THE TRANSFORMATION OF EUROPE

CHAPTER 24

R. H. Bainton The Reformation of the 16c

Thus, the papacy emerged as something between an Italian city-state and European power, without forgetting at the same time the claim to be the vice-regent of Christ. The Pope often could not make up his mind whether he was the successor of Peter or of Caesar. Such vacillation had much to do with the rise and success of the Protestant Reformation.

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

• Martin Luther (1483-1546) attacks Roman Catholic church practices, 1517• Indulgences: preferential pardons for charitable donors

• Writes Ninety-Five Theses, rapidly reproduced with new printing technology

• Excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1521• 1520s-1530s dissent spread throughout Germany

and Switzerland

THE DEMAND FOR REFORM

• Luther’s expanded critique• Closure of monasteries• Translations of Bible into vernacular• End of priestly authority, especially the Pope

• Return to biblical text for authority

• German princes interested • Opportunities for assertion of local control

• Support for reform spreads throughout Germany

Caricature of Pope Alexander VI by Martin Luther, 1545Caricature of Pope Alexander VI by Martin Luther, 1545

The Spread of LutheranismThe Spread of Lutheranism

The Peasant Revolt - 1525The Peasant Revolt - 1525

REFORM OUTSIDE GERMANY

• Switzerland, Low Countries follow Germany• England: King Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) has

conflict with Pope over requested divorce• England forms its own church by 1560

• France: John Calvin (1509-1564) codifies Protestant teachings while in exile in Geneva

• Scotland, Netherlands, Hungary also experience reform movements

PROTESTANT REFORMERSJOHN CALVINJOHN CALVIN

• A French priest and lawyer, who like Luther, believed that Christians could only reach heaven through faith in God.

• Unlike Luther, he promoted predestination, the belief that God had determined before the beginning of time who would achieve salvation.

• Wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion, codifying Protestant teachings.

ReformationEurope(Late 16c)

ReformationEurope(Late 16c)

THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION

• Roman Catholic church reacts• Refining doctrine, missionary activities to Protestants,

attempt to renew spiritual activity

• Council of Trent (1545-1563) periodic meetings to discuss reform• Called by Pope Paul III, the goal was to end church

abuses and set up schools to educate clergy

• Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded by St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)• Rigorous religious and secular education• Effective missionaries

• spread Christianity to Asia, Africa and the Americas

WITCH HUNTS

• Most prominent in regions of tension between Catholics and Protestants

• Late 15th century development in belief in Devil and human assistants

• 16th-17th centuries approximately 110,000 people put on trial, some 60,000 put to death• Vast majority females, usually single, widowed• Held accountable for crop failures, miscarriages, etc.

• New England: 234 witches tried, 36 hung

Punishments for witchcraft in 16th-century Germany. 1508.

Burning of three witches in Baden, Switzerland 1585

An image of suspected witches being hanged in England, published in 1655.

Witches by Hans Baldung Grien, Woodcut, 1508

• Divine Right:- According to this way of thinking, the king is an agent of God, and his authority to rule comes directly from God.

• Believe he ruled by divine right.• Married Queen Mary I of England (“Bloody

Mary”)• Strong financial supporter of the Spanish

Inquisition• Persecuted Protestants, especially the Calvinists

in the Netherlands

PHILLIP II

RELIGIOUS WARS

• Protestants and Roman Catholics fight in France (1562-1598)

• 1588 Philip II of Spain attacks England to force return to Catholicism• English destroy Spanish ships by sending flaming

unmanned ships into the fleet

• Netherlands rebel against Spain, gain independence by 1610

• Led a revolt against Phillip II, using guerilla warfareguerilla warfare - sudden unexpected attacks carried out by an unofficial military group or groups that are trying to change the government by assaults on the military.

