The Writing and Interpretation of Dreams

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Psychoanalytic Psychology Copyright 2000 by the Educational Publishing Foundation2000, Vol. 17, No. 4, 651 -666 0736-9735/00/$5.00 DO I: 10.1037//0736-9735.17.4.651

The Wri t ing and Interpreta t ion o f DreamsH a r o l d P . B l u m , M D

N ew York U niversity C ollege o f Medicine

Freud's (1900/1953a) magnum opus, "The Interpretation ofDreams," largely based on the self-analysis of his own dreams,incorporated a wide variety of source material. Concernedabout exposure and discretion, he nevertheless published hisdreams with many personal associations and revelations. De-spite the self-analytic, research, and educational value of hiswritten dreams, Freud paradoxically devalued written dreamsin clinical psychoanalysis. Written dreams can be preserved,collected, compared, and reexamined. Writing dreams protectsagainst forgetting the dream with its unconscious representa-tions. Written dreams of patients are not simply resistance orenactments, but analytic communications with transference-countertransference significance. A clinical vignette exempli-fies use of the written dream in attempted ego mastery ofunconscious trauma and conflict.

This is the centenary of Freud' s ( 1900/1953 a) "Interpretation of Dreams,"in its day a revolutionary treatise, now one of the great books of the ages.The book was a landmark, inaugurating psychoanalysis, as well as alandmark in the history of ideas. Freud, in what is generally regarded ashis masterwork, altered the way people understand dreams, themselves,and human nature. The book was also a major contribution to the history

Harold P. Blum, MD, Department of Psychiatry, New York University College ofMedicine.Correspondence concerning this article shouldbe addressed to Harold P. Blum,MD, 23 The Hemlocks, RoslynEstates, New York 11576. Electronic mail may be sentto [email protected].

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of ideas--"We are such stuff as dreams are made on" (Shakespeare, "TheTempest," Act 4). Dreams were reported and deemed to be significantfrom the beginning of recorded time. The oral and written communicationof dreams is part of ancient history as well as the history of psychoanal-ysis. In antiquity, dreams were given special significance as messengersfrom the Gods, divine omens with prophetic and clairvoyant powers. Thedream as a vivid visual hallucination was endowed with the conviction ofreality that sometimes persisted into waking life as a mystical influence.

The first known recorded dream dates from about 2500 BCE inMesopotamia, and there are also dreams dating from ancient Egypt. Thesupreme importance attributed to dreams and the idealization of dreaminterpretation was apparent in ancient Greece. Dreams were brought to theDelphic oracle, the renowned motto of which was "know thyself." Dreamswere associated with healing as in the cult of Aesculapius. The Temple ofAesculepius at Epidaurus had votive tablets that described the cure ef-fected by the particular dream. Aristedes, an afflicted devotee of thehealing cult of Aesculapius, left a record of 200 dreams. He contactedAesculapius in a dream and, pertinent to this article, he was ordered tocreate a journal o f dedication: The most important ancient dream book wasthat of Artemidorus (2nd century CE). This book of dream analysis, towhich Freud referred, was also written as instructed in a dream (Kilborne,1987). Dream interpretation had social, medicinal, prophetic, and religiousimportance with implications for self-knowledge.

The interpretation of dreams could be used for diagnosis, prognosis,and proper treatment. Thus, although dreams in antiquity were oftenidealized, they could also be devalued as nonsensical. Aristotle (350 BCE)was among later writers who considered dreams as natural rather thansupernatural phenomena. The tendency toward the idealization and deval-uation of dreams continued as dreams were considered by many scientistsand physicians prior to Freud as being babble, the irrational product of asleepy mind in a sleeping brain. Since the publication of the "Interpreta-tion of Dreams," which first appeared on November 4, 1899, dreams weregiven an exceptional position by Freud and the pioneer analysts. Thedream in the "id phase," the childhood of psychoanalysis, was the pre-eminent path to achieving the analytic goal of making the unconsciousconscious. Freud, however, would soon caution about the analytic abuse ofdreams, writing about dreams as resistance and as an art for art's sake.Many theoretical and technical developments were yet to be formulated. Inthe recent past the exalted position of dreams would be challenged. In theera of ego psychology, some analysts considered dreams of no more value


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t h a n a n y o t h e r a n a l y t i c d a t a , n o w a t i m e - w o r n d e b a t e ( c f . B l u m , 1 9 7 6 ;B r e n n e r , 1 9 7 6 ; G r e e n s o n , 1 9 7 0 ). D i f f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r d a t a, d r e a m s o f t e nh a v e s p e c i a l a c c e s s t o u n c o n s c i o u s f a n t a s y . U n c o n s c i o u s f a n t a s y i n g e n -e r a l l a t e r b e c a m e a c e n t r a l f o c u s o f in t e r p r e ta t i o n ( A r l o w , 1 9 7 9 ).

F r e u d i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e b i b l i c a l J o s e p h w h o i n t e r p r e t e d d r e a m s o fp r o p h e t ic i m p o r t a n c e a n d w h o w a s d u l y e l e v a t e d a n d r e w a r d e d f o r h i sd r e a m a n a l y s is . J o s e p h a c h i e v e d t h e p r e s ti g e a n d p o s i t i o n a c c o r d e d t oa n a l y s t s in t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I e r a o f i d e al i za t i o n . A l t h o u g h F r e u d( 1 9 2 3 / 1 9 6 1 ) l a t e r w a r n e d a g a i n s t t h e o v e r v a l u a t i o n o f d r e a m s a n d t h e i rt e c h n i c a l m i s u s e , h e a l w a y s r e t u r n e d t o d r e a m s a s h a v i n g p e r s o n a l i m p o r -t a n c e t o h im . I t is k n o w n t h a t h e c r e a t e d a s c r a p b o o k o f d r e a m s i n h i sc h i l d h o o d a n d w r o t e d r e a m f r a g m e n t s o n s c ra p s o f p a p e r , a p r o c e s s t h a tc o n t i n u e d b e f o r e a n d a f t e r h i s w r i ti n g " T h e I n t e r p re t a t io n o f D r e a m s . "F r e u d ' s e a r ly n o t e b o o k s o n d r e a m s w e r e e i t h e r l o s t o r d e s t ro y e d , b u t h ek e p t n o t e s o f h is o w n d r e a m s d u r i n g m e d i c a l s c h o o l . W r i t in g t o h i s fu t u r eb r i d e , M a r t h a B e r n a y s , o n J u l y 1 9, 1 8 8 3 , h e m e n t i o n e d a b l is s f u l d r e a m o fa l an d s c a p e , " w h i c h a c c o r d i n g to t h e p ri v a t e n o t e b o o k o n d r e a m s w h i c h Ih a v e c o m p o s e d f r o m m y e x p e r i e n c e in d i c at e s tr a v e l in g " ( J o n e s, 1 9 53 , p g.3 5 1 ) . A b o u t 2 2 5 d r e a m s a r e r e p o r t e d i n " T h e I n t e r p r e ta t i o n o f D r e a m s , " o fw h i c h o n l y a b o u t 5 0 a r e F r e u d ' s . H o w e v e r , i t i s F r e u d ' s d r e a m s t h a t a r em o s t i n t e n s i v e l y a n d e x t e n s i v e l y d i s c u s s e d a n d a n a l y z e d . F r e u d l a te r m a d et h i s o b s e r v a t i o n :

