THEORETICAL OVERVIEW - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/6204/8/08... · 2015. 12. 4. · 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Importance of Teacher Education ... students are

CHAPTER l l

THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

CONTENTS

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Importance of Teacher Education

2.3 Individualized Instruction

2.4 Teaching Strategies and Instructional Theory

2.5 Modern Instructional Strategies

2.6 Modular Strategy

2.7 Mastery Learning Strategy

References

CHAPTER ll

Theoretical Overview

2.1 Introduction

Even in the present decade, many teachers follow traditional mass-

learning techniques and neglect the more effective alternative and

supplementary methods. Specific methods suit particular people and the

teacher's task is to find techniques that serve the needs of his students and

the requirements of the subject matter. Method is simply a means of blending

the components of living subject matter, enquiring attitudes and lively

interests. The importance of the role of the teacher as an agent of change,

promoting understanding and tolerance have never been more obvious. The

behaviour of teachers, their knowledge and expertise, and the methods of

teaching and evaluation used by them have a strong bearing on education.

In the schools of the future, students will have to learn themselves

focusing attention not only on acquiring subject matter but on understanding

their own work habits, knowledge base, insights, aspirations, value systems

and personal talents. This fundamental change towards acquiring one's own

learning instead of depending solely on a teacher may be the biggest

challenge that education will face. Very few teachers will start this type of

teaching with high levels of profic:iency and knowledge of all aspects of the

subject and in all aspects of teaching. A fundamental purpose of curriculum is

29 Theoretical Ovewiew

to transmit an appreciation of and commitment to the best of culture we have

inherited.

lnstruction aims at educating individuals to live in the society as

effectively as possible. Instruction according to Gerlach and EIY'S' (1980) is

"transmission of the material from the instructor's notebook, by passing the

minds of both".

The earlier conceptions of teaching have now become obsolete and to

become an accomplished and enlightened teacher; one has to really strive

hard. The modern teachers have far more information and know how

available pertaining to their role than they could possibly cope with.

Teaching has now become more and more complex. Higher

educational expectations, greater curricular demands, rapid changes in

knowledge and technology and the subsequent difficulties including keeping

abreast of things, social mobility etc. make teaching difficult. Apart from

these, establishment of productive classroom environment, creation of

specific kinds of climate for different lessons, ensuring excellent teacher-pupil

relations, exercising proper classroom control, selection of adequate

techniques, implementing different methods, have all contributed in their own

way in making teaching more difficult.

Today, if we look around, we notice that teacher's role keeps changing,

as resources keep multiplying. Many of the resources now available are

designed for individual use, active learning or group processes. With these,

new options for instruction are growing at a rapid rate. New concepts such as

30 Theoretical Overview

teaching in terms of individually prescribed instruction and automated learning

compel educators to vary grouping of students. New building and facilities are

being built to include TV, learning laboratories, computer terminals, dial

access retrieval systems. All these have increased the number of alternatives

the teacher could choose for accomplishing specific learning outcomes.

Dynamic and new methods including the use of electronic media are to

be adopted with a view to inculcating among the students curiosity.

encouraging self study and nurturing problem solving abilities. Emphasis has

to be on learning rather than on teaching. Therefore seminars, tutorial

assignments, problem solving sessions, project work etc. will constitute

integral parts of the instructional programme. It is high time, therefore, for

teachers to realize that expository approach is not the only way to teach, that

pupils learn in different ways and that all are not amenable to a uniform

approach.

2.2 Importance of Teacher Education

Education prepares the future generation to take their due place in the

society. So a teacher plays a pivotal role in this process. A teacher happens

to be the key person to initiate and support change for educational

improvements. With the increasing complexity of problems, expectations from

teachers are also increasing. To enable a teacher to create thirst for

knowledge amongst his pupils, he must continue to learn and grow

professionally. Thus, education of teachers at all levels is highly is significant.

In order to enable the teachers to act as a catalyst in the process of


developing the future citizens, the teacher education programme needs to be

revised from time to time.

The present state of secondary education in the country presents a

mixed picture of far-sighted intentions and innovations coupled with alarming

distortions and structural shortcomings. Looking back, from past to present, it

appears that although, nomenclature has undergone a change from 'training'

.to 'education', the system by and large remain unchanged. Educational level

is involved in the transitional and transformational period. all en' (1950),

speaking of the responsibility of teacher educators, says, "Teachers ... are

custodians of the nation's human capital, the guardians of the nation's youth,

the keepers of the nations most precious treasures, the shapers of the

nation's future".

The quality and efficiency of education depends to a great extent on

the quality of teachers. Unless we bring quality into teachers, we can't expect

innovation or change in the quality of the product, that is education. In India ,

the teacher is considered to be the least developed resource. Restructuring

of teacher preparation process is highly essential for professionalization and

empowerment of the teachers. It is a corroborated fact that the progress of the

country squarely rests on the teachers. As such, the teacher educator has to

act a facilitator and mentor in organizationally focused active learning situation

in order to keep pace with the growing needs of the society. Making teachers

professional competent and committed to the cause is the responsibility of the

teacher education system,,


As information technology has caused many changes in the

communication network system, teaching at all levels must been modern,

innovative and concurrent with the latest developments to face emerging

challenges of the future. In the preparation of the secondary school teachers,

the colleges of education are required to develop among the student teachers

sound knowledge of the subjects, effective classroom communication

patterns, effective classroom management, technological devices and use of

modern instructional strategies in the classroom like modular and mastery

learning .

