1. Take a deep breath 1. Take a deep breath 2. Select target area 2. Select target and type of serve to be

played 3. See positive outcome 3. See ball fly to target 4. Think about timing toss with swing 4. Focus on the target 5. Use a cue word such as full extension 5. Trust automatic process

Baseball Pitch 1. Decide on area of pitch 1. Decide on target 2. Take a deep breath 2. Relax-breathe 3. See self pitching or see positive outcome 3. See ball fly to target 4. Think about timing step with arm 4. Feel the correct pitch

movement 5. Use a cue word such as follow-through 5. Focus on target

Basketball Free Throw 1. Take a deep breath 1. Take a deep breath 2. See self shooting 2. See ball go through the basket 3. Think about timing of leg with arm 3. Feel the perfect shot

extension 4. Use a cue word such as smooth or push- 4. Look at the hoop

off

Figure 1 - Sport-specific examples of preperfonnance routines for different skill levels.

Thus the routine may include behavioral responses such as overtly practicing the skill as well as cognitive activities such as activation and relaxation to regain the set that is lost during periods of rest.

Individual Preferences. When teaching athletes preparatory routines, one must consider individual preferences. Optimally, routines should be tailored to the specific characteristics of the individual. One such individual preference is perceptual learning style. It is believed that every person has a dominant style of learning (James & Galbraith, 1985). Perceptual modalities include seven dominant senses: print, aural, interactive, visual, hepatic, kinesthetic, and olfactory. Athletes can facilitate learning and performance of motor skills by using their dominant

perceptual learning style in preperforrnance routines. For example, when the performer has a kinesthetic orientation to learning, it would be appropriate to design the preparatory routine to incorporate the feel of the movement, or kinesthetic imagery. Similarly, if the performer is visually dominant, the routine should incorporate visual cues or images to facilitate learning and performance of the task.

The person's general anxiety level is another individual characteristic that will influence the cognitive elements of the routine. Given a specific task, highly state-anxious persons may need to emphasize relaxation techniques in the routine to gain the appropriate internal state. Less anxious athletes would not necessarily highlight relaxation techniques in the routine but may need to emphasize activation techniques to achieve a state of optimal readiness for the specific task.

One last consideration when structuring routines is the pace or speed of preparation for an individual. Is the pace of the routine adequate for this particular athlete, and is there a pace better suited to facilitate the execution of the task for this athlete? For example, some athletes may require a longer routine in gym- nastic events to gain the appropriate set and to recall from memory the appropriate parameters necessary for performing the motor task whereas other athletes may require a shorter routine to facilitate learning the task.

Thus, preperfonnance routines should be structured for each individual with- in his or her specific sport. A variety of individual preferences should be consid- ered when formulating preperformance routines. These include perceptual learning styles, general anxiety or arousal levels, and pacing of the routine.

In conclusion, this review has examined the theoretical, empirical, and prac- tical implications for using preperforrnance routines in acquiring and performing motor skills. The areas of motor learning that support the use of routines include schema theory, the set hypothesis, stages of motor learning, and mental practice. A growing body of empirical evidence generally supports the use of a combina- tion of cognitive and behavioral strategies prior to the execution of self-paced tasks. A number of important considerations have been discussed and should be taken into account when developing and teaching routines to athletes. These in- clude the nature of the task, the skill level of the performer, and the performer's own preferences.

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I Acknowledgment

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The author would like to thank Dr. Linda Bunker, Dana Lerner, and Tom Hanson for their time and energy spent helping to revise earlier versions of the manuscript.

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Manuscript submitted: December 20, 1989 Revision received: March 26, 1990