I soon saw the necessity of carrying out a self-analysis and this I did with thehelp of a series of m y own dreams which led me back through all the events ofmy childhood and I am still of the opinion today that this kind of analysis maysuffice for someone who is a good dreamer and not too abnormal. (Freud,1914/1957, p. 20)F r e u d h a d r e c l a i m e d d r e a m s f r o m p o p u l a r b el ie f s, m a g i c , a n d m y s -

t i ci s m . H e m a d e t h e i n t e rp r e t a ti o n o f d r e a m s a p o i n t o f d i f fe r e n t i a t i o nb e t w e e n t h o s e w h o h a d b e c o m e o r c o u l d b e c o m e p s y c h o a n a l y s t s , a n dt h o s e f o r w h o m d r e a m s r e m a i n e d i n c o m p r e h e n s i b le . I n t h e p r e fa c e o f th es e c o n d e d i t i o n o f t h e d r e a m b o o k ( w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 0 8 ) , F r e u d s t at e d ," i t h a s a l w a y s b e e n t h e i n t e rp r e t a t io n o f d r e a m s t h a t h a s g i v e n m e b a c k m yc e r t a i n t y " ( F r e u d , 1 9 0 0 / 1 9 5 3 a , p . X X I ) . H e l a t e r a s s e r t e d ( F r e u d , 1 9 1 3 /1 9 5 8 a , p . 1 7 0 ) t h a t " d r e a m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n s t o n e o fp s y c h o a n a l y t i c w o r k . " H e r e f e r r e d t o t he d r e a m a s a " s h e e t - a n c h o r " a n ds ta te d , " W h e n e v e r I b e g a n t o h a v e d o u b t s o f th e c o r r e c tn e s s o f m yw a v e r i n g c o n c l u s i o n s , s u c c e s s f u l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a s e n s el e s s a n d m u d -d l e d d r e a m i n t o a l o g i c a l a n d i n t e l l i g i b l e a n d m e n t a l p r o c e s s . . , w o u l dr e n e w m y c o n f i d e n c e o f b e i n g o n t h e ri g h t tr a c k " ( F r e u d , 1 9 3 3 / 1 9 6 4 , p . 7 ).


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Freud may have been in transient altered states of consciousness during hiswork on the dream book. He wrote to Fliess, "I shall force myself to writethe dream in order to come out of it" (Masson, 1985, p. 278). Immersedin writing "The Interpretation of Dreams," Freud wrote to Fliess (Masson,1985, p. 305), "I can compose the details only in the process of writing."A "writing cure" has been suggested (Mahony, 1994), emphasizing theimportance writing had for Freud. Freud attributed writing his dreams tothe dictation of the unconscious, although his own inner self-reflection, hisvast reading, and his intellectual inquiry are evident throughout the book."The Interpretation of Dreams" was contemplated for years, was writtenover more than a year's time, and was subjected to successive laterrevisions. New material and footnotes were introduced in every newedition; the largest of the additions pertained to symbolism. Unfortunately,the original manuscript of "The Interpretation of Dreams" was discarded,lost to posterity like so many of Freud's manuscripts. Ever passionateabout books and publications, Freud did not hesitate to correct page proofsor to demand royalties from the publishers of the subsequent editions ofthe dream book.

Freud's dreams recalled and his writings of dreams were already atranslation of his own memories, self-observation, and inner speech. Hehad the facility for recalling the dream imagery and for organizing thevisual images into meaningful pattems. Freud had been interested inlanguage development and disorder long before--for example, havingpublished "On Aphasia" in 1891 (Freud, 1891/1953b). He had noted thatdreams in some respects are closer to hieroglyphics and a rebus than toactual written verbal language. One may conclude that Freud's symbolicprocesses were especially well endowed in pictorial, iconic, and linguisticintermodal capacities. The interpretation of dreams required the capacityto think and remember pictorially, to understand unconscious symbols andtheir perceptual referents, and to be able to freely translate from thepictorial to linguistic symbols and back again from linguistic symbolicprocesses to the visual imagery of the dream. Freud's eidetic, remarkablememory potentiated the synthesis of retrieved, isolated memories and theirintegration into reconstructions of his childhood.

The writing block Freud experienced as he proceeded with his dreamwork became an incentive to self-analysis, the inhibition gradually sub-siding during further self-analysis. The writing block was overdeterminedby a number o f unconscious childhood conflicts connected with Freud'sneed to communicate. This need as well as the capacity to communicateare evident in Freud's voluminous scientific papers and documents and his


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almost unsurpassed quantity of letters. He abjured dictating to impersonalsecretaries and later to the use of the typewriter and preferred writing byhand. His correspondence was answered promptly and meticulously withthe use of a ledger. One of his many complaints about America after his1909 visit to Clark University was that his handwriting had deteriorated.Writing was associated with the flow of body fluids, with procreation,fertility and creativity, and with the conflicts of all developmental phases.His writings were influenced by his real and transference relationship toFliess, as well as by anxieties connected with writing his dreams and hisassociations for publication.

As a transference figure, Fliess represented Freud's childhood objectrepresentations, especially an initially idealized parent. In reality, Fliesswas granted an intimacy and authority to which Freud adapted in degree,the relatively "secret sharer" of his ideas and propositions. Perhaps anothertransference figure would have been found if the Fliess relationship hadnever evolved. Yet Freud was his own analyst and patient and progressedwith and without Fliess, helped and hindered by the external collaboration(Blum, 1990). As Freud's brainchild, psychoanalysis was a narcissisticobject, and this would become a problem for those of his followers whowere identified with his person rather than his analyzing functions and hisquest for analytic mastery. The idealization of the dream in analysis wasalso an idealization of Freud.

Editorially influenced by Fliess, "The Interpretation of Dreams" wasto be ready for publication on the birthday of Fliess. It was to be a birthdaypresent celebrating the birth of psychoanalysis. Similarly, Freud hadreferred to his pregnant wife 's own birthday celebration in his write-up ofthe initial specimen dream, now called "The Irma Dream"; Freud identi-fied with the pregnant mother and with creative individuals. Fliess had apaucity of publications, and the dream book would far surpass Freud'sprevious prolific and influential writings. (Mahony, 1994) All of Freud'steachers are referred to in his dreams, but it is Freud who is there as theteacher, narrator, and explorer of the forbidden and alluring unconsciousmind.