2.3 Individualized Instruction

The Individualized instruction started in the 1950's as a protest against

group oriented and teacher centred methods of instruction which hardly made

any provision for individual differences of the ,learners. It must be

remembered that students differ not only in natural ability but also in

disposition and temperament as well. The premise that strictly speaking no

students are alike in class and there are many permutations and combinations

of individual differences, lead us to conclude that a totally teacher centred

approach is likely to be inadequate.

"The method of instruction which caters to the needs of individual

students is known as individualized instruction" suggests yadav3 (1 993). We

must realize what education and vnstruction literally mean in the light of the

needs of the changing t~mes. Education, as we generally look at it today, is a

preparation for the individual for life and instruction is the tool with which this


preparation is being carried out. Through instruction we are supposed to bring

about a harmonious development of the personality of the individual by

providing for his physical, intellectual, social, emotional, aesthetic, moral and

even spiritual needs. Education also demands that the learner be prepared for

good citizenship, to develop in him a love for his country, its tradition and

inspire in him a sense of service and loyalty. In addition, education expects of

us to inculcate in the learner a scientific temper and a constructive and

winning attitude. It determines the quality of one's motivation and strength of

commitment.

Individualized instruction provides a learning environment that

encourages and motivates the pupil intrinsically. It permits each pupil to study

at his own pace. This could be useful in solving the problem of crowded

classroom. Finally individualized instruction is a learner centred strategy

where the teacher acts as a facilitator in the learning process. Here the

teacher has to take into account the many differences existing among

learners.

2.4 Teachinq Strateaies and Instructional Theory

Teaching strategies are usually formulated in an attempt to move a

student from point A on a continuum to point B.

A Strategy > B

Point A represents the initial pre-strategy position of the student. i.e., the state

in which the student ex~sts before he masters the knowledge, skills and


attitudes defined as point B. Because students, even homogeneously

grouped, vary extensively in aptitude, intelligence and experience,

determining exactly where your instruction should begin is exceedingly

difficult. The only practical solution to the problem is to design instruction

which will lead all students to the necessary entty behaviour before attempting

to move them to the terminal point B

According to ~ r u n e r ~ (1960) a theory of instruction should consider

four major features. They are predisposition, structure, sequence and

consequence. Teaching strategies should develop the individual's

predisposition to learning. ~ e s s e n ~ (1996) indicates that evidence has begun

to accumulate that supports the skilful variation of environmental uncertainty

as a means of increasing a student's tendencies to search for more

information, to retain, to understand, to transfer to new situations and to

recognize an achieved problem solution. He suggested that by developing a

predisposition to learn would involve establishing an optimal amount of

uncertainty, which would cause the individual to enter into those activities

described as learning. An instruct~or~al theory should be both prescriptive and

normative. It is prescriptive in the sense that it sets forth rules concerning the

most effective means of developing student's knowledge, skills and attitudes.

It is normative in the sense that it establishes criteria and states conditions for

meeting them

Strategies used by teachers to move the student from A to 6 are many

and varied. Some strategies are mtsre effective than others, but there is no

35 -- Theoretical Overview

single strategy considered most effective with all students and all subject

matter. It is necessary for the teacher to select the most appropriate strategy

for the particular student population.

The simple fact that some strategies are better than others and no one

strategy is best for all situations should encourage the teacher to utilize a

variety of strategies which should be selected on the basis of their

effectiveness with a particular population of students and the particular

subject matter.

Teaching strategies should be structured so that the information

provided can be grasped readily by the learner. The information provided

through instruction should confer upon the student an increasing ability to

simplify information, generate new propositions and manipulate the body of

knowledge he already possesses. Teaching strategies should be sequenced

in the most effective manner. Though principles and antecedence have

frequently hindered curriculum construction, they cannot be ignored. Finally,

teaching strategies should be designed with a proper perspective of reward

and punishment. If, however, the instructor establishes a predisposition of

learning through effective sequencing and structuring the students will tend to

become self-energised. Such pupils will find solving a complex problem

intrinsically rewarding.

2.4.1 Evolvincl an instructional stratenv.

An Instructional strategy is defined as a plan for achieving an

educational goal or objective. Goals and objectives define what you want the


students to learn or achieve. As a part of planning, we must select

appropriate strategies that will efficiently teach the lesson.

The elements of effective teaching include several areas, such as

thorough understanding of pupil's development, well-developed lesson plans,

selective supplementary materials, a positive learning environment, caring

and effective group dynamics. Instructional strategies are a necessary

element of planning to ensure a good lesson presentation from the motivation

level to the lesson culmination and evaluation.

The teacher-student instructional strategy involves both the teacher

and the student and lends itself to creative and information exchanges. Some

'quiet think time' when no one is talking is an integral part of the strategy.

This method provides opportunities for students to learn from each other by

sharing thoughts and ideas in a spirit of cooperation with the teacher.

The various instructional strategies to be adopted broadly would vary

depending upon whether skill to be learned is procedural or problem oriented.