WILLIAM OF ORANGE

ProtestantChurchesinFrance(Late 16c)

ProtestantChurchesinFrance(Late 16c)

THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR (1618-1645)

• Holy Roman emperor attempts to force Bohemians to return to Roman Catholic Church

• All of Europe becomes involved in conflict• Principal battleground: Germany

• Political, economic issues involved• Approximately one-third of German population

destroyed

1618-16481618-1648

Loss of German Lives in 30 Years’ War

THE CONSOLIDATION OF SOVEREIGN STATES

• Emperor Charles V (r. 1519-1556) attempts to revive Holy Roman Empire as strong center of Europe• Through marriage, political alliances• Ultimately fails

• Protestant Reformation provides cover for local princes to assert greater independence

• Foreign opposition from France, Ottoman Empire• Unlike China, India, Ottoman Empire, Europe does not

develop as single empire, rather individual states• Charles V abdicates to monastery in Spain

Europe in 1559

THE HAPSBURG FAMILY

• Charles I of the Hapsburg family, an old German family who ruled Austria for over 600 years was, inherited not only Spain, but all of the Holy Roman Empire (where he was Charles V), giving him more land than any other ruler since Charlemagne in 800.

• Charles V stepped down and divided his great empire in 1556.

• Charles’ son Phillip II (right) received Spain and all its possessions, while Charles V’s brother Ferdinand I became the Holy Roman Emperor.

THE HAPSBURG FAMILY

THE NEW MONARCHS

• Italy well-developed as economic power through trade, manufacturing, finance

• Yet England, France, and Spain surge ahead in 16th century, innovative new tax revenues• England: Henry VIII

• Fines and fees for royal services; confiscated monastic holdings

• France: Louis XI, Francis I• New taxes on sales, salt trade

THE SPANISH INQUISITION

• Founded by Fernando and Isabel in 1478• Original task: search for secret Christian

practitioners of Judaism or Islam, later search for Protestants• Spread to Spanish holdings outside Iberian peninsula in

western hemisphere

• Imprisonment, executions• Intimidated nobles who might have considered

Protestantism• Archbishop of Toledo imprisoned 1559-1576

CONSTITUTIONAL STATES

• England and Netherlands develop institutions of popular representation• England: constitutional monarchy• Netherlands: republic

• English Civil War, 1642-1649• Begins with opposition to royal taxes• Religious elements: Anglican church favors complex

ritual, complex church hierarchy, opposed by Calvinist Puritans

• King Charles I and parliamentary armies clash• King loses, is beheaded in 1649

THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION (1688-1689)

• Puritans take over, becomes a dictatorship• Monarchy restored in 1660, fighting resumes• Resolution with bloodless coup called Glorious

Revolution• King James II deposed, daughter Mary and

husband William of Orange take throne• Shared governance between crown and parliament

THE DUTCH REPUBLIC

• King Philip II of Spain attempts to suppress Calvinists in Netherlands, 1566

• Large-scale rebellion follows, by 1581 Netherlands declares independence

• Based on a representative parliamentary system

FRANCE

• By the late 1600’s, France had replaced Spain as the most powerful European nation.

• In 1589, a Huguenot leader and Bourbon prince (a royal family prominent in Europe) inherited the French throne as Henry IV. Knowing a Protestant would have trouble ruling a predominantly Catholic land, he became Catholic.

“Paris is well worth

a Mass”

ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES

• Theory of Divine Right of Kings• French absolutism designed by Cardinal

Richelieu (under King Louis XIII, 1624-1642)• Destroyed castles of nobles, crushed aristocratic

conspiracies• Built bureaucracy to bolster royal power base• Ruthlessly attacked Calvinists

CARDINAL RICHELIEU

• Henry IV was murdered in 1610. His eight year old son, Louis XIII inherited the throne and chose Cardinal Richelieu to be his chief minister.

• Richelieu subdued or defeated two groups that did not bow to royal authority: the nobles and the Protestant Huguenots.

• He also created a strong bureaucracy by setting up intendants – regional representatives to the king.

LOUIS XIV (THE “SUN KING,” 1643-1715)

• L’état, c’est moi: “The State – that’s me.”• Magnificent palace at Versailles, 1670s, becomes

his court• Largest building in Europe• 1,400 fountains• 25,000 fully grown trees transplanted

• Power centered in court, important nobles pressured to maintain presence

LOUIS XIV

• Inheriting the throne in 1643 as a five year old child, Louis XIV ruled France for 72 years.