In the dream book Freud's life and work coalesce. Why did Freuduse his own dreams and exhibit to the world so much of his own privatelife? One can have only partial answers. It is known from his publicationsand his private correspondence that the issues of private versus publicwere highly conflicted. Freud (1900/1953a, p. 104) remarked about thedifficulties he had to overcome within himself: "natural hesitation about


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r e v e a l i n g s o m a n y i n t i m a t e f a c t s . " R e a d e r s w o u l d b e i n i t i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d ,F r e u d t h o u g h t,

in the indiscretions which I am bound to make . . . I am obliged to addhow ever . . . that in scarcely any instance have ! brought forward the completeinterpretation of one o f m y ow n dreams, as it is known to m e. I have probablybeen wise in not putting too much faith in my reader's discretion. (Freud,1900/1953a, p. 105)S o m u c h i s c o n c e a l e d , a n d s o m u c h i s r e v e a le d , a n d s o m u c h c o n t i n u e s tob e u n e a r t h e d d e s p i t e F r e u d ' s r e l u c t a n c e a n d d e c i s i o n a g a i n s t f u l l d i s c l o -s u re . S u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n s o f a n a ly s t s a n d h i s to r i a n s h a v e m a d e F r e u da n i c o n , a n e x c e p t i o n a l o b j e c t o f i n v e st i g a ti o n . F r e u d h a d a l r e a d y d e -s t r o y e d m a n y o f hi s d o c u m e n t s i n 1 8 85 a n d 1 9 07 a n d a g a in w h e nd e p a r t i n g f r o m V i e n n a i n 1 9 3 8 . H e i n d i c a te d t h a t h e i n t e n d e d t o m a k et h i n g s d i f f i c u l t i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e f o r b i o g r a p h e r s . I n c o n t r a s t t o h is s c i e n -t if ic p a p e r s , F r e u d ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w a s n e v e r i n t e n d e d t o b e p u b l ic . I nt h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , F r e u d s t i l l c o n s c i o u s l y a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y s e l e c t e da n d e d i t e d h i s m a t e ri a l.

I n t h e d r e a m b o o k F r e u d e n g a g e s h i s r e a d e r , i n v i t i n g a n d e x c i t i n gt h e r e a d e r ' s c u r i o s i ty . H i s o w n d r e a m s a n d t h o s e o f th e o t h e r s in t h e b o o ka r e u s e d a s t e a c h i n g t o o l s f o r t h e e d i f i c a ti o n o f th e p u b l i c a n d t h ee d u c a t i o n o f f u tu r e p s y c h o a n a ly s t s . W a s F r e u d ' s p e r s o n a l e x p o s u r e a f o r mo f s e l f -s a c r i fi c e ? H e h a d f r e q u e n t d r e a m s o f a p p e a r i n g n a k e d i n p u b l i c.E x h i b i t i o n i s m w a s s u b l i m a t e d a n d t r a n s f o r m e d i n h i s m a t u r e d e s i r e t od i s s e m i n a t e h i s d i s c o v e r i e s a n d t o a c h i e v e s c i e n t i f i c s u c c e s s , f a m e , a n df o r t u n e . H e w a s w i l l i n g t o c o u r a g e o u s l y c o n f r o n t s c o r n a n d d e r i s io n i n th es e r v i c e o f h i s s c i e n t i f ic a n d s c h o l a r l y o b j e c t i v e s . A l t h o u g h i n f a n t i l e n a r -c i s si s ti c m o t i v e s c a n b e d i s c e r n e d i n F r e u d ' s w i s h f o r h is b o o k t o b er e c o g n i z e d a s a s t u n n i n g a c h i e v e m e n t a n d a r e v o l u t i o n a r y n e w h u m a n i s t i cp s y c h o l o g y , s im i l a r m o t i v e s a r e p r e s e n t i n v i rt u a l l y e v e r y r e v o l u t i o n a r yt h i n k e r . C o n f r o n t i n g t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d t h e in f a n t il e , " T h e I n t e r p r e t a t io no f D r e a m s " d o e s i n f a ct re m a i n a m a s t e r p i e c e o f e d u ca t io n , e x p o s i t io n ,c l a r i f i c a t i o n , a n d i n s i g h t . I n 1 9 3 1 , i n t h e p r e f a c e t o t h e t h i r d r e v i s e dE n g l i s h e d i t i o n , F r e u d s t a te d o f t h e d r e a m b o o k , " I t c o n t a i n s e v e n a c c o r d -i n g t o m y p r e s e n t d a y ju d g m e n t , t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e o f al l t h e d i s c o v e r i e st h a t it h a s b e e n m y g o o d f o r t u n e t o m a k e . I n s i g h t s u c h a s t h is f a ll s to o n e ' sl o t b u t o n c e i n a l if e t i m e " ( F r e u d , 1 9 0 0 / 1 9 5 3 a , p . X X X I I ) .

N o t i n g t h a t th e s a m e p i e c e o f d r e a m c o n t e n t m a y c o n c e a l d i ff e r en tm e a n i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e i n d i f f e re n t c o n t e x t s , F r e u d w a s l e d t o h i so w n d r e a m s b e c a u s e t h e y


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off er a copious and con venient material, derived from an ap proximately normalperson . . . No doubt I shall be met by doubts of the trustworthiness ofself-analyses of this kind; and I shall be told that they leave the door open toarbitrary conclusions. (Freud, 1900/1953a, p. 104)D r e a m s w e r e f o u n d i n n o r m a l p e r s o n s; e v e r y o n e d r e am t , a l t h o u g h i t w a sn o t t h e n k n o w n t h at e v e r y o n e d r e am s s e v e ra l ti m e s d u r i n g e v e r y n ig h t.F r e u d r e l ie d m o r e o n h i s o w n d r e a m s t h a n a n y o t h e r s o u r c e o f m a t er ia l . H ew a s p r o b a b l y m o r e c o n f i d e n t i n h i s s e l f - k n o w l e d g e a c q u i r e d b y h i s s e lf -a n a l y s i s t h a n h e w a s i n t h e m o r e s u p e r f i c i a l a n d s h o r t e r a n a l y s e s o fp a t i e n ts p r i o r t o h i s w r i ti n g t h e d r e a m b o o k . H i s o w n w r i t t e n d r e a m s c o u l db e p r e s er v e d , c o l la t ed , c o m p a r e d , a n d l a te r r e e x a m i n e d b y h i m s e l f a n do t h e r s .

F r e u d ' s i n t er p r et a ti o n o f h is o w n d r e a m s i s s o m e t i m e s c o n c e n t r a te di n o n e s e c t i o n o f t h e d r e a m b o o k , a s i n t h e s p e c i m e n d r e a m ( I r m a d r e a m ) .R e f e r e n c e s t o h is d r e a m s a r e s ca t te r e d th r o u g h o u t t h e d r e a m b o o k a n d a reu s e d t o i l lu s t r at e d i f f e r e n t d r e a m m e c h a n i s m s a n d m e a n i n g s . A l t h o u g h t h ed i f fu s i o n o f c o m m e n t s a b o u t h is d r e a m s m a y h a v e s e r v e d g r e a t er a n o -n y m i t y , it al s o p l a c e d a c o n f id e n t F r e u d t h r o u g h o u t h is m a g n u m o p u s . A tt i m e s F r e u d l a t e r r e v e a l e d t h a t a n a n o n y m o u s d r e a m w a s h i s o w n , a s i n t h ed r e a m t h a t t h e P o p e w a s d e a d ( F r e u d , 1 9 0 0 / 1 9 5 3 a , p . 2 3 2 ; G r u b r i c h -S i m i t i s , 1 9 9 6 ) .

