Class 5^C Project: CLIL

Liceo Scientifico Statale “Niccolò Copernico” Pavia

THE WORLD WAR I

Project CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning)

Class 5^C and Prof. Monica Migliorini

Years 2016-2017

Chierico & Codena

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Class 5^C Project: CLIL

CHAPTERS

WHAT EVENTS LED TO WORLD WAR I? Pag. 4-5

(Chierico & Codena)

HOW DID THE WAR BREAK OUT? Pag. 6-7

(Merighi & Pacchiarini)

THE FRONTS Pag. 8-9-10-11

(Bossio & Decanis)

ITALY BEFORE WORLD WAR I Pag. 12-13

(Bergamaschi & Dordolo)

ITALY IN WORLD WAR I Pag. 14-15-16

(Paravella, Tarantola & Zhegra)

RUSSIA IN WORLD WAR I Pag. 17-18-19

(Giretti & Giorgio)

HOW DID THE WAR END? Pag. 20-21-22-23

(Bianchini & Duse)

HOW WEAPONS CHANGED DURING WORLD WAR I? Pag. 24-25-26-27

(Moscardini & Restelli)

Class 5^C: Bergamaschi Andrea, Bianchini Riccardo, Bossio Davide, Chierico Daniele, Codena

Beatrice, Decanis Alessandro, Dordolo Luca, Duse Maddalena, Giretti Alex, Giorgio Ettore,

Merighi Filippo, Moscardini Marta, Pacchiarini Luca, Paravella Ottavia, Restelli Andrea, Tarantola

Greta, Zhegra Alba.

Professor and Coordinator: Monica Migliorini

Chierico & Codena

4

WHAT EVENTS LED TO WORLD WAR I?

There were many factors that led up to the start of World War I in Europe: a lot of these factors were

rooted in the deep history of the old powers of Europe (including Russia, Germany, France, Italy, Austria,

Hungary, and Britain) but the real causes of World War I included politics, secret alliances, imperialism, and

nationalistic pride. However, there was one single event, the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of

Austria, which started a chain of events leading to war.

GERMAN IMPERIALISM

Some of the origins of World War I can be seen in the results of the

Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71 and the concurrent Unification of

Germany. Germany had won decisively and established a powerful

Empire, while France went into chaos and military decline for years. A

legacy of hostility grew between France and Germany following the

German annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, which caused widespread

resentment in France, giving rise to the desire for revenge. Through

his policy, Bismarck kept a balance (of power) among European

nations that had weakened Germany, but when the chancellor was

replaced, a new economical policy, known as Neu Kour, was

introduced. This policy promoted the exportation and the conquest of

foreign markets through an economic strategy, called dumping.

BRITISH ALIGNMENT TOWARDS FRANCE AND

RUSSIA 1898–1907: THE TRIPLE ENTENTE

Britain abandoned “Splendid Isolation”, the policy of holding

aloof from the continental powers and concluded agreements,

limited to colonial affairs, with her two major colonial rivals, the

Entente Cordiale with France in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian

Entente of 1907. Some historians see Britain's alignment as a

reaction to the German foreign policy and the buildup of its navy

from 1898, which led to the Anglo-German naval arms race.

Other argue that Britain chose France and Russia over Germany

because Germany was a too weak ally to provide an effective

counterbalance to the other powers.

FIRST MOROCCAN CRISIS, 1905–06: STRENGHTENING THE ENTENTE

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Chierico & Codena

The First Moroccan Crisis was an international crisis between March 1905 and May 1906 over the status of

Morocco. The crisis worsened German relations with both United Kingdom and France, which had

obtained the protectorate of the Morocco, and helped ensure the success of the new Anglo-French

Entente Cordiale.

SECOND MOROCCAN CRISIS, 1911: THE HOLDS AGAIN

The Second Moroccan Crisis or Agadir Crisis began when

France brought troops into Morocco to prevent rebellion.