• He further strengthened the monarchy and took the sun as the symbol of

his power.

THE SUN KING

• During his reign, Louis:- Expanded the bureaucracy, appointing officials to collect

taxes, recruit soldiers, and carry out his rule in the provinces.

- Built the lavish, and expensive Palace of Versailles outside of Paris.

- Organized a highly disciplined army, the strongest in Europe.

- Persecuted the Protestant Huguenots, depriving the nation of many of its hardest working and prosperous citizens.

PALACE OF VERSAILLES

PALACE OF VERSAILLES – HALL OF MIRRORS

PALACE OF VERSAILLES – THE KING’S BEDCHAMBER

JACQUES BOSSUET

• Louis’s claim to absolute power was

strengthened by a court preacher, Bishop

Jacques Bossuet who argued that the king

was entitled to unquestioning

obedience.

THE WAR OF SPANISH SUCCESSION

• In 1700, the last Spanish Hapsburg king (Carlos II) died and Louis ensured that his grandson

Phillip V inherited the throne. • The surrounding allies, specifically England saw this as a threat to the balance of power and began the War of the Spanish Succession which carried

on until 1713 when France agreed to sign the Treaty of Utrecht.

• This stated that Phillip could remain on the throne, but that the Spanish crown and the French

crown must remain separate and never unite. • The treaty also gave French lands in North

America to England (in Newfoundland and Maine).

ON TO ENGLAND…

THE TUDORS

• The first Tudor king was Henry VII, who made England prosperous and stable.

• His son Henry VIII, established a new official church for England, the Anglican Church, or the Church of England, when the Roman Catholic Pope would not grant him the divorce he wanted.

Henry VIII

MARY I

• Mary I, the oldest daughter of Henry VIII, came to the throne in 1533 to become the first reigning queen of England.

• A devout Catholic, Mary tried to destroy the Anglican Church that her father had founded, but most of her subjects were Protestant and did not support her.

• By burning hundreds at the stake, she earned herself the nickname “Bloody Mary.”

ELIZABETH I

• When Mary I died in 1558, her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I became queen.

• Elizabeth I worked hard to establish a relationship with Parliament and was mostly well liked.

• Elizabeth I was the fifth and final monarch of the House of Tudor.

HIGHLIGHTS OF ELIZABETH I

• Under Elizabeth I, England became more than an island nation, but a world power.

• Elizabeth never married nor had children, which earned her the nickname The Virgin Queen.

• Had her cousin, Mary Queen of Scots captured and imprisoned to ensure that she could not seize her throne.

• Elizabeth learned of a plot between Mary and Phillip II and had Mary Stuart beheaded in 1587.

HIGHLIGHTS OF ELIZABETH I

• In reaction, in 1588 Phillip II launched a fleet of 130 ships toward England. This was the Spanish Armada, also known as the Invincible Armada.

• The Spanish Armada was defeated by the English.

• Elizabeth widened her persecution of Catholics to include all non-Anglicans, Protestants included.

• Her favorite motto was video et taceo ("I see and keep silent").

THE ELIZABETHAN ERA

Detail from the The Family of Henry VIII: An Allegory of the Tudor Succession, c1572, attributed to Lucas de Heere

THE ELIZABETHAN ERA

• The height of the English Renaissance, which ushered in the blossoming of English literature, poetry, science and technology.• William Shakespeare• Sir Francis Drake• Sir Walter Raleigh

THE STUARTS

• The son of Mary Queen of Scots, King of Scotland James I succeeded Elizabeth, bringing England and Scotland under the same ruler.

• King James was from the Stuart family, not the Tudors, so this ushered in the next dynasty.

KING JAMES I

• The "Golden Age" of Elizabethan literature and drama continued.

• King James Bible - Its popularity stems from its rich language from the age of Shakespeare.

• James pushed to dissolve Parliament and rule alone.

• Clashed with the Puritans, who hoped to “purify” the church by eliminating catholic rituals.