F r e u d ' s i n i t i a l w o r k o n d r e a m s m a y a l s o h a v e b e e n f a c i l i t a t e db e c a u s e d r e a m s a re r e la t i v el y e g o a l ie n c o m p a r e d w i th w a k i n g t h o u g h t sa n d f a n t a s i e s . T h e y a r e p e r h a p s f i r s t e a s i e r t o c o n t e n d w i t h a s f o r e i g np h e n o m e n a , y e t h a r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d a s s tr a n g e , p e r p l e x i n g p r o d u c t i o n s .M a n y p e r s o n s f e e l m o r e r e s p o n s ib l e f o r t h ei r d a y d r e a m s t h a n t h e ir d r e am s ,a n d i n d e e d F r e u d r e c o r d e d 1 0 t i m e s a s m a n y o f h is d r e a m s a s h i sd a y d r e a m s . D e a l in g w i t h m o r e u n c o n s c i o u s , p r i m a r y p r o c e s s d e r iv a t iv e s ,F r e u d ' s s e l f -d i s s e c t io n o f h is d r e a m s r e s u l t e d in t r o u b l i n g i n s i g h ts t h a tw e r e l o s t a n d f o u n d a g a in , i s o l a t e d a n d r e i n t e g r a t e d (R a n g e l l , 1 9 8 7 ) .

F r e u d a s k e d n o t o n l y t h e i n d u l g e n c e b u t a l s o t h e i n t e n s e i n t e r e s t o ft h e re a d e r i n h is d r e a m s a n d i n t h e ir d re a m e r . T h i s m a d e F r e u d t h e o b j e c to f a n a l y t i c i n q u i r y t h a t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d i s c l a i m e d . H e s t a te d

And now I must ask the reader to make m y interest his ow n for quite awhile, andto plunge along w ith me, into the m inutest details of my life; for a transferenceof this kind is peremptorily dem anded by our interest in the hidden m eaning ofdreams. (Freud, 1900/1953a, pp. 105-106)

T h i s i n v i t a t i o n w a s b o u n d t o b e f r u s t r a t i n g b e c a u s e s o m e d e t a i l s w e r ew i t h h e l d , t h a t is , c e n s o r e d . E v e n w h i l e h e l i f t e d t h e c e n s o r s h i p f r o m t h e


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meanings of dreams, Freud exercised selective censorship and permittedFliess to be an external censor and editor. Identifying the readers withhimself and his mentors, Freud attempted to overcome doubts and to openthe readers' minds and lift the tendency to censor his own and their ownfantasy life and unconscious conflicts.

Freud took pride in his own composition, accomplishment, andradical creativity. Like so many artists, he has provided a great self-portrait. As Freud attained an analytic identity, a transformation was alsooccurring in the history of ideas and in the way people think about theirthoughts and feelings. Dreams were used to illustrate the relationship ofthe dynamic unconscious to consciousness and the unseen relationshipsbetween dreams, neuroses, and the structure of the human mind. Themanifest content of both dreams and symptoms hid and disguised re-pressed wishes. Repressed wishful fantasy was further obscured by theprimary process mechanisms of condensation, displacement, and symbol-ization. The surface of dreams is a variably disguised facade, a compro-mise formation with deeper significance representing wishes and motivesderived not from mature adult life but from childhood and infantile life.

Although Freud allowed for a different mechanism for traumaticdreams and nightmares, he generally attempted to subsume the variety offrightening, punitive, and persecutory dreams under the rubric of disguisedand prohibited wish fulfillments. He identified with Moses, a prophetpresenting a new message and a new method for the comprehension ofhumans' most primitive impulses, conscious and unconscious moral prin-ciples, and cultural values. For Freud, derivates of unconscious fantasyemerged in transference, and pictorially in dreams. One picture could beworth a thousand words. " 'The Interpretation of Dreams' is the royal roadto a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind." (Freud, 1900/1953a, p. 608) The road was not only a path to the exploration of primaryrelationships and primal scenes, but an unconscious return to or mergerwith the maternal body, the ineffable navel of the dream. The navel wasunfathomable and may also have meant the undifferentiated psyche andthe nascent mind. He wrote to Fliess on August 6, 1899 (Masson, 1985, p.365), "The whole thing is planned on the model of an imaginary walk."The royal road was the great analytic journey through the different phasesof development and of life, recapitulated in dreams. The dream representspast and present, childhood and current conflict. The dream itself is ametaphor for the forward journey through adulthood and the analytic aswell as regressive journey of the dream back into childhood. The dream


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book has man i fo ld r e fe rences to pa ren t and ch i ld , adu l t and in fan t , b i r thand dea th .F r eu d ' s cap ac i ty to in te rp re t d ream s and h i s spec ia l g i f t o f co r r e la t -i n g s o m a n y d i f fe r e n t fo r m s o f sy m b o l i c p r o c e s s e s w e r e p r o b a b l y u n iq u e .E v e n t o d a y l i t t l e i s k n o w n a b o u t s u c h e x c e p t i o n a l p e r s o n s w i t h s p e c i a lendowments , spec ia l mo t iva t ion , and fo r tu i tous deve lopmen t tha t f ac i l i -t a t e s o r ig ina l i ty and c rea t iv i ty . F reud was a v i s ionary , and "The In te rp re -t a t ion o f Dre am s" h i s v i sion . As a d reamer , h e has had a p ro fo undin f luence , and psychoana ly t i c though t has pe rmea ted v i r tua l ly a l l a spec t so f c u l t u r e w h i l e b e c o m i n g t h e b a s i s o f a l l r a t i o n a l p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s . T h edreamers and v i s ionar ies who a re t ru ly c rea t ive a re o rd ina ry mor ta l s inl i f e , a l though immor ta l s in the i r work . They have to dea l w i th the i r ownconf l i c t s abo u t be ing so o rig ina l , w i th in fan t il e om nipo tence suppo r ted byr e a li ty . T h e y a r e s o d i f f e r e n t a n d y e t i n s o m a n y w a y s o r d i n a ry p e o p l e w i t hordinary f ra i l t ies .

T h e c o m m a n d o r ur g e to w r i t e t h e d r e a m a p p e ar s t o b e c o n n e c t e d t ot h e s e a r c h fo r p o w e r , m a s t e r y , a n d s i g n if ic a n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h o n e s e l fo r o t h e r s . T h e w r i t t e n d r e a m w a s t o b e r e a d a n d u n d e r s t o o d , i n c r e a s i n gs e l f - k n o w l e d g e , w i t h p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n s i g h t e v e n t u a l l y r e p l a c i n g t h e a n -c ien t s ' f o res igh t . The r eg res s ive na rc is s i s ti c om nipo te nce o f the o rd ina ryd r e a m e r c o u l d b e p r o j e c t e d o n t o t h e d r e a m o r th e c h i l d h o o d o b j e c t s in t h ed ream, t r ans fe r r ed to the gods o r f igu res in the ex te rna l wor ld . Throughth i s p roces s the d ream in anc ien t t imes acqu i r ed a g rand iose and d iv ines ignif icance.