On July 1911 Germany sent a gunboat, called Panther, to

the port of Agadir in Morocco to scare France. Her intent

was to separate the alliance between France and Great

Britain and to maintain Germany as a strong European

power. The result was that France would be allowed to

continue her activity in Morocco without Germany

intervening and Germany got parts of the French Congo

in Africa.

BALKAN WARS

The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 increased

international tension between the

Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary. It

strengthened Serbia and weakened the

Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. Russia

initially agreed to avoid territorial

changes, but later in 1912 supported

Serbia's demand for an Albanian port.

After an international conference in

1912–1913 it was agreed to create an

independent Albania; at the beginning,

Serbia refused to comply but finally it

backed down. Serbia and Greece allied

against Bulgaria, which responded with a

preemptive strike against their forces,

beginning the Second Balkan War. The Bulgarian

army crumbled quickly when Turkey and Romania joined the war.

Merighi & Pacchiarini

6

HOW DID THE WAR BREAK OUT?

ASSASSINATION OF ARCHDUKE FRANZ FERDINAND

Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, a great friend of Kaiser Wilhelm of

Germany, met with him in mid-June 1914 to discuss the tense situation in

the Balkans. Two weeks later, on June 28, Franz Ferdinand and his wife,

Sophie, were in Sarajevo to inspect the imperial armed forces in Bosnia-

Herzegovina. When 19-year-old Gavrilo Princip and his fellow members of

the nationalist Young Bosnia movement learned of the archduke’s planned

visit, they took action: supplied with weapons by a Serbian terrorist

organization called the Black Hand, Princip and his cohorts travelled to

Sarajevo in time for the archduke’s visit.

The royal couple was touring the city in an open car, with surprisingly little security; one of the nationalists

threw a bomb at their car, but it rolled off the back of the vehicle, wounding an army officer and some

bystanders. Later that day, the imperial car took a wrong turn near where Princip happened to be

standing. Seeing his chance, Princip fired into the car, shooting Franz Ferdinand and Sophie at point-blank

range. He then turned the gun on himself, but was tackled by a mob of bystanders who restrained him

until the police arrived. The archduke and his wife were rushed away to seek medical attention, but both

died within the hour.

FIRST STEPS TOWARDS THE WAR

In order to maintain its credibility as a force in the Balkan region (let

alone its status as a great power), Austria-Hungary needed to

enforce its authority in the face of such an insolent crime. However,

with the threat of Russian intervention looming and its army

unprepared for a large-scale

war, it required Germany’s

help to back up its words

with force. Emperor Franz

Josef wrote a personal letter

to Kaiser Wilhelm requesting

his support, and on July 6

German Chancellor Theobald

Bethmann Hollweg informed

Austrian representatives that

Vienna had Germany’s full support. On July 23, the Austro-

Hungarian ambassador to Serbia delivered an ultimatum: The

Serbian government had to take steps to wipe out terrorist

organizations within its borders, suppress anti-Austrian propaganda

and accept an independent investigation by the Austro-Hungarian

government into Franz Ferdinand’s assassination, or face military action.

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Merighi & Pacchiarini

These are five of the ten points of the Serbian Ultimatum:

The Royal Serbian Government will furthermore pledge itself:

1. to suppress every publication which shall incite to hatred and contempt of the Monarchy, and the general

tendency of which shall be directed against the territorial integrity of the latter;

4. to remove from the military and administrative service in general all officers and officials who have been

guilty of carrying on the propaganda against Austria-Hungary,

5. to agree to the cooperation in Serbia of the organs of the Imperial and Royal Government in the suppression

of the subversive movement directed against the integrity of the Monarchy;

6. to institute a judicial inquiry against every participant in the conspiracy of the twenty-eighth of June who

may be found in Serbian territory

10. to inform the Imperial and Royal Government without delay of the execution of the measures comprised in

the foregoing points.

After Serbia appealed to Russia for help, the Tzar’s government began moving towards mobilization of its

army, believing that Germany was using the crisis as an excuse to launch a preventive war in the Balkans.

Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28. On August 1, after hearing news of Russia’s general

mobilization, Germany declared war on Russia. The German army then launched its attack on Russia’s ally,

France, through Belgium, violating Belgian neutrality and bringing Great Britain into the war as well.