But the fact remains that knowledge needs to be acquired not for

understanding but for active application during problem solving in the context

of specific goals. The integration approach would suggest for careful

curriculum building through appropriate tasks to foster skill acquisition and

provide learning environment that can assist the learner in coping with a

complete task. A fixed set of solution methods, therefore must be selected

relevant to specific solutions. The rnstructional strategy is no longer meant to


present information to the learner in order to fill a knowledge base, rather it is

to provide an environment for active and self directed learning.

Learning is determined by the extent of receptivity in the learner at a

particular moment, which depends on environmental factors as well as child's

nature and habits. An environment artificially created can only enhance the

process of learning. Since learning is the central concern of instruction, the

classroom interaction should create an environment that is conducive to the

active interaction on the part of the learner. We should attempt to discover

grounds for the integration of the key aspects of human ampet- in

instruction. The efficacy of the instructional strategies have been reported to be

useful in enhancing pupil achievement, suggest 6uch6 (1986) and

~ a v e ' (1995). To limit the learners to only one type of instructional strategy

and instructional material, therefore, may not be appropriate for the modern

diversified classroom. As instrumentation facilitates scientific work, the design

of instructional interventions related to task performances would facilitate the

acquisition of knowledge and skill.

An instructional strategy is an organization of suitable component with

their functions specified in relation to the specific goals to be achieved. These

components would appear in the final form of an instructional strategy in an

integrated fashion. The evolution of an instructional strategy is a scientific

process. Thus certain well-defined steps have to be followed for evolving

appropriate instructional strategy at any stage.


The first step is to analyse and identify specific objectives to be

realized through the instructional process. The second step is to prepare

suitable learning material for realizing the pre-specified objectives. The third

step relates to the empirical validation of the individual components of the

strategy. The last step is to integrate the different components to form the

instructional strategy and study its effectiveness in realizing the pre-specified

objectives.

An instructional strategy so developed through the use of the above

mentioned steps would have three characteristics:

(i) It would be specific and appropriate with respect to the objectives,

which are to be achieved through the individual components.

(ii) the different components of the strategy would be empirically tested

and integrated to contribute towards common objectives, and

(iii) the strategy would have the characteristics of reproducibility in similar

conditions.

A few attempts were made to evolve an instructional strategy. Yadav

and ~ovinda' (1978) evolved an instructional strategy for teaching

educational evaluation at the B.Ed level. This instructional strategy comprised

of programmed learning material, libraly work, practical work and discussion.

It was observed that the richness in the instruction was achieved when the

above-mentioned components were used in an integrated way.

2.5 Modern Instructional Strategies

Organizing pupil into groups for particular learning experiences has

been evident in classrooms in many years. A heterogeneous group of

students working together on projects is a valuable technique. Everyone in the

group can experience varying degrees of success. The interaction and

sharing of ideas may result in even better group dynamics than those planned

by the teachers. A cooperative learning strategy requires establishing of

working groups and organizing and implementing usable procedures for the

students to follow, while at the same time allowing for student input. This

demands great deal of projecting, anticipating student needs and making

accommodations. Once the groups begin to function, the role of teacher is

largely that of a facilitator, guide and resources person.

Teachers should use modern instructional strategies when situations

demand. At various stages of learning there exists different integration of

knowledge. The knowledge of new task gets accommodated with past

learning. The acquisition of knowledge, development of a cognitive skill and

organization of knowledge into more effective presentations depend upon the

characteristics of the learner's initial state. Therefore, we cannot expect that

every student will show a competent performance on a task. We need

instructional interventions more than instructional repetitions. This calls for the

change of instructional strategies according to the task and composition of

students in the classroom.


According to Cropley and ~ a v e ~ (1978) teachers are expected to foster

in pupils the skills and values of educability which will include the capacity of

self learning and self evaluation, as well as positive attitude to learning. As

awli ins on" (1994) notes, analytical thinking (logical or convergent)

consolidates and practices must be followed by creative leaps for using

effective instructional strategies. Teachers take up the challenge to promote

student achievement by resorting to certain instructional strategies. One of

the strategies is to gear instruction to the correct level of difficulty of the

students. Teachers should try to get a sense of overall difficulty level and

make adjustments accordingly. Monitoring pupil work as it proceeds is

another strategy that teachers could use in promoting pupil achievement.

Providing adequate time for processing the content being taught is another

way to ensure pupil achievement. Encouraging cooperative learning is yet

another way to boost pupil achievement. As slavinl' (1990) puts it, most

cooperative learning classrooms are well behaved, because students are

motivated to learn and are actively engaged in leaning activities. Teaching

students to take responsibility of their own learning is another important

strategy that teachers could used for bringing better pupil performance.

Increasing pupil's interest is another important strategy. Teachers can

increase pupil interest by varying their instructional methods. Variety of

techniques, methods and media may be brought into the classroom. ~iguilo''

(1995), recommends the use of demonstrations, pictures, visual-spatial and

multisensory activities that utilize concrete and pictorial modalities.