A cen tu ry a f t e r F reud , w i th l e s s na rc i s s i s t i c inves tmen t in tha t f i r s tj o u r n e y i n t o t h e d r e a m w o r l d , i t i s k n o w n t h e r e i s n o r o y a l r o a d w i t h o u tr e s is t a n ce . T h e d r e a m b o o k i t s e lf r e m a i n s f a r m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d a n dp r o f o u n d t h a n i t m a y s u p e r f i c i a l l y a p p e a r , e v e n t o t h e i n f o r m e d r e a d e r .C u r r e n t n e u r o p h y s i o l o g y i s c o n s i s te n t w i t h m u c h o f F r e u d ' s d r e a m t h e o r y ,a n d i t a p p e a r s t h a t i n f a n t i l e e m o t i o n a l m e m o r i e s m a y b e p e r m a n e n t l yreg i s t e r ed in the b ra in (Le Doux , 1996) . Dreams , desp i t e the i r morer e c e n t l y e l a b o r a t e d p s y c h o l o g y a n d n e u r o b i o l o g y , s t il l r e ta i n s o m e o f th e i rm y s t e r y . " T h e I n te r p re t a ti o n o f D r e a m s " w i l l b e p e r i o d ic a l l y r e in t e r p re t e dand r ev i s ed in i t s t ime les s jou rney .

D e s p i t e i t s r e s e a r c h i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p s y c h o a n a l -y s i s , t h e w r i t t e n d r e a m w a s s o o n d e s i g n a t e d a s a c t i n g o u t a n d a s ar es i s t ance in the ana ly t i c s i tua t ion . F re ud pa rado x ica l ly a dop ted a nega t ivea t ti tu d e t o w a r d t h e w r i tt e n d r e a m i n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r e a tm e n t . D e s p i t e h iso w n u s e o f t h e w r i tt e n d r e a m , a n d a p p a r e n t l y r e c o m m e n d i n g i t t o A n n aFreud , he s t a t ed


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Even if the substance of a dream is in this way laboriously rescued fromoblivion, it is easy enough to convince on ese lf that nothing has thereby beenachieved fo r the patient. The associations will not com e to the test, and the resultis the same as i f the dream had not been preserved. (Freud, 1911 /1958b, p. 96)

A b r a h a m ( 1 9 1 3 ) r e g a r d e d t h e p a t i e n ts w r i t in g d o w n t h e i r d r e a m s a sd e p a r ti n g f r o m t h e f u n d a m e n t a l r u l e o f p s y c h o a n a l y si s . H e e m p h a s i z e dt h e r e t u r n o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e in a t t e m p t s t o s a l v a g e t h e d r e a m b e c a u s et h e w r i t i n g w a s e i t h e r il le g i b le , d i s c a rd e d , o r n o n p r o d u c t i v e o f u s a b l ea s s o c i a t i o n s .

P s y c h o a n a l y t i c w r i t i n g a b o u t w r i t t e n d r e a m s , o t h e r t h a n F r e u d ' so w n , h a s b e e n s p a rs e . W h i t m a n ( 1 9 6 3 ) d i ss e n t e d f r o m t h e d is m i s s i v ea t ti t u d e s o f F r e u d a n d A b r a h a m a n d s u g g e s t e d t h a t f o r s o m e p a t i e n ts t h ew r i t t e n r e c o r d i n g o f d r e a m s i s d e fi n i t e ly u s e f u l in p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t re a t-m e n t . H e t h e o r i z e d t h a t d r e a m f o r g e t t i n g i s d u e n o t s o m u c h t o re s i s t a n c ea s to a f u n c t i o n a l d e m a n d t h a t t h e e g o c a n n o t m e e t . O n a w a k e n i n g , t h ec o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h r e a l it y r e s u lt s i n s h i f ts t o s e c o n d a r y p r o c e s s t h i n k i n g , t oe x t e r n a l p e r c e p t i o n , a n d t o m o t o r a c t i v i t y t h a t i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h ed r e a m s t a t e . A c c o r d i n g t o W h i t m a n , t h e p a t i e n t m a y f i n d i t h e l p f u l t or e c o r d a f r a c t i o n o r a ll o f t h e d r e a m , t h e r e b y o v e r c o m i n g t h e t e n d e n c y t of o r g e t t h e d r e a m .

I n m y e x p e r i e n c e , s o m e p a t i e n t s d o n o t r e m e m b e r d r e a m s o r a r el it tl e a t tu n e d t o d r e a m s o r b o th . W r i t in g t h e m m a y b e a n i n it ia l e f f o r t t om a k e t h e m a v a il a b le f o r a n a ly t ic w o r k . B o t h d r e a m r e p o r ti n g a n d t h ew r i t i n g d o w n o f d r e a m s w i l l b e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e a n a l y s t d i r e c t l y c o n -v e y i n g a n i n t e r e st i n d r e a m s o r u r g i n g t h e p a t i e n t t o t r y to r e c a l l o r t o w r i t ed o w n t h e d r e a m . A p a t i e n t m a y s p o n t a n e o u s l y w r i t e a d r e a m o r d r e a m sj u s t a s a p a ti e n t m a y s p o n t a n e o u s l y b r i n g d i a r ie s o r o t h e r p e r s o n a l d o c u -m e n t s i n t o t h e a n a l y t i c w o r k . T h e a n a l y s t n e e d m a k e n o s p e c i f ic i n t e rd i c -t i o n a g a i n s t w r i t in g , a n d a n y w r i tt e n d r e a m c a n b e h a n d l e d a n a l y t i c a l l y i nt h e c o n t e x t o f it s s p o n t a n e o u s p r o d u c t i o n . A s n o t e d b y L i p s c h u t z ( 1 9 5 4 ) ,t h e w r i t t e n d r e a m w i l l p r o v e t o h a v e a p o w e r f u l t r a n s f e r e n c e si g n i fi c a n ce .A l t h o u g h a n y d r e a m m a y b e d e s i g n e d t o p l e a s e o r p l a c a t e , c o n f u s e o rd e c e i v e t h e a n a ly s t , p u t ti n g t h e d r e a m i n w r i ti n g m a y b e a n a t t e m p t t oc o n f e r u p o n i t s p e c ia l a u t h o r i t y a n d e n d u r a n c e . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e d r e a m h a sb e e n w r i t te n a n d t h e s u r r o u n d in g c i rc u m s t a n c e s m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d a n a -l y t i c a l l y i n a d d i t i o n t o th e a n a l y s i s o f f o r m , c o n t e n t , a n d a s s o c i a t i o n s . I na d d i t i o n t o t h e f u n c t i o n o f p r e v e n t i n g f o r g e t ti n g , m u l t i p l e u n c o n s c i o u sm e a n i n g s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e w r i t in g o f t h e d r e am . I t s h o u l d b ee m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e d r e a m m a y s i g n i f y a n y o b j e c t , p a r t o b j e c t, n a rc i s s is t ico b j e ct , o r b o d y p r o c e s s o r p r o d u c t. T h u s t h e w r i t te n d r e a m m a y h a v e i n


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a d d i t i o n t o i ts f u n c t i o n o f p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n st l o s s o f t h e d r e a m t h e u n c o n -s c i o u s p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t lo s s o f w h a t e v e r m e m o r i e s a n d o b j e c t s o r a s p ec t so f t h e s e l f t h e d r e a m r e p r e s e n ts .