CHARLES I

• Parliament presented Charles with a document called the Petition of Right. • This declared:

• The King could not tax the people without Parliament’s consent.• He could not declare martial law.• He could not board soldiers in private homes during peacetime.• He could not imprison a person without a specific charge.

• Although Charles signed the document, he ignored its agreements and disbanded Parliament for 11 years.

CHARLES I

• Long Parliament• Enemies imprisoned

without trial• High taxes

• Conflict with Puritans• Irish & Scottish conflicts• Conflict with Parliament

ENGLISH CIVIL WAR (1642-1649)

• Those who supported the king included Anglicans, Roman Catholics and nobles. They

were called royalists, or more commonly, Cavaliers.

• Those who supported Parliament included Puritans and other non-Anglican Protestants. They were called Roundheads, because of the

close haircuts of the Puritan soldiers.

OLIVER CROMWELL

• The leader of the Puritans was Oliver Cromwell, who organized his troops into a powerful army known as

New Model Army, defeated Charles in 1645.

• The now Cromwell controlled Parliament was

purged of all Charles supporters. This

Parliament was known as the Rump Parliament.

THE RUMP PARLIAMENT

• Abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords and the official Church of England.

• Proclaimed England a commonwealth, or republic for the first time in English history.

• Tried Charles for treason, finding him guilty and beheaded him in front of his palace in 1649.

• Charles’ son Charles II fled to France and Oliver Cromwell took control of England as Lord

Protector.

THE RESTORATION

• In 1660, after much debate and with the army’s support, Parliament invited Charles II, the Stuart

son of Charles I, to return to England. • When the monarchy was restored, this is known

as the Restoration. This refers to not only the return of the monarchy, but also a rebirth of

English culture, not seen since the Elizabethan era.

JAMES II

• With no heir, it appeared that Charles’s younger brother James, a Roman Catholic, would succeed him.

• The two parties of Parliament had very conflicting views about this. • The Tories, believed that James

had a hereditary right to rule, yet they supported the Anglican Church.

• The Whigs claimed the right to deny the throne to James because they could not accept a Catholic king and they supported a stronger parliament that could make such decisions.

THE EUROPEAN STATES SYSTEM

• No imperial authority to mediate regional disputes

• Peace of Westphalia (1648) after Thirty Years’ War

• European states to be recognized as sovereign and equal• Religious, other domestic affairs protected

• Warfare continues: opposition to French expansion, Seven Years’ War

• Balance of Power tenuous• Innovations in military technology proceed rapidly

Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648

POPULATION GROWTH AND URBANIZATION

• Rapidly growing population due to Columbian Exchange• Improved nutrition

• Role of the potato (considered an aphrodisiac in 16th and 17th centuries)

• Replaces bread as staple of diet

• Better nutrition reduces susceptibility to plague• Epidemic disease becomes insignificant for overall

population decline by mid-17th century

POPULATION GROWTH IN EUROPE

0

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1500 1700 1800

Millions

URBANIZATION

0

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100000

150000

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Madrid

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London

EARLY CAPITALISM

• Private parties offer goods and services on a free market

• Own means of production• Private initiative, not government control• Supply and demand determines prices• Banks, stock exchanges develop in early

modern period• Joint-Stock Companies (English East India

Company, VOC)• Relationship with empire-building

• Medieval guilds discarded in favor of “putting-out” system

IMPACT OF CAPITALISM ON THE SOCIAL ORDER

• Rural life• Improved access to manufactured goods• Increasing opportunities in urban centers begins

depletion of the rural population

• Inefficient institution of serfdom abandoned in western Europe, retained in Russia until 19th century

• Nuclear families replace extended families• Gender changes as women enter income-earning

work force

CAPITALISM AND MORALITY

• Adam Smith (1723-1790) argued that capitalism would ultimately improve society as a whole

• But major social change increases poverty in some sectors• Rise in crime• Witch-hunting a possible consequence of capitalist

tensions and gender roles

THE COPERNICAN UNIVERSE

• Reconception of the Universe• Reliance on 2nd-century Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy

of Alexandria• Motionless earth inside nine concentric spheres• Christians understand heaven as last sphere