Bossio & Decanis

8

THE FRONTS

EASTERN FRONT

The Eastern Front, one of the main theaters of battles of the First World War, opens on August 6, 1914,

when Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia. The latter will invade East Prussia a few days later, on

August 17. The Russian attack, also facilitated by the advance towards Paris that committed the Germans

to the other side, and from an unexpected rapidity of general mobilization, culminated successfully on 19-

20 August, when the Russians got their first win at Gumbinnen.

The defeated sides then decided to strengthen their presence in the East, recalling divisions from the

Western Front and, due to good logistics management of the railways, could in a few days concentrate the

forces under the command of General von Hindenburg, defeating the Russians heavily in Tannenberg,

between August 27 and August 30, and the Masurian Lakes, between September 9 and September 14,

resulting in the Russian retreat from the Prussian territory. Following these two victories, the German

army gained the occupation of Poland.

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Bossio & Decanis

Meanwhile the Russians were launching, one after the other, three offensives against the Austro-

Hungarians on the Galician front, in September and October-November 1914 and March-April 1915,

obtaining several victories and advancing deep into enemy territory without being unable to resolve the

conflict.

Contrary to what was happening on the Western Front, on the Eastern Front the war of position alternates

with the operational level maneuvers. This is also due to the geography of the combat zone: the forests of

Lithuania and the vast plains and marshes of Poland, Ukraine and Russia prove too large to be occupied by

men and weapons.

THE

WESTERN FRONT

Bossio & Decanis

10

The war plan drawn up by the Germans envisaged a massive attack against France, which would have to

be defeated in a few weeks. Then, most of the forces would have been used against Russia. To achieve this

goal, the German troops would have had to go through Belgium, neutral nation. The invasion of a neutral

country, plus overlooking the English Channel, caused the British reaction. So on August 5, Britain

declared war on Germany. The Germans initially obtained a series of resounding successes: in the last two

weeks of August the German armies advanced into the north-east of France forcing opponents into a

hasty retreat. In early September they stopped along the course of the Marne, a few dozen kilometers

from Paris.

On September 6, the French suddenly launched a counter-attack that caught the Germans by surprise.

After a week of fierce fighting, the invaders were forced to retreat at the Aisne and Somme rivers. In four

months of war, only on the western front, there had been 400,000 deaths and nearly a million wounded,

and all this with neither side being able to achieve results. The war of movement thus became a war of

position.

In February 1916, the Germans regained the initiative on the western front by attacking the French fortress

of Verdun. The aim of the offensive was the bleeding of the French forces. However, the battle proved too

costly for the attackers, who had more losses than those of the French. They managed to hold out until

June, when the British organized a counter-offensive on the Somme. It turned into a frightful carnage:

more than one and a half million men died in the following five months.

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Bossio & Decanis

The beginning of 1918 saw the two sides in a balanced situation militarily. The Germans tried a last

desperate attack in the final days of March, failing to break through Saint Quentin and Arras and to

advance into French territory. The attack continued in the following months until the German army again

reached the Marne.

However, in mid-July, a final attack on the Marne was stopped by the Anglo-French troops, with the help

of the United States. At the end of July, the Entente's forces, now greater in men and equipment,

managed to counterattack inflicting the first major German defeat in the Battle of Amiens. Given that

Germany's allies were falling one after another, the Germans were forced to sign the armistice of

Rethondes, on November 11.

Bergamaschi & Dordolo

12

ITALY BEFORE WORLD WAR I

ITALY BACKS OUT OF TRIPLE ALLIANCE

At the beginning of the 20th century Italy was officially a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and

Austria-Hungary. Despite this, in the years before the war, Italy had improved its diplomatic efforts

towards United Kingdom and France. The causes of this change were linked to the Italian government’s

certainty that support of Austria (the traditional

enemy of Italy during the 19th century) would not

have gained Italy the territories it wanted: Trieste,

Istria, Zara and Dalmatia, all Austrian possessions.