A s w i t h a l l d r e a m s , t h e f o r m , s t y l e , c o n t e n t , c o m p l e x i t y , l e n g t h ,q u a n t i t y , a n d s o f o r t h o f w r i t t e n d r e a m s a r e s ig n i fi c an t . T h e m a n i f e s tc o n t e n t m a y b e m o r e o r l e s s a t r a n s l u c e n t e n v e l o p e , a s u r f a c e t h a t m a yr e v e a l , c o n c e a l , o r b o t h . S o m e d r e a m s a r e p a s s i v e l y g i v e n t o t h e a n a l y s tw i t h o u t i n t e r e s t o r e f f o r t a t f u r t h e r i n q u i r y b y t h e p a t i e n t . T h e p a t i e n t ' sa s s o c i a ti o n s , a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e p a t i e n t ' s l i f e, t h e p h a s e o f t re a t m e n t , t h es t at e o f t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e , a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r a b il i ty o f t h e p a t i e n t a n d t h ea n a l y s t to e n g a g e t h e d r e a m i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e a n a l y s i s a r e a ll i m p o r t a n tc o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h e w r i t t e n d r e a m i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a n i m p e d i m e n t b u tc a n b e a d d r e s s e d a s a n a n a l y t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n a l l i t s a s p e c t s ( B l u m ,1 9 6 8 ) .

T h e c o n f l i c t in g o p i n i o n s o f F r e u d h i m s e l f a n d t h o s e o f l a t e r a n a l y s tsc o n c e r n i n g t h e w r i t t e n d r e a m i n d i c a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c l i n i c a l e x p l o r a -t io n . U s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g c l i n i c al v i g n e t t e , I c o n s i d e r m a n y o f t h e c o n t r o -v e r s i a l i s su e s r e g a r d i n g t h e w r i t t en d r e a m a n d i t s m e a n i n g s i n th e a n a l y t i cp r o c e s s . A f e m a l e p a t ie n t i n h e r s e c o n d a n a l y s i s r a r e ly b r o u g h t d r e a m s t oh e r a n a l y t i c s e s si o n s . A l t h o u g h s h e h a d b r i e f ly k e p t a c h i l d h o o d d i a r y , s h eh a d n e v e r b e f o r e in h e r a n a l y s is c o m e w i t h a n y w r i tt e n m a t e r i a l, n o r h a dt h e a n a l y s t e v e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t s h e r e c o r d h e r d r e a m s . A f t e r 3 y e a r s s h ew a l k e d i n a n d h a n d e d t h e a n a l y s t a p i e c e o f p a p e r a n n o u n c i n g t h a t s h e h a dh a d a s l e e p d i s t u r b a n c e . S h e w o k e r e c a l l i n g t h e d r e a m , a n d i m m e d i a t e l yd e c i d e d t o w r i t e i t d o w n b e f o r e i t w o u l d b e f o r g o t t e n . T h e w r i t t e n d r e a mw a s a s f o l l o w s :

W as in house wh ich was attached to other houses alm ost like apartments. Heardseries of bla sts --o ne of which tore down o ne of my walls. I ran into garage asplace of safety. Ne xt running in street looking for som ebo dy --later thinkingit may have been children. I asked policeman what it was all about. Policemansaid we were being bombed. Later I didn't recall asking the policeman; I seemto feel I m ay have im agined loud noises.S h e o r i g i n a l l y t o l d t h e d r e a m i n t h e m o r n i n g t o h e r c h i l d r e n w h o w e r eu n d e r a c t iv e c o n s i d e r a ti o n f o r p s y c h o t h e r a p y . T h e c h i ld r e n w e r e u n d e r -a c h i e v i n g i n s c h o o l a n d m a n i f e s t i n g b e h a v i o r a l d i s t u r b a n c e s .

T h e p a t i e n t h a d a n o b s e s s i o n a l c h a r a c t e r , h e r s p a s t i c c o l i t i s w a sa c t i v e , a n d i n h e r a s s o c i a t io n s s h e p r o c e e d e d t o b l a s t f r ie n d s f o r b e i n gs e lf is h a n d i n d i f f e r e n t t o h e r d i f f ic u l ti e s. S h e h a d a r g u e d w i t h h e r h u s b a n da b o u t m o n e y a t b r e a k f a s t. T h e a n a l y s t i n t e rp r e t e d h e r h i d d e n a g g r e s s i o n i nt h e a n a l y t i c s it u a ti o n a n d h e r a v o i d a n c e o f a r g u m e n t w i t h t h e a n a ly s t . T h e


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p a t i e n t i m m e d i a t e l y r e c a l le d t h a t s h e h a d i n t e n d e d t o b r i n g i n th e c h e c k f o ra n a l y ti c p a y m e n t b u t h a d f o r g o t te n . S h e w a s a l w a y s a n g r y t h a t s h e h a d t op a y . T h e p o l i c e re p r e s e n t e d a r r e st a n d p u n i s h m e n t f o r a tt e m p t e d r o b b e r yas we l l a s p ro tec t ion f rom her aggres s ion and f ea r o f re t a li a tion . T hea n a l y s t p o i n t e d o u t t h a t s h e h a d w r i tt e n t h e d r e a m i n s te a d o f t h e c h e c k , s h eh a d b r o u g h t i n t h e w r i t te n d r e a m i n s t e a d o f b r in g i n g i n th e f o r g o t t e nc h e c k . A l t h o u g h t h e d r e a m w a s a n a p p a r e n t g i f t , i t w a s c o v e r t w i t h h o l d -ing . Assoc ia t ions fu r the r l ed to the ana lys t hand ing he r a wr i t t en p iece o fpaper , the b i l l, wh ich con t r ibu ted to th i s exchang e o f no tes . She had bee nhand ed a wr i t ten b i l l, and in tu rn handed the ana lys t the wr i t ten d ream . H erwr i t t en d rea m wa s the re fo re a l so a mock in g , hos t i l e iden t i f ica t ion w i th theana lys t r ender ing the b i l l . I n wr i t ing the d ream she guarded aga ins tfo rge t t ing the d ream and tu rned he r hos t i l i ty in to the pas s ive aggres s ivef o r g e tt in g o f t h e c h e c k .