4 1 Theoretical Overview

Asking questions that produce thinking is another good strategy. While

responding to pupil queries, as ~ l k i n d ' ~ (1987) advises us, we have to

respond at the child's level of purpose. When teachers provide pupils

feedback that is immediate and detailed and evaluation that is realistic, they

are providing scope for enhancement of pupil performance. Realistic

evaluation help pupils connect what they learn with the real world. The

available strategies are listed briefly here under:

1. Buzz session

In buzz session, a fixed amount of time is allotted to the students to

discuss a problem or task in small groups (in pairs, threes, etc.,). Clear

instructions are to be given so that the discussions are productive. The

efficiency of such a discussion would be enhanced by the teacher moving

round and getting a feel of the discussions without interrupting.

2. Tutorial session

These sessions may be organized even informally as and when the

necessity arises, in addition to the ones formally organized through a

schedule. In tutorials, the teacher act as a guidance worker instead of a

lecturer.

3. Debate session

This is especially suitable to controversial themes or issues and for

developing certain skills like logical arguments, weighing evidence etc., in

students.


4. Seminar

When a topic requires in depth study by means of library work or

experiments or such other data c:ollection studies, a seminar is organized by

assigning students the different facts of the topic and asking them to present

their paper before an interested group.

5. Symposium

Symposium is an instructional technique suitable for teaching topics or

themes having various dimensions.

6. Panel discussion

An instructional procedure in which the teacher plays a reduced role is

the panel discussion

7. Brainstorming

This is a fine strategy for generating ideas. According to b awl ins on'^

(19941, brainstorming is an instructional procedure similar in many ways to

exploratory session.

8. Simulation throuqh role playinq

hand'' (1995) explained the importance of role-playing as a strategy.

Life like situations can be simulated inside a classroom by assigning different

roles to different students and asking them to play these roles after giving

them the background episode.


9. Video cassettes

According to ~ u b r i d ~ e ' ~ (1984), videocassettes are somewhat a recent

educational medium, which can be designed in such a way that they are

useful for self study, teacher training, conducting laboratory tests and so on.

10. Video disc

Moja" (1992), reports that a teacher using video disc at first sees a

succession of still pictures and hears the voices of two media librarians

describing the purposes of the system.

11. Video text

~armichael '~ (1995) suggests that the video text deals with lithographic

printing techniques, in which retraining is often required.

12. Cvclops

The Cyclops are distance teaching system. According to ~harp les '~

(1982), Cyclops can help students to encourage to sign in on the screen.

13. Teleconferencing

Teleconferencing provides a cost - effective way to provide seminars

and tutorials to distant learners suggests Murph?' (1988).

14. Linkina lnternet for Teaching

lnternet is a network of networks. According to ~udenstein*' (1996).

the compatibility between processes of lnternet and those of higher levels of

training makes the lnternet unique

15. Electronic mail (E-mail)

Electronic Mail IS the people service of lnternet.


16. Inteqrated Services Digital Network llSDN)

The ISDN as the name implies is a state of the art public switched

digital network that allows integrated transmission of voice images, data and

video over the telephone line through the telephone network.

17. Taba model of teachina strateqy

~ a b a " (1966) was largely responsible for popularising the term

'teaching strategy' designed to improve students' ability to handle information.

18. Audio tutorial

Postlethwait, Novak and ~ u r r a ~ ' ~ (1971) claim that audio-tutorial

enhances personal contact through more face - to-face conversations in the

laboratory.

19. Co-operative learning

Co-operative learning is an instructional strategy by which students

cooperate in small teams to learn material that is initially presented by the

teacher. According to Cowie and ~udd ick '~ (1990), co-operative methods

improve students' self esteem and social relations among students.

2.6 Modular Strategy

The work of scholars such as 6lockZ5 (1971b), loom^^ (1971b) and

~a r ro11~~ (1971) has done much in the needed foundations of research and

theory under self-learning modules.

capieZ8 (1973) developed modular method in conjunction with Portal

schools.


Modularization is a mechanism by which an appropriate degree of

flexibility can be built into the curriculum. Modules are defined as separate

and self-standing parts of education. This can be a building block of

curriculum. Modules have the immediate attractiveness of "pick and mix"

whereby students can choose any assortment of syllabi to make up a

complete programme. Modules are intended to serve the holistic aims of the

programmes of which they are part. They have a common format of

presentation, and expected to reflect a consistent system of assessment and

teaching learning strategies.

"An instructional module is a self contained, self sufficient and

independent unit of instruction with primary focus on a few well defined

objectives". According to Sampath, Panneerselvam and santhanamZg (2001),

module is self-contained in the sense that the expected learning outcomes,

the sequential learning activities and the evaluation devices are thoroughly

planned for the unit of instruction. Self-sufficiency is achieved by providing all

the material needed for learning in the package itself.

If the unit of instruction is large, it can be split up into smaller units

known as modular units and complete package materials are prepared for

each small unit in the form of capsules. However each capsule must be

linked together to constitute the main module. The instructional module

contains all possible approaches to learning some specific conceptual unit of

subject matter and the pupils can select, if necessary, with teachers'

guidance, the instructional method or methods most suitable for each pupil or


small groups of pupils. Even though the module refers to a mode of working

with some instructional materials, it can change to some extent according to a

learner.