A few days after the outbreak of the war, on 3

August 1914, the government, led by the

conservative Antonio Salandra, declared that Italy

would not have committed its troops, maintaining

that the Triple Alliance had only a defensive

stance and Austria-Hungary had been the

aggressor. In reality, both Salandra and the

minister of Foreign Affairs, Sidney Sonnino, began

to probe which side would have given the best

reward for Italy's entrance in the war.

FROM NEUTRALITY TO INTERVENTION

The majority of the cabinet (including former Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti) was firmly against

intervention, as well as numerous intellectuals, including socialists such as

Ivanoe Bonomi and Leonida Bissolati. More importantly, a radical nationalist

political movement, called “Unredeemed Italy” (“Italia irredenta”), founded in

the 1880s, started claiming the Italian-

inhabited territories of Austria Hungary,

especially in the Austrian Littoral and in

the County of Tyrol.

In favour of intervention there were

Benito Mussolini and nationalist and

liberal parties.

Also Pro-interventionist socialists were

supporters of intervention and believed

that, once weapons had been distributed to the people, they could

have transformed the war into a revolution.

ITALY JOINS THE TRIPLE ENTENTE

The diplomatic moves led to the London Pact (26 April 1915), signed by Sonnino without the approval of

the Italian Parliament. According to the Pact, after victory Italy was to get Trentino and the South Tyrol up

13

Bergamaschi & Dordolo

to the Brenner Pass, the entire Austrian Littoral (with Trieste), Gorizia and Gradisca (Eastern Friuli), Istria

(but without Fiume), north-western Dalmatia with Zara and most of the islands.

Under the London Pact, Italy joined the Triple Entente. 3 May 1915 Italy officially revoked the Triple

Alliance. In the following days Giolitti and the neutralist majority of the Parliament opposed declaring war,

while nationalist crowds demonstrated in public areas for it. (The nationalist poet Gabriele D'Annunzio

called this period “le radiose giornate di Maggio” —"the sunny days of May"). On 13 May Salandra offered

his resignation to King Victor Emmanuel III, but Giolitti, fearful of nationalist disorder that might have

broken into open rebellion, declined to succeed as prime minister, and Salandra's resignation was not

accepted. On 23 May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary.

At the opening of the campaign, Austro-Hungarian troops occupied and fortified high ground of the Julian

Alps and Karst Plateau, but the Italians initially outnumbered their opponents three-to-one.

Paravella, Tarantola & Zhegra

14

ITALY IN WORLD WAR I

Following the secret promises made by the Allies in the Treaty of London, Italy entered the war in order to

annex the Austrian Littoral and northern Dalmatia, and the territories of present-day Trentino and South

Tyrol. Although Italy declared war against Austria, it was not ready for a lasting conflict (which Giolitti had

previously stated) because of the disorganization of the country, the officers’ inexperience, lack of

technical knowledge and of military equipment. Luigi Cadorna was an Italian General and Marshal of Italy,

remembered for his harsh discipline and punishment during World War I. Cadorna launched four offensives

in 1915, all along the Isonzo River. The goal of these offensives was the fortress of Gorizia. All four battles

were unsuccessful and led to the death of more than 250,000 Italians. Cadorna would ultimately fight

eleven battles on the Isonzo between 1915 and 1917. Additional forces were arrayed along the Trentino

salient, in order to attack Rovereto, Trento, and Bolzano. These attacks also failed. Verdun was the site of

a major battle of the First World War. It exemplified the policy of a "war of attrition" pursued by both sides,

which led to an enormous loss of life and a very large casualty list. At the beginning of 1916, Germans

attacked the French base of Verdun. The battle resulted in being way too expensive also for the Germans.

The French army managed to resist until June, when the English troops organized a counter-offensive on

the Somme. This resulted in a tragedy where more than 600,000 men died. As soon as the battle of Verdun

ended on June 1916, the Austrian armies tried to penetrate the Venetian valley.