The pa t i en t was ac tua l ly qu i t e ambiva len t to he r ch i ld ren , p ro jec t ingh e r o w n i n f a n ti le d e m a n d s o n t o th e m . A f t e r p a y m e n t o f t h e b i l l s h e w a sf r eque n t ly i r ri t ab le w i th the ch i ld ren , a rgu ing ov er ex t r a cook ies , unab le tob e l o v i n g a n d g i v in g . A f t e rw a r d , g u i l ty o v e r h e r w i t h o ld i n g a n d p r o v o k -i n g, s h e w o u l d o v e r i n d u l g e t h e ch i ld r e n. S h e d e v e l o p e d c ra m p i n g d i a rr h e aa n d f e l t e m p t y a n d d e p r e s s e d w i t h t h o u g h t s o f " I w o u l d r a t h e r d i e t h a np a y . " N o t a c k n o w l e d g i n g h e r o w n g r e e d , e n v y , a n d s p i t e f u l w i t h h o l d i n g ,s h e f e l t t h a t s h e w a s b e i n g c a s t ra t e d a n d r o b b e d o f f o o d a n d b o d y c o n t e n ts .O n e d i f f e r e n c e i n h e r s e c o n d a n a l y s i s w a s t h a t s h e w a s p r e s e n t e d w i t h awr i t t en b i l l , whereas he r f i r s t ana lys t had inv i t ed he r to t a l ly he r owns e s s io n s a n d t o p a y a c c o r d i n g l y w i t h o u t r e c e i v i n g a b il l. T h e y c o l l u d e d i navo id ing " the f igh t over the f ee . " Wi th f r equen t a s soc ia t ions and ana ly t i co b s e r v a t io n s , p a t t er n s o f w i t h h o l d in g a n d r e l u c t an t l y g i v i n g e m e r g e d ; s h et h e n r e v e a l e d t h a t h e r h u s b a n d h a d c h e a t e d h i s a n a l y s t b y c o n t i n u i n g t op a y a m a r k e d l y r e d u c e d f e e l o n g a f t e r h i s i n c o m e h a d g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d .S h e w a s t h e r e f o r e a l s o i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h h e r h u s b a n d . H e r h u s b a n d h a durged h e r no t t e l l he r ana lys t the ir t rue inc om e and a t t em pted to f inanc ia l lyobs t ruc t the ana lys i s . Hav ing chea ted h i s ana lys t , he r husband ' s p rematu ree jacu la t ion con t inued a f t e r h i s ana lys i s pos s ib ly as a bas ic fo rm o f chea t -i n g a n d w i t h h o l d i n g f r o m t h e p a r t n e r . W h i l e c o n s c i o u s l y a n n o y e d a t h e rh u s b a n d ' s s y m p t o m a t i c d is h o n e s t y , s h e w a s u n c o n s c i o u s l y p l e a s e d b y h erf e e l i n g s o f s u p e r i o r i t y . H e r e p r e s e n t e d t h e m e n i n t h e f a m i l y w h o m s h ew i s h e d t o h u m i l i a te a n d h a v e a r r e st e d a n d p u n i s h e d f o r w h a t s h e t h o u g h tw a s t h e i r m i s tr e a t m e n t o f h er .

T h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f th e d r e a m t o h e r c h i ld r e n w a s a d e s ir e t op r o v i d e p o l i c e p r o t e c t i o n f r o m h e r a g g r e s s i o n t o w a r d t h e m a s w e l l a s t o


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a t t a c k t h e m . O n e c h i l d u n c o n s c i o u s l y r e p r e s e n t e d a n a m b i v a l e n t l y r e -ga rded deceased b ro the r , and the o the r , he r s e l f . By go ing in to t r ea tmen tt h e y w o u l d c r e a t e f in a n c ia l d i f f ic u l ti e s a n d p o s s i b l y b o m b h e r o u t o f h e ro w n a n a l y si s. T h e b o m b i n g a n d l o o k i n g f o r t h e c h il d re n i s c o n s i s te n t w i t ht h e w r i t t e n m e s s a g e a s a n a m b i v a l e n t g i f t o f f e c e s a n d b a b y , a l s o r e p r e -s en t ing do ing an d undo ing , b i r th and dea th . Sh e a l so w i thhe ld he r in fan t i l ea g g r e s s i o n a n d l o n g i n g f o r l o v e . M u c h m o r e c o u l d b e s a i d a b o u t t h ere la t ionsh ip o f th is wr i t t en d ream to tr aumat ic ex per ience s o f ch i ldhoodi l lnes s and ob jec t lo s s . Su f f i ce i t t o s ay tha t ch i ldhoo d con f l i c t l inked to thep a t i e n t ' s a d u l t c h a r a c t e r a n d s y m p t o m s w e r e r e l a te d t o h e r n e e d t o p ro t e c tand de fend aga ins t r enewed los s and in ju ry and to ob ta in r epara t ions andr e v e n g e f o r h e r t r o u b l e d l i fe .

T h e w r i ti n g o f t h e d r e a m o b v i o u s l y d e f e n d e d a g a i n s t fo r g e tt in g ,w h i c h c o u l d r e p r e s e n t l o s s a t a l l p h a s e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t ( K a n z e r , 1 9 5 5 ,1959 ; Lewin , 1953) . Her p reoccupa t ions w i th overea t ing and d ie t ing ,cons t ipa t ion and d ia rrhea , and in ana lys i s w i th s i lence and sp eech w ere a l lr e la t e d t o p r o b l e m s o f s e p a r a t i o n - i n d iv i d u a t i o n w i t h p r e o e d i p a l i s su e s o fr e c e i v i n g a n d w i th h o l d in g , g i v e a n d t a k e . R e v e r b e r a t i o n s o f s e p a r a t i o n -i n d i v i d u a t i o n c o n f l i c t c o u l d b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e d r e a m . T h e c o l l a p s e dw a l l r e f e rr e d t o t h e p a t i e n t ' s a n x i e t y a b o u t lo s s o f e g o b o u n d a r i e s , s e p a -r a ti o n a n x i e t y , a n g e r, a n d o s c i ll a ti n g b e t w e e n d e p e n d e n t a n d i n d e p e n d e n ts tr ivings.