In the context of educational technology, a module indicates an

instructional plan which is usually rnore than a class hour or session, but

smaller than a course plan. In relation to learning needs, modules may be

longer combining two-three 20 min. periods. Subjects involving laboratories

or field experience are usually scheduled for longer periods. For eg., a

science teacher needs more time for providing laboratory experiences, he can

be assigned five continuous modules. Hence modular scheduling allows for a

good deal of flexibility. This flexibility helps in for individualized instruction.

2.6.1 D e s i ~ n of a module.

Modules should include an introduction to the topic and instructions or

suggestions about how the various components of the module are to be used.

If the module is to be used only under instructor supervision, oral instruction

may suffice. In most cases a printed study guide should be a part of the

module. The guide should introduce the topic of the module and relate its

media and activities to the objectives. It should give instructions for using the

materials included with the module and directions for the learning activities

involved. Questions and space for responses may also be contained in the

guide. The study guide should be as simple as possible, containing just the

essential directions and relevant information.


Some teachers prefer to put their study guide materials on audiotape or

to use an audiotape in conjunction with a printed guide. Either of these

procedures can be helpful for slow learners and may be essential for very

poor readers and nonreaders.

It is important for the instructor to monitor each learner's progress in

order to reward success and to alleviate frustrations. At the conclusion of

each module's use, the learner should discuss the activity with the teacher

individually or in small groups. The teacher and students can cover the

nature of the problem presented in the module, compare answers and discuss

the concept learnt from the module.

2.6.1.1 Operational desiqn of a module

The model of a module was designed to consist of an overview, three

to seven capsules with module test at the end of the sequence

~oppe?' (1 994).

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2.6.2 Essential features of a module.

A good module has the following essential features

(i) It should be self-contained so as to enable the learner to achieve the

objective with the minimum assistance from the teacher and without

the need for using extraneous materials. The presentation of learning

activities, pre-tests, formative tests, posttests and assignments should

be provided in the module.

(ii) The objectives and learning activities should be properly sequenced.

(iii) The learning activities should make the best use of local resources,

(iv) The subject matter should be correct, concise and presented in an

interesting manner.

(v) It should provide opportunities for the learner to interact with other

students and the community.

Structural characteristics

(1) A module is a self-contained and self-sufficient unit.

(2) A module is designed to consist of sub-modular units which by

themselves are independent but linked together.

(3) A module is built for any type of learning strategy in or outside the

classroom.

(4) A module is built on a block of time and each sub modular unit for an

optimum learner engaged time.

(6) A module contains a test based on specific learning outcome of

learning for all the sub modular units for summative evaluation.


Functional characteristics

(a) If a module has been developed for a specific learning strategy or for

alternate learning strategies, the teacher should use it accordingly.

(b) If modules are written adopting a self-learning approach they should

function as a self-pacing device also.

(c) A sub modular unit could be used by the teacher or learner for specific

purpose, such as, attaining master remedial learning.

(d) Modules could be used for formative and summative evaluation

(e) A module could function as a meaningful and useful reference material

for the learner as he has personally worked on it and developed

competencies.

(f) The curriculum developer could use the modules for developing

different courses of study, as they are not only independent self

contained units, but also contain sub modular units which are also self

sufficient and self contained.

2.6.3 Components of a module.

The UGC Curriculum Development Committee in Education (1988)

specified five very important components for a module viz. Objectives, content

specification, teaching strategies, evaluation and reading materials.

A handbook on 'Developing Instructional Modules for Teacher's

Directions' by UNESCO~' (1998) specified the components of a module as

follows:

(i) Title: The title of the module should be clear and concise.

5 1 -- Theoretical Overview

(ii) Introduction: The introduction should give the background and

rationale of the module as well as the target population for whom the

module has been developed.

(iii) Overview: The ove~ iew introduces the learner to the theme of the

module- its purpose, structure, organization and uses. It should give

an overall impression of the module and its contents.

(iv) Instruction to the users: This component should include clear

instructions to the learner as to how he should proceed and what he

has to do after each step or stage. This is an important component of

the module, as it would help the learner in self- learning. Most of the

instructions are relating to the different components of the module such

as how to take pre-test, formative test, and summative test and how to

undertake learning activities, etc. Some of the specific instructions

related to evaluation and learning activities can also be given at the

appropriate stage.

(v) Pre-test: The pre-test is taken by the learner at the beginning. This

helps to find out the level of knowledge and skills that the learner

already has. It helps the learner to find for himself the entry points in

the module. If the ability of the learner is upto the criterion reference or

to a standard fixed by the teacher or the module developer he may be

advised to skip the module and go on to the next one. But if the level

of achievement is below the expected, he is asked to study the module.


(vi) Objectives: The instructional objectives of the module should be

clearly stated. They should specify the expected learning outcomes in

terms of behaviour. A behavioural objective should be stated clearly

and precisely so that the learner would know what the learning

outcome of a given activity will be.

(vii) Learning activities: Learning activities should be provided in a

planned and sequential manner. These activities enable the learner to

develop behaviour in a predetermined direction.

The following are some of the principles, which should be kept in mind

while developing the learning activities:

I. The learning activities should be planned on the basis of the entry behaviour

of the learners. Entry behaviour means the previous knowledge of the

learner of the instructional objectives.

II. The learning activities should be based on the need of the learner.

Ill. The learning activities should be based on the terminal behaviour i.e., the

ultimate outcome of learning activities.