• Difficulty reconciling model with observed planetary movement• Heliocentric Theory

• 1543 Nicholas Copernicus of Poland breaks theory• Notion of moving Earth challenges Christian doctrine

"Astronomer Copernicus: Conversation with God" painted by Jan Matejko (1872)

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

• Johannes Kepler (Germany, 1571-1630) and Galileo Galilei (Italy, 1564-1642) reinforce Copernican model

• Isaac Newton (1642-1727) revolutionizes study of physics

• Rigorous challenge to church doctrines

'Galilo facing the Roman Inquisition'', 1857 painting by Cristiano Banti

Briefly stated, my three laws of motion are:

• An object in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by a net

force. • Force equals mass multiplied by

acceleration. • To every action there is an equal and

opposite reaction.

Sir Isaac Newton at 46 inGodfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

• Trend away from Aristotelian philosophy and Church doctrine in favor of rational thought and scientific analysis

• John Locke (England, 1632-1704), Baron de Montesquieu (France, 1689-1755) attempt to discover natural laws of politics

• Center of Enlightenment: France, philosophes• Voltaire (1694-1778), caustic attacks on Roman

Catholic church: écrasez l’infame, “erase the infamy”• Deism increasingly popular

JOHN LOCKEBelieved that:

- All people possess natural rights, which include life, liberty and property.- People form governments to protect these rights.- If a government does not protect these rights, people have the right to overthrow it.

Went on to inspire: Thomas Jefferson’s writing of the D.O.I. & the French revolutionaries!

THE THEORY OF PROGRESS

• Assumption that Enlightenment thought would ultimately lead to human harmony, material wealth

• Decline in authority of traditional organized religion

Reason: - the mental powers concerned with forming conclusions, judgments, or inferences; sound judgment; good sense.

RENE DESCARTES

• Frenchman Rene Descartes challenged the idea that new knowledge should be made to fit existing traditional ideas. He believed that reason, rather than tradition, should be the way to discover truth.

Portrait of René Descartes by Frans Hals (1648)

“I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I

am”

• Natural Laws:• Laws that govern human behavior.

HOW DID WE GET TO THE ENLIGHTENMENT?

Renaissance

Reason

Scientific RevolutionNatural

Laws

The Enlightenment

LEADING THINKERS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT

BARON DE MONTESQUIEU

• French thinker of the 1700’s who wrote that:• Government should

be divided into 3 branches

• This separation would prevent tyranny by creating checks and balances

VOLTAIRE (FRANCOIS-MARIE AROUET)

• French thinker of the 1700’s who wrote satire of the French monarchy, the nobility and the Catholic Church.

• He was especially critical of intolerance and attempts to suppress personal freedoms.

• In defense of freedom of speech he wrote “I may disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”

• In his novel Candide, he took on prejudice, bigotry and oppressive government.

JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU

• French philosopher of the 1700’s who:• wrote The Social Contract• Believed that people are

naturally good but are corrupted by the evils of society

• In forming govt’s, people choose to give up their own interests for the common good.

• Believed that the majority should always work for the common good.

EFFECTS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT

• People began to question the status quo.• Government and church leaders started a

campaign of censorship• Many were imprisoned, including Voltaire.• Enlightenment thinkers books were banned and

burned.• Enlightenment ideas inspired a sense of

individualism and personal freedom• Led to the growth of democracy and a sense of

nationalism • Helped contribute to an age of revolution.

THE ENGLISH BILL OF RIGHTS

• Parliament would choose who ruled the country. • The ruler was subject to all laws and could not

suspend or proclaim any law without Parliament’s approval.

• The ruler could not impose taxes or keep an army during peacetime without parliament approval.

• Parliament would meet regularly and the ruler could not interfere with the election of its members.

• The Bill of Rights guaranteed free speech for members of Parliament.

• Any citizen could petition the government for relief of injustice. No citizen could be forced to pay unfairly high bail or face cruel or unusual punishment.

TOLERATION ACT OF 1689

• Granted dissenters, such as Puritans and Quakers, limited toleration.