D u r i n g l a t e n c y t h e p a t i e n t ' s p r o b l e m s g a v e r i s e t o a l e a r n i n g b l o c ka n d d i f f ic u l ty i n d o i n g h e r h o m e w o r k , i n c o m p l e t in g w r i ti n g a s s ig n m e n t s .H e r w r i t t e n d r e a m w a s t h e r e f o r e a l s o a d i s g u i s e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o t h ea n a l y s t c o n c e r n in g t h e r e v i v a l a n d r e s o l u t io n o f h e r l e a rn i n g b l o c k i na n a l y s is a n d h e r o n g o i n g u s e o f a n a l y ti c r e e d u c a t io n . P e r h a p s t h e c o n v e r s eo f s li p s o f m e m o r y a n d o f t h e p e n, h e r w r i tt e n d r e a m w a s a f o r m o fh o m e w o r k t h a t t o o k t h e p l a c e o f d i r e c t a n a l y t i c w o r k i n t h e a n a l y t i cs it u at io n . S h e w a n t e d t h e a p p r o v a l o f h e r p a r e n ts f o r c o m p l e t i n g a h o m e -w o r k a s s ig n m e n t . A n a l y t i c w o r k c o n t i n u e d i n t h e s e s si o n w h i l e a v o i d in gt h e o r a l r e p o r t o f t h e m a n i f e s t d r e a m . T h e w r it in g o f h e r d r e a m i m a g e r ys u p e r i m p o s e d a n a d v a n c e d f o r m o f s e c o n d a r y p r o c e s s t h o u g h t , a n d as e c o n d a r y e l a b o r a t io n o f t h e i m m e d i a t e l y r e m e m b e r e d d r e a m . I t c o u l da l s o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a n a t t e m p t a t m a s t e r y o f t ra u m a , r e s to r i n g t h ed rea m er ' s s ense o f r ea l i ty , con t ro l , and ego o rgan iza t ion . Th e wr i t ingex te rna l i zed on paper he r f r igh ten ing though t s , f ee l ings , and d ream fan -tasy . In he r m an i f es t d ream , she " r an in to the ga rage as a p lace o f s a fe ty , "a n d i n t h e w r i t t e n d r e a m s h e t o o k r e f u g e f r o m a f a n t a s i z e d a t t a c k a n dcoun te ra t t ack super f i c i a l ly r ep resen ted by the ana ly t i c "ba t t l e o f the b i l l . "


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Writing her dream may also have represented an ambivalent attachment tothe writing analyst who writes papers and discussions, stimulating thepatient's admiration, envy, and criticism. The patient wanted and feared tobe included in the analyst's writings.

The written dream has aspects of a dream from above (Freud,1923/1961). It is variously controlled, censored, and communicated in aform that lacks the rich variety of associations and accompanying non-verbal communications of the orally verbalized dream in the analyticsituation. It has intense transference and countertransference implications.Any departure from the usual framework invites the analyst's collusion inpossibly subverting the analytic process.

In the person with creative endowment, the written dream maybecome a form of active ego mastery of conflict and trauma that leads tosublimation. Kafka, for example, was a novelist who wrote his dreams,used them as a source of creative inspiration, and wove them into hisliterary activity. The elaboration and communication of the written dreamin literary art permits the sharing of forbidden fantasies with the reader.The writing out of the dream should not be regarded simply as an actingout. It may also serve containment, control, and regulation of tendenciesto act out. The written word may suppress and substitute for the concretedeed. A private nightmare can then be converted into socially approvedand interesting fiction.

The writing and presentation of the dream is an attempt to preserveobject relations and communication. Choosing the written rather than theoral mode of presenting the dream to the analyst has multiple meanings,both conscious (e.g., in order not to forget) and unconscious. The writtendream may particularly convey an edited version of earlier conflictsconcerning reading and writing, silence and enactment. Written to be readby analyst and analysand, it converts monologue into dialogue and inter-pretive discourse. Freud's writing "The Interpretation of Dreams" wassuch a dialogue with the reader.

ReferencesAbraham, K. (1913). Should patients write down their dreams? In C l in ic a l p a p e r s a n d

e s s a y s o n p s y c h o -a n a ly s i s (pp. 33-35). New York: Brunner Mazel.Arlow, J. (1979). The genesis of interpretation.J o u r n a l o f t he A m e r i c a n P s y c h o a n a-ly t ic Assoc ia t ion , 27(Suppl.), 193-206.Blum, H. (1968). Notes on the written dream. J o u r n a l o f H i l l s id e Ho s pi tal , 2 & 3 ,67-68.Blum, H. (1976). Dreams and free association. In te r n a t io n a l J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o -

Analys is , 57 , 315-324.


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standard edition o f the complete psychological wo rks of Sigmund F reud (Vol. 4).Lon don : Ho gar th Press. (Or iginal w ork publ i shed 1900)

Freud, S. (1953b). On aphasia. London: Imago. (Or iginal work publ i shed 1891)Freud, S . (1957). O n the his tory of the psyc hoa nalyt ic mo vem ent . In J . S t rachey (Ed.

and Trans.), The standard ed ition o f the complete psychological works o f SigmundFreud (Vol. 14, pp. 1 -66 ) . Lo ndo n: Ho gar th Press. (Or iginal w ork publ i shed 1914)Freud, S. (1958a). T he claim s of psy cho ana lysis to scientif ic interest. In J. Strac hey(Ed. and Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of

Sigmund Freud (Vol. 13, pp. 163-1 90) . Lon don : Ho gar th Press. (Or iginal w orkpubl i shed 1913)

Freud, S . (1958b). Th e handl ing o f dream interpreta tion in psych oana lys is . In J .Strachey (Ed. and Trans.) , The standard edition of the complete psychologicalworks o f Sigmund Freud (Vol. 12, 89 -9 6) . L ond on: Ho gar th Press . (Or iginal w orkpubl i shed 1911)

Freud, S . (1961). Rem arks on the theory and pract ice of dream interpreta tion. In J .Strachey (Ed. and Trans.) , The standard edition of the complete psychologicalworks of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 1 09 -12 2) . L ond on: Hog ar th Press . (Or iginalwo rk publ ished 1923)

Freud, S . (1964) . N ew int roductory lectures on psy choan alys is . In J. S t rache y (Ed. andTrans.), The standard edition o f the complete psychological wo rks of SigmundFreud (Vol . 22, pp. 3-182) . London: Hogar th Press . (Or iginal work publ i shed1933)

Greenso n, R. (1970) . T he ex cept ional posi t ion o f the dream in psycho analy t ic practice ,Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 39, 5 1 9 - 5 4 9 .

Grubrich-Simitis, I. (1996). Back to Freud's texts . New Haven , CT: Ya le Univer s i t yPress.

Jones, E. (1953). The l i fe and work of Sigmund Freud (Vol . 1) . New York: BasicB o o k s .

Kanzer , M. (1955). The com mu nica t ive func t ion of t he d ream. International Journalo f Psycho-Analysis, 36, 2 6 0 - 2 6 6 .

Kan zer , M. (1959). T he forget t ing of dreams. Journal o f Hillside H ospital, 8, 7 4 - 8 5 .Kilbo rne, B. (1987). Dreams. In M. Eliade (Ed.), Encyclopedia o f religion (Vol. 4, pp.

4 8 2 - 4 9 2 ) . N e w Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n .Le D oux , J . (1996). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings o f emotional

life. New York : S imon & Schus te r.Lew in, B. (1953). The forge t t ing o f dreams. In R. Low enste in (Ed.) , Drives, affects,behavior (pp. 191 -20 2). N ew Y ork : Interna t ional Universit ies Press.Lipschutz, L. (1954). The wri t ten dream. Journal o f American Psychoanalytic Asso-

ciation, 2, 4 7 3 - 4 8 3 .Mahony , P . (1994) . P sychoana lys i s - -The wr i t i ng cure . In A . Hayna l & E . Fa l zeder

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The Writing and Interpretation of Dreams