IV. The learning activities should provide for individual differences. The

activities should provide for freedom and flexibility in the learning process.

V. The learning activities should be properly graded so that the learner

proceeds step by step in the order of difficulty.

VI. The learning activities should be of different types using different media and

methodology.


VII. The methodology used in learning activities should promote imagination,

divergent thinking and creative innovative behaviour on the part of the

learners.

VIII. The learning activities should provide maximum interaction among the

students and the teachers.

IX. The learning activities should be varied enough to cater to the students'

interests, abilities and learning styles.

X. The learning activities should provide the learner with enough knowledge of

his progress.

(viii) Formative tests: Formative tests are given at the end of each learning

unit or learning activity. The formative tests help the learner to know whether

he has achieved the expected behavioural outcomes. If he has not reached

the expected mastery level, he should go through the learning activities again

in consultation with the teacher.

(ix) Summative evaluation: Summative evaluation is done with the help of a

pre-test. The post-test helps in knowing how well the learner has attained the

expected learning outcomes. In some modules the pre-tests are the same but

it is advisable to have two parallel versions of the same test.

2.6.4 Development of a module.

At the heart of any instructional system lies the self-paced learning

module. The speed of adoption of self-paced learning modules as suggested

by (1976) looks more revolutionary than evolutionary. ~ o v a k ~ ~ (1973)

observes "the use of some form of modular instruction is probably the fastest


growing trend in the history of Western Education" The survey of Cross (1976)

showed that almost three fourths of the Community colleges in London

reported some use of self paced learning modules.

According to ~ h a r r n a ~ ~ (1988), the following are the steps, which can

be used for developing a module.

(1) Identify the target group.

(2) ldentify the learning needs of the group.

(3) Decide the terminal behaviour.

(4) Identify the entry behaviour.

(5) Assess the entry behaviour through pre-test.

(6) Prepare teaching frames incorporating objectives, learning activities,

formative evaluation and summative evaluation.

(7) Try out the module.

(8) Revise and finalise of the module.

Authors differ in their views on module development. But we can

identify certain common steps for module development. A flow chart showing

the stages in the development of modules is given in Figure 2.2. According to

~ o v i n d ~ ~ , (1975), like many of the instructional systems and strategies in

current use, modules invariably include programmed instruction as a major

component in them which as its essential feature of the development process,

adopt some common procedures such as specification of instructional

objectives in behavioural terms, analysis of task involved, field testing and

revision arrangement of in-built feedback to learners and evaluation.

Determinants E 3

1. Resources

2. Subject Experts - 3. Classroom teachers

C

Planning Stage

1. Identification

of Target

group.

2. Assessment of

Need of the

group.

3. Selection of

content.

1 .Formulation of

objectives.

2.Development of 1. Classroom teachers d learning experiences. .

2. Subject Experts 3.DeveloPment of

d modules. 1 1. Initial Target

+ 3. Resoiiices - 2. Subjects

expees

3.Classroom teachers - I

4.Development of

evaluation strategies.

Revision Stage

1. Objectives.

2. Instructional

strategies.

3. Contents

4. Evaluation

instruments.

I

/ F ina l Modules

1. Introduction

2. Overview

f 3, Instruction to

teachers.

4. Objectives

5. Content

specification.

6. Instructional

strategies.

7. Formative and

summative

evaluation.

Fiq: 2.2: Flow Chart showinq staqes in the Development of Modules


Educationists developed several modules observing the different steps.

Different phases adopted by the researchers can be listed under three heads

i.e., planning stage, Drafting stage arid Revising stage.

UNESCO experts have also suggested three stages for the

development of modules. They are:

1. Planning stage,

2. Drafting stage, and

3. Revising stage

Planning stage

In this stage the target group is identified. Where the module is to be

administered should also be decided at this stage, i.e., in formal classroom or

out of class situation. The social and physical environments, problems of

daily life, work experience, developnient of skill, etc., of the target population

should also be assessed in this phase.

Drafting stage

Modules are drafted in this stage. Objectives of the module should be

formulated first. Learning experiences which are conducive in achieving

these objectives are also to be selected. The modules should be formulated

in such a way that students can go through the modules on their own or with

the minimum help of the teachers.

The first and the components suggested by UNESCO~~ (1998) for the

development of modules is as follows:

1. Introduction (Background and rationale)

2. Overview

3. Instructions to the learners

4. Objectives

5. Learning activities

6. Tests, evaluation and feedback at the pre-test stage, the formative

stage and the concluding stage, (Summative evaluation).

Revising stage

In this stage modification or revision of modules is done. This revision

is dealt with additions, or deletion of objectives and assessment items,

sequencing, content organization and revision of language. These modules

are then used in an initial tryout for further modifications.

From the try out perform ant^ the adequacy of the draft modules in

terms of readability, difficulty level and content organization can be checked

and necessary modifications can be attempted. The adequacy of test items

also can be checked and learning activities and sequences of instructions can

again be revised. Then the modules are ready for experimentation.

Final form

Components

1. Introduction

2. Overview

3. Instruction to learners

4. The pre-test details

5. Objectives

58 - Theoretical Overview

6. Learning activities

7. Formative evaluation

8. Summative evaluation

Advantages of Modules

Modular strategy appears to be an effective and economical way of

developing specific knowledge and skills with the minimum of teacher's

direction and supervision.