• This officially gave some religious freedom to all non-Anglican citizens, except Roman Catholics and Jews.

THE ACT OF UNION

• In 1707, The Act of Union was passed, uniting Scotland and England into one kingdom, known as Great Britain.

• This ended up benefiting the economy and military power of both countries.

• The Scottish town of Glasgow grew from a fishing village to a major commercial port.

• The Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow became major institutions of learning.

AND NOW ONTO RUSSIA…

RUSSIAN ISOLATION

• Mongol Rule

• Contact via Constantinople

• Cyrillic Alphabet

Asian rather than Western culture

Eastern orthodox religion rather than Roman Catholic or Protestant

Hindered Communication

Cultural Causes

RUSSIAN ISOLATION

• Landlocked: surrounded by plains, other powers (Ottoman’s, China, Holy Roman Empire)

• No major rivers into seas for trade

Geographic Causes

Limited Trade & Contact

The Pendulum The Pendulum of Russian Historyof Russian History

Pro-WestPro-WestFor Progress & ChangeFor Progress & ChangeEncourage New Ideas,Encourage New Ideas,

Technologies, etc.Technologies, etc.

Anti-WestAnti-WestIsolationistIsolationistXenophobicXenophobic

Ultra-ConservativeUltra-Conservative

Most TsarsMost Tsars

Russian Orthodox Russian Orthodox ChurchChurch

MilitaryMilitary

BoyarsBoyars

peasantspeasants

A few TsarsA few Tsars

Intellectual elitesIntellectual elites

Merchants/Merchants/businessmenbusinessmen

Young members of the Young members of the middle class.middle class.

REFORM-MINDEDLEADER

DEMAGOGUE

Ivan the Great Ivan the Great (r. 1462-1505)(r. 1462-1505)

Ivan III Tearing the Great Khan’s Letter Requesting More Ivan III Tearing the Great Khan’s Letter Requesting More Tribute in 1480.Tribute in 1480.

IVAN IV: IVAN THE TERRIBLE

• In 1533, the 3 year old Ivan IV inherited the throne of Russia.

• In 1547, Ivan took legitimate power, viewing himself as the true heir of the Roman and Byzantine empires.

• He took the title czar (from Caesar), a title that would continue in Russia until 1917.

• He expanded Russian territory, modernized the legal code and built the power of the monarchy.

• Formed a group of loyal soldiers known as the Oprichniki.

BY ILYÁ YEFÍMOVICH RÉPIN, 1885

Peter the Great Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) (r. 1682-1725)

PETER THE GREAT

• Traveled Europe in disguise to observe European culture.

• Centralized royal authority bringing all Russians under his authority.

• Reduced the power of the nobility.• Gained control of the Russian Orthodox

Church.

WESTERNIZATION UNDER PETER

• Simplified alphabet• Introduced Arabic numerals

• 1st Russsian language newspaper• Promoted European fashion

• Public works• Increased role of women in society.

• Developed mining and textile industries

• Established St. Petersburg as the symbol of the new, modern Russia

EXPANSION UNDER PETER

• Largest army in Europe or Asia in the late 1600’s:• Used military to gain ports on the Baltic Sea by

defeating Sweden• Extended Russia eastward toward the Bering Strait• Sent explorers into North America

CATHERINE II

• Like Peter, worsened the lives of

peasants, but further Westernized

the nobles.• Added 20,000

square miles of land to Russia, including

parts of Poland, Siberia, China, areas

around the Black Sea and what would eventually become

Alaska.

ABSOLUTISM IN RUSSIA: THE ROMANOV DYNASTY (1613-

1917)• Peter I (“the Great,” r. 1682-1725)

• Worked to modernize Russia on western European model

• Developed modern Russian army, reformed Russian government bureaucracy, demanded changes in fashion: beards forbidden

• Built new capital at St. Petersburg

• Catherine II (“the Great”, r. 1762-1796)• Huge military expansion

• Partitions of Poland, 1772-1797

• Social reforms at first, but end with Pugachev peasant rebellion (1773-1774)