STRAFEXPEDITION

The Battle of Asiago or the Trentino Offensive,

nicknamed Strafexpedition ("Punitive

expedition") by the Austrians, was a

counteroffensive launched by the Austro-

Hungarians on the Italian front on May 15, 1916,

during World War I. It was an unexpected attack

that took place near Asiago in the province of

Vicenza (now in northeast Italy, then on the

Italian side of the border between the Kingdom

of Italy and Austria-Hungary) after the Fifth

Battle of the Isonzo (March 1916). The Asiago

War Memorial commemorates this battle and

the soldiers killed in World War I.

The Russians unexpectedly took the initiative in

Galicia. With that, the Strafexpedition could no

longer be sustained and the Austrians retired from many of their positions. Italian troops in the region

were increased to 400,000 to counter the Austrian positions. Although the Strafexpedition had been

checked, it had political consequences in Italy: the Salandra Cabinet fell, and Paolo Boselli became the new

Prime Minister.

BATTLE OF CAPORETTO, THE TWELFTH BATTLE OF ISONZO

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Paravella, Tarantola & Zhegra

The Battle of Caporetto (also referred to as

the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo) saw

combined Austro-Hungarian and German

forces that decisively broke through the

Italian line along the northern Isonzo,

catching the Italian defenders entirely by

surprise. Caporetto marked the first

occasion in which the Germans had decided

to give assistance to their Austro-

Hungarian allies on the Italian front. The

retreat of the Italian troops was a rout and

the enemies entered Italy for 150

kilometers causing the loss of 400.000 men.

The defeat had immediate political

consequences: a new government led by

Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was formed;

General Cadorna left the supreme command of the army to General Armando Diaz who decided to set up

a new defence line on the river Piave where in November the Austrian attack was blocked. The new

commander decided for less strict discipline and better training for the soldiers, who were tired and lacked

motivation. Moreover he avoided all direct attacks that could lead to a useless sacrifice of his men. The

military reasons for the defeat of Caporetto lay in the well-led Austrian attack in the mistaken defence

tactics and in the lack of control by the Italian supreme command during the retreat. But the defeat had

also been determined by deeper reasons: the climate of mistrust and unrest in the nation and at the front.

The soldiers were physically and mentally torn apart by the massacres and by the harassment they were

subjected to by the commanders.

Luigi Cadorna Paolo Boselli

Armando Diaz

TRENCH WARFARE = POSITION WAR

Paravella, Tarantola & Zhegra

16

Trench warfare is a kind of war in which opposing armed

forces attack, counterattack, and defend from relatively

permanent systems of trenches dug into the ground.

The opposing systems of trenches are usually close to

one another (400-500 meters). Trench warfare reached

its highest development on the Western Front during

World War I (1914–18), when armies of millions of men

faced each other in a line of trenches extending from

the Belgian coast through northeastern France to

Switzerland. It was a really heavy war since the soldiers

always stood in the same position with the agony of

fighting lost battles in which they were most likely to

die.

SHELL-SHOCK

Shell shock is a term coined during World War I used to

describe the reaction of many soldiers during the war. It

is a reaction to the intensity of the bombardment and

fighting that produced a helplessness appearing as

panic and being scared, or flight, an inability to reason,

sleep, walk or talk. Cases of 'shell shock' could be

interpreted as either a physical or psychological injury.

The men afflicted by shell shock were: 80,000 in

Germany, 32,500 in Denmark, 58,000 in the U.S.A,

48,000 in Italy.

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Giretti & Giorgio

RUSSIA IN WORLD WAR I

In 1914 the Russian government considered

Germany to be the main threat to its

territory. This was reinforced by Germany's

decision to form the Triple Alliance. Under

the terms of this military alliance, Germany,

Austria-Hungary and Italy agreed to support

each other if attacked by either France or

Russia. In 1907 Russia joined Britain and

France to form the Triple Entente. In 1914 the

Russian Army was the largest army in the

world. However, Russia's poor roads and

railways made the effective deployment of

these soldiers difficult.