Following are the advantages to the students, teachers and institutions.

Advantages to Students

1. Students can progress at their own rate, because they have full control

on the rate of study.

2. Student can himself decide whether he has learnt the subject matter

fully.

3. He must be involved in the learning process by which his commitment

to the task is enhanced.

4. It helps to develop a sense of responsibility for one's own learning.

5. Students are not forced to cover materials which are already familiar to

them.

6. A large pool of modules will permit students to explore portions of

subjects of particular interest without having to enrol in a full course

containing topics not relevant to their needs.

7. Some modules can be checked out and studied at home


8. The consequences of failure are reduced. Each student can master

each module completely before proceeding to the next.

Advantages to the Teachers

1. The use of the modules provides and opportunity for organizing

numerous sequence of experiences to reflect special interests of the

teacher

2. The modular approach provides a way of assessing the students

progress in learning.

3. Modules reduce the routine aspects of instruction, leaving the teacher

free to engage in personal contact with the student.

4. The independent nature of self instructional units facilitates the

updating of study materials without major revisions.

5. Modules can serve as models for teachers who wish to develop their

own materials using their own individuality.

6. Self instructional units can be exchanged between institutions.

2.7 Mastew Learninq Strateqy

According to Gagne and ~ r i ~ ~ s ~ ~ (1979), mastery learning means

essentially that if the proper conditions can be provided, perhaps 90 to 95

percent of the students can actually master most objectives to the degree now

only reached by "good students". Mastery learning offers a powerful new

approach to student learning which can provide almost all students with the

successful and rewarding learning experiences now allowed to only a few

loom^^ (1 968).


Mastery learning is a set of new individualized, instructional ideas and

practices that help most students to learn excellently, quickly and self-

confidently. The essential features of mastery learning are writing

instructional objectives in behavioural terms, formative and summative

evaluation, criterion referenced testing and individualisation of instruction.

Mastery learning is a strategy, which is based on the assumption that

most students can learn effectively and self-confidently given enough time

and taught well. This philosophy is based on ~ a r r o l l ' s ~ ~ (1963) model of

school learning. loom^^ (1971 b) transformed Carroll's model into a working

model for mastery learning, wherein the context of group-based teaching,

individualization of instruction is attempted.

Mastery Learning as one of the important strategies to enhance

student learning was presented by E3loom4' (1968) and his associate based

on Carroll's4' (1963) model of school learning. Mastery learning provides a

compact and interesting way of increasing the likelihood that more students

attain a satisfactory level of performance in school subjects.

Mastery learning strategy is one approach for improving the quality of

school learning that is currently being examined and evaluated by policy

makers world-wide. As a strategy of teaching, which emphasizes mastery of

each student of the material in the curriculum, mastery learning strategy has

attracted the attention of educationists during the early 1960s.

According to ~ l o o r n ~ ~ (1968) mastery learning offers a powerful new

approach to student learning which can provide almost all students with

6 1 Theoretical Overview

successful and rewarding learning e~perience now allowed only to a few. It

proposes that all or almost all students can master what they are taught.

Further it suggests procedures whereby each student's instruction and

learning can be so managed, withln the context of ordinary group based

classroom instruction, as to promote his fullest development.

Mastery Learning enables 75 to 90 percentage of the students to

achieve to the same high level as the top 25 percent learning under typical

group based instructional method. It also makes student's learning more

efficient than conventional method of teaching. Students learn more material

in less time. Mastery learning procedure markedly influence greater student's

interest and attitude towards the sllbject learned than the usual classroom

method.

There are may versions of Mastery Learning in existence at present.

All begin with the notion that most students can attain a high level of learning

capability, if instruction is given systematically and the students are helped

when and where they have learning difficulties, if they are given sufficient time

to achieve mastery and if there IS some clear criterion of what constitute

mastery.

More central to mastery learning strategy is the development of

feedback and corrective procedures of various stages or parts of learning

process. While a variety of learning processes are possible, it was found that

the development of belief, diagnostic progressive test proved to be most

useful. Such tests were intended to determine what each student has learned

62 - Theoretical Overview

in a particular unit, chapters and part of the course or what he or she still

needed to learn. However the key to the success of Mastery learning strategy

largely lies in the extent to which students can be motivated and helped to

correct their learning difficulties at the appropriate points in the learning

process.

Mastery learning procedures closely follow the principles of

instructional design described below.

1) Specification of goals and tasks

2) Specification of subtasks,

3) Training activities to ensure mastery of each subtask,

4) Sequencing of sub-tasks to ensure transfer and

5) Achievement of pre-requisite learning before more advanced learning.

For the formative test and the summative test, mastery criterion has to

be set. An arbitrary percentage between 80-85 percent may be set or

alternatively, pragmatic standard is set which may be the score typically

attained by best students in a conventionally taught class. The steps involved

in Mastery Learning strategy are diagrammatically presented in Figure 2.7.

63 --- Theoretical Overview

PRESENT NEW pqa-] OBJECTIVES AND ANNOUNCE Dnu

CORRECTIVE NO INSTRUCTION . PASSED ? ENRICHMENT

A TUTORING

E

Y E S / THAN 80%- r

I

Dn - Day now Dnu - Dav on which the unit will be started

Fiqure 2.7: Flow chart indicatinq steps followed in teachinq for rnasterv learning strateny


Following the instruction of all units, students' performance on the

summative test can be evaluated by using either criterion or norm referenced

evaluation. In the former, students performance is compared with the mastery

criterion and students are classified as masters and non masters. The no

masters have the option for improving their performance until they attain the

criterion. In norm referenced evaluation, students are ranked according to

their performance on the test.

2.7.2. The Essential Elements of Mastery Learning

Two elements have been stated as essential to the implementation of

mastery learning. Although the actual appearance or format of these

elements may vary, they serve a very specific purpose in a mastery learning

classroom and most clearly differentiate mastery learning from other

instructional strategies. These two essential elements are the "Feedback,

corrective and enrichment process" and "Congruence among instructional

components".

2.7.3 Fundamental Steps in Mastery Learninci Strategy

(1) Defining Mastery Level

The teacher who wishes to apply for the strategy begins by formulating

what is meant by mastery of the subject. The teacher may decide that scoring

at least 80 to 90 percent in the final examination (summative test) would

indicate mastery of the subject. Students who perform better than this

predetermined standard would be graded 'masters' and those who do not,

would be graded 'non-masters'.


(2) Planning for Mastery

This step involves plans for helping the students to acquire the

objectives of each units. The material and methods of instruction are to be

planned well in advance.

The teacher divides the course to be taught into a sequence of smaller

learning unit. In practice, these courses correspond roughly to chapters in

course texts or a sets of topics. The units of the course must be arranged

hierarchically so that the material in each unit transfers to the next unit. Then

the teacher has to construct a formative evaluation instrument for each unit

and a summative test. The formative evaluation instrument is an integral part

of each study unit which provide special information or feedback to both the

teacher and the student about how the student is changing as a result group

based instruction. Supplementary materials for those who fail to acquire the

objectives and enrichment programme for 'initial masters' of the group are to

be decided. Methods for the interpretation of formative test results are to be

planned and approximate amounts of time must be allocated to the original

instruction, corrective instruction and testing.

(3) Teaching for Mastery

The first task of the teacher is to give orientation to pupils on the

procedures in mastery learning. 'The teacher must spend sometime at the

beginning of the course to orient 1.he students to the procedures to be used

and what they are expected to lear~n.


The second task IS to teach each learning unit with the original

instructional plan. Then the teacher should administer the formative test.

Based on the test result the students who have achieved mastery are to be

given enriched learning materials and those who have not achieved mastery

are directed to the appropriate correctives. The maximum time of learning

should be provided to the children. This cycle of original instruction, formative

testing and certification of mastery or correction is repeated until all the units

have been completed. After the corr~pletion of all the units, a summative test

is to be administered for the establishment of mastery of the entire unit.

(4) Grading for Mastery

Grades are assigned to pupils based on their performance in

summative test. The grades are determined on the basis of the number of

predetermined objectives they have attained. When the students achieve at

or above the pre-determined perfo~mance standard, they will be given 'A'

grade and others are given 6, C, D, E and F grades based on the number of

objectives they have attained.

The mastery grading is designed to engage students in 'competence

motivation' that is the desire to compete against one self and the objectives to

be learned. It disengages students from 'competence motivation', that is the

desire to compete against others.

2.7.4 Bloom's Mastery Learnincl Strategy

Bloom44 (1968) was impressed by Carroll's perspective on teaching

and learning. He outlined a specific instructional strategy and labelled it as


'Learning for Master' (Bloom, 1968) and later shortened it as Mastery

Learning by Bloom (1971).

Bloom outlined his innovative teaching-learning strategy as follows.

The content is divided into small learning units comprising one or two weeks

of instructional time. After the material form the unit is presented, a formative

test is administered to determine each student's progress and to identify

areas in which more instruction is needed. A high level of performance is

required (usually 80-90% correct) on each formative test for the student to

move to enrichment activities or another unit of instruction. Students who

have not mastered the material are engaged in corrective work for a class

period or two following the formative test. Students are provided with

alternative learning resources such as additional lectures, small group

instruction, different textbooks, film-strips Study guides or work sheets. When

students complete their corrective activities, they are administered a second

formative test. Parallel formative assessment is to ensure that they have

mastered the unit before moving on to the next unit. First, it is necessary to

check the effectiveness of the correctives in helping students to overcome

their individual learning difficulties. Second, fohative assessment offers

students a second chance to succeed. Hence it serves as a powerful

motivational device.

2.7.5

Bloom identified two sets of variables -the alterable and non-alterable.

Non -alterable Variables

i) Available time

ii) Intelligence

iii) Summative testing

iv) Characteristics of teacher

v) Parental status

Alterable Variables in Mastery Learning

i) Time on task

ii) Cognitive entry characteristics

iii) Formative testing

iv) Quality of teaching

v) Home environment

Mastery learning is not an educational panacea and will not solve all

complex problems facing the educators of this century. It is an optimistic

theory about teaching and learning. It asserts that a teacher helps most

students to learn excellently.

The researcher intends to attempt both modular and mastery learning

strategies since majority of the teacher educators opined for it. So the

investigator concentrated only on these two strategies.


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