In 1914 the Russian Navy had 4 battleships, 10 cruisers, 21 destroyers, 11

submarines and 50 torpedo boats. On the outbreak of the First World

War General Alexander Samsonov was given command of the Russian

Second Army for the invasion of East Prussia. He advanced slowly into

the south western corner of the province with the intention of linking up

with General Paul von Rennenkampf advancing from the north east. The

commander of the German Eighth Army, General Maximilian Prittwitz,

was dismissed for ordering the retreat when faced with the Russian

Second Army. General Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich

Ludendorff were sent forward to meet Samsonov's advancing troops.

They made contact on 22nd August, 1914, and for six days the Russians,

with their superior numbers, had a few successes. However, by 29th

August, Samsanov's Second Army was surrounded. General Alexander

Samsonov attempted to retreat but now in a German cordon, most of his troops were slaughtered or

captured. The Battle of Tannenberg lasted three days. Only 10,000 of the 150,000 Russian soldiers

managed to escape. Shocked by the disastrous outcome of the battle, Samsanov committed suicide. The

Germans, who lost 20,000 men in the battle, were able to take over 92,000 Russian prisoners. By

December, 1914, the Russian Army had 6,553,000 men. However, they only had 4,652,000 rifles. Untrained

troops were ordered into battle without adequate arms or ammunition. In 1915 Russia suffered over 2

million casualties and lost Kurland, Lithuania and much of Belorussia. Agricultural production slumped and

civilians had to endure serious food shortages.

U.R.S.S.

Giretti & Giorgio

18

Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, was appalled by

the decision of most socialists in Europe to

support the war effort. Living in exile in

Switzerland, Lenin devoted his energies to

campaign to turn the "imperialist war into a civil

war". This included the publication of his book,

Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism.

Along with his close collaborators, Gregory

Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev, Lenin arranged for

the distribution of propaganda that urged Allied

troops to turn their rifles against their officers

and start a socialist revolution. In September

1915, Nicholas II replaced Grand Duke Nikolai as supreme commander of the Russian Army fighting on the

Eastern Front. This failed to change the fortunes of the armed forces and by the end of the year there were

conscription riots in several cities. Nicholas II, as supreme commander of the Russian Army, was now

closely linked to the country's military failures and during 1917 there was a strong decline in his support in

Russia. On 13th March, 1917, the Russian Army High Command recommended that Nicholas abdicate in

favour of a more popular member of the royal family. Attempts were now made to persuade Grand Duke

Michael Alexandrovich to accept the throne. He refused and on the 1st March, 1917, the Tsar abdicated.A

Provisional Government, headed by Prince George Lvov, was formed. Members of the Cabinet included

Paul Miliukov, leader of the Cadet Party, was Foreign Minister, Alexander Guchkov, Minister of War,

Alexander Kerensky, Minister of Justice, Mikhail Tereshchenko (a beet-sugar magnate from the Ukraine,

became Finance Minister), Alexander

Konovalov (a munitions maker Minister of

Trade and Industry), and Peter Struve

(Ministry of Foreign Affairs). Lvov

attempted to maintain the Russian war

effort but he was severely undermined by

the formation of a soldiers' committee that

demanded "peace without annexations or

indemnities". In May, 1917, Alexander

Kerensky was appointed as Minister of War.

He toured the Eastern Front where he made

a series of emotional speeches where he

appealed to the troops to continue fighting.

On 18th June, Kerensky announced a new war offensive. Encouraged by the Bolsheviks, who favoured

peace negotiations, there were demonstrations against Kerensky in Petrograd.

Soldiers on the Eastern Front were dismayed at the news and regiments began to refuse to move to the

front line. There was a rapid increase in the number of men deserting and by the autumn of 1917 an

estimated 2 million men had unofficially left the army.Some of these soldiers returned to their homes and

used their weapons to seize land from the nobility. Manor houses were burnt down and in some cases

wealthy landowners were murdered. Kerensky and the Provisional Government issued warnings but were

powerless to stop the redistribution of land in the countryside.

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Giretti & Giorgio

Kerensky now became the new Supreme Commander of the Russian Army. His continued support for the

war effort made him unpopular in Russia and on 25th September, Kerensky attempted to recover his left-

wing support by forming a new coalition that included more Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries.

However, with the Bolsheviks controlling the Soviets, and now able to call on 25,000 armed militia,

Kerensky was unable to reassert his authority.

On 25th October, Kerensky was informed that

the Bolsheviks were about to seize power. He

decided to leave Petrograd and try to get the

support of the Russian Army on the Eastern

Front. Later that day the Red Guards stormed

the Winter Palace and members of the

Kerensky's cabinet were arrested. After failing to

rally the troops against the new government,

Kerensky fled to France

Lenin, the new leader of the Russian

government, immediately announced an armistice with the Central Powers. The following month, he sent

Leon Trotsky, the people's commissar for foreign affairs, as head of the Russian delegation, to Brest-

Litovsk to negotiate a peace deal with Germany and Austria.Trotsky had the difficult task of trying to end

Russian participation in the First World War without having to grant territory to the Central Powers. By

employing delaying tactics Trotsky hoped that socialist revolutions would spread from Russia to Germany

and Austria-Hungary before he had to sign the treaty. After nine weeks of discussions without agreement,

the German Army was ordered to resume its advance into Russia. On 3rd March 1918, with German troops

moving towards Petrograd, Lenin ordered Trotsky to accept the terms of the Central Powers. The Brest-

Litovsk Treaty resulted in the Russians surrendering the Ukraine, Finland, the Baltic provinces, the

Caucasus and Poland. Almost 15 million served in the Russian Army during the First World War. Casualties

totalled an estimated 1.8 million killed, 2.8 million wounded and 2.4 million taken prisoner.

Bianchini & Duse

20

HOW DID THE WAR END?

PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE, 1919

The Paris Peace Conference, also known as The

Versailles Peace Conference, was the meeting of the

Allied victors, following the end of World War I to

set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers

following the armistices of 1918. It took place in

Paris during 1919 and involved diplomats from more

than 32 countries and nationalities. The five major

powers (France, Britain, Italy, the U.S. and Japan)

controlled the Conference. In practice Japan played

a small role and the "Big Four" leaders were the

dominant figures at the conference. The conference

came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the

inaugural General Assembly of the League of

Nations.

Five major peace treaties were prepared at the Paris Peace Conference:

-The Treaty of Versailles was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end.

The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. Of the many provisions in the

treaty, one of the most important and controversial required "Germany to accept the responsibility of

Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage" during the war. The treaty forced Germany to

disarm, make substantial territorial concessions, and pay reparations to certain countries. In 1921 the total

cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion marks.

-The Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Trianon. These treaties officially registered the breakup of

the Habsburg empire, recognizing the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and the

Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). Austria also had to cede one part of Dalmatia,

Trento, southern Tirol, Trieste and Istria to Italy.

-The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine required Bulgaria to lose their supremacy over the Aegean sea, to pay

reparations of £100 million, to recognize the existence of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

-The Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey: Syria, Palestine and Iraq were created and the Dodecanese was

annexed to Italy. In 1923 this treaty had been replaced by the Treaty of Losanne which gave again to

Turkey the straits’ control.

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Bianchini & Duse

Europe in 1914,

before the outbreak of the war

Europe in 1918,

after the World War I

U.S. PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON'S FOURTEEN POINTS

On January 18, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson gave a speech to Congress that outlined Fourteen Points

for peace and the end to World War I. Wilson wanted lasting peace and for World War I to be the "war to

end all wars."

I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international

understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.

II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war,

except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of

international covenants.

III. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade

conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.

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IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point

consistent with domestic safety.

V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict

observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the

populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is

to be determined.

VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will

secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an

unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political

development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under

institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may

need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come

will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own

interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.

VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the

sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this

will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and

determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole

structure and validity of international law is forever impaired.

VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France

by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly

fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all.

IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of

nationality.

X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and

assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development.

XI. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded

free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined

by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international

guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan

states should be entered into.

XII. The turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the

other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and

an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be

permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international

guarantees.

XIII. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by

indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose

political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international

covenant.

XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording

mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

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U.S. President Woodrow Wilson

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HOW WEAPONS CHANGED DURING WORLD WAR I?

SOLDIERS’ EQUIPMENT

The new twentieth-century army troops were much better equipped than any previous army: everyone

had automatic rifles and hand-to-hand weapons. However the most important innovation was the

introduction of machine guns: powerful and manageable weapons that could shoot plenty of bullets per

minute. Another important change was due to the more frequent use of the heavy artillery; they were

powerful cannons that could shoot from very far.

CHEMICAL WEAPONS AND THE GAS MASK

World War I also introduced chemical

weapons to warfare. Germany first used

chlorine gas to poison unsuspecting

Allied troops. Later, the more

dangerous mustard gas was developed

and used by both sides. The former

attacked the eyes and respiratory

system; the latter did the same but also

caused blistering on any exposed skin.

By the end of the war, troops were

equipped with gas masks and the

weapon was less effective. Two other

types of gas were also introduced: tear

gas (which was not lethal) and phosgene

(even more dangerous than chlorine

gas).

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AVIATION AND AIRCRAFT

The airplane was invented by the Wright Brothers in 1903, just 11 years before the start of World War I.

When the war first began, aircraft played a small role in warfare, but, by the end of the war, the air force

had become an important branch of the armed forces. The first use of airplanes in World War I was for

reconnaissance. The airplanes would fly above the battlefield and determine the enemy's movements and

position. As the war progressed, both sides began to use aircraft to drop bombs on strategic enemy

locations. The first planes used for bombings could only carry small bombs and were very vulnerable to

attack from the ground. With more planes taking to the skies, enemy pilots began to fight each other in

the air. At first, they tried throwing grenades at each other or shooting with rifles and pistols. This didn't

work very well. Pilots soon found that the best way to shoot down an enemy plane was with a mounted

machine gun. However, if the machine gun was mounted at the front of the plane, the propeller would get

in the way of the bullets. An invention called an "interrupter" was invented by the Germans that allowed

the machine gun to be synchronized with the propeller. Soon all fighter planes used this invention.

Engineers learned from experience, leading to

the development of many specialized types,

including fighters, bombers and ground-attack

aeroplanes. However they played a more

important role only in the World War II.

TANKS

The purpose behind the birth of tanks was to

create a new powerful weapon. The result was

a machine that could boast a minimum speed

of four miles per hour, climb a five foot high obstacle, successfully span a five foot trench, and - critically -

be immune to the effects of small-

arms fire. Furthermore, it

possessed two machine guns, had

a range of twenty miles and was

maintained by a crew of ten men.

The first tank was called "Little

Willie" and needed a crew of only 3

men. The first country that

introduced tanks was Britain

(which had produced about 2500

units), followed by France (which

had produced about 4000 units).

The Germans, never convinced of

its merits, and despite their record

for technological innovation,

produced just 20. Italy and the U.S.

produced their own tank designs

as well, even if they were barely used in WW1.

Tank Production 1916-18

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YEAR UK FRANCE GERMANY ITALY USA

1916 150 - - - -

1917 1.277 800 - - -

1918 1.391 4.000 20 6 84

SUBMARINES

By the eve of World War I all of the major navies included submarines in their fleets, but these craft were

relatively small, were considered of questionable military value, and generally were intended for coastal

operations. The most significant exception to the concept of coastal activity was the German Deutschland

class of merchant U-boats, each 315 feet long with two large cargo compartments. When they were

equipped with torpedo tubes and deck guns, they served in a combat role during the latter stages of the

war. Although Germany produced just a few units, the underwater war became quickly an effective

weapon. However the use of submarines was limited by the continuous American protests, which became

very energetic after the sinking of the English ocean liner Lusitania.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS

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With the passage of the war new technologies were discovered. Radio, which grew quickly, let even the

distant units communicate important news almost immediately. This also allowed for more efficient troop

